Quantum Computing

Dr. M. Vanitha, Assistant Professor [ Research ]

[email protected]
November 7, 2024

1 Introduction to Quantum Computing

Quantum computing is an emerging field of computing that takes advantage
of the principles of quantum mechanics to perform certain types of compu-
tations more efficiently than classical computers.

1.1 Key Concepts

• Quantum Mechanics: A fundamental theory in physics describing
nature at the smallest scales, such as the behavior of particles at the
atomic and subatomic levels.

• Quantum Computing: Exploits quantum mechanical phenomena

like superposition, entanglement, and quantum interference to process
information in ways that classical computers cannot.

1.2 Basic Building Blocks

• Qubit[Quantum bit]: The quantum version of the classical bit. Un-
like classical bits that are either 0 or 1, qubits can exist in a superpo-
sition of both states simultaneously(spinning of a coin).

• Superposition: A qubit can represent 0, 1, or any quantum super-

position of these states, allowing quantum computers to perform many
calculations in parallel.

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 • Entanglement: A quantum phenomenon where the states of two or
more qubits become linked, such that the state of one qubit directly
influences the state of the other(s), even if they are separated by large
distances.

• Quantum Gates: Operations on qubits, analogous to classical logic

gates, but they manipulate qubits in ways that classical gates cannot,
utilizing quantum phenomena like superposition and entanglement.

2 Moore’s Law and Its End

Moore’s Law is an empirical observation made by Gordon Moore in 1965
that the number of transistors on a microchip doubles approximately every
two years, leading to a corresponding increase in computational power.

2.1 Moore’s Law and Classical Computing

This law has been the guiding principle behind the exponential growth in
computational power for decades, largely driven by advancements in semi-
conductor manufacturing.

2.2 End of Moores Law

• Physical Limitations: As transistor sizes approach the atomic scale,
further miniaturization becomes extremely challenging due to quantum
effects, heat dissipation, and manufacturing constraints.

• Quantum Computing: One of the potential solutions to the slow-

down of Moore’s Law. Quantum computers do not rely on transistor-
based logic, but instead on quantum states and quantum gates, offering
potentially exponential speed-ups in solving certain problems (e.g., fac-
toring large numbers, simulating quantum systems).

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3 Differences Between Classical and Quan-
tum Computing
Classical Computing Quantum Computing
Information is processed in bits (0 Information is processed in qubits
or 1). (0, 1, or superpositions of both).
Uses classical gates (AND, OR, Uses quantum gates (e.g.,
NOT). Hadamard, CNOT, etc.).
Computations follow deterministic Computations involve probabilistic
algorithms[output is predictable]. outcomes due to quantum mechan-
ics.
Limited by the laws of classical Exploits quantum phenomena like
physics. superposition and entanglement.
Linear scaling: doubling the size Exponential scaling: quantum
of the problem means doubling the algorithms can solve certain prob-
time/resources. lems much faster (e.g., Shors algo-
rithm for factoring).

4 Concept of Qubit and Its Properties

A qubit is the quantum analog of the classical bit but with unique properties
due to quantum mechanics.

4.1 Key Properties of Qubits

• Superposition: A qubit can be in a state of 0, 1, or any linear combi-
nation (superposition) of both. For example, a qubit can be in a state
described as:
|ψi = α|0i + β|1i
where α and β are complex numbers, and |α|2 +|β|2 = 1 (normalization
condition).

• Entanglement: Two or more qubits can become entangled, meaning

their states are not independent [i.e. dependent of each other] of each
other. The measurement of one qubits state immediately affects the
other(s), regardless of the distance separating them.

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 • Interference: Interference is a fundamental feature of quantum sys-
tems and plays a crucial role in quantum computing and quantum
algorithms. Quantum states can interfere with one another, leading to
constructive or destructive interference, which can enhance or diminish
the probability of certain outcomes. In the context of quantum mechan-
ics, interference refers to the way that quantum states combine when
they are superimposed. Since quantum states are described by com-
plex numbers (called amplitudes), their combination follows the rules
of complex addition. When two or more quantum states overlap, their
amplitudes add up (or cancel out) depending on the phase relationship
between them.

4.2 Qubit State Representation

A qubits state can be represented as a vector in a two-dimensional complex
vector space,
|ψi = α|0i + β|1i
where |0i and |1i are the basis states, and α and β are the probability
amplitudes.

5 Representation of Qubit by Bloch Sphere

The Bloch Sphere is a geometrical representation of a qubit’s state in a 3D
space. A qubit’s pure state can be written as:
   
θ iφ θ
|ψi = cos |0i + e sin |1i
2 2

where θ and φ are the spherical coordinates on the Bloch Sphere.

5.1 Interpretation
• The north pole represents the state |0i.

• The south pole represents the state |1i.

• Any other point on the sphere represents a superposition of the two

states.

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Figure 1: Block sphere

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 The Bloch Sphere provides an intuitive way to visualize all possible quan-
tum states, particularly superpositions and rotations (quantum gates). Each
qubit is essentially a vector on the Bloch sphere. The vector can be described
using two angles: θ and φ. The angle θ is the angle between the vector and
the z-axis, and the angle φ is the angle between the vector and the positive
x-axis, measured counterclockwise. From the description above, we can see
that all possible qubit states can be represented on the Bloch sphere using
these two angles, where θ is between 0 and π, inclusive, and φ is between 0
and 2π, inclusive. Now, the state of a single qubit is given by the following
equation:
   
θ θ iφ
|ψi = cos |0i + sin e |1i
2 2
At this point, we may wonder what the x- and y-axes on the Bloch sphere
represent. As we know, the z-axis corresponds to the states |0i and |1i, which
are analogous to the North and South poles of Earth, where the North pole
is |0i and the South pole is |1i. Any vector that isn’t directly along the |0i
or |1i states represents some superposition of both states. In terms of the
equation, |0i corresponds to θ = 0, and φ doesn’t matter, while |1i corre-
sponds to θ = π, and φ is also irrelevant.

Now, let’s calculate what the x- and y-axes represent.

π
Positive x-axis On the positive x-axis, we have θ = 2
and φ = 0.
Plugging these values into the equation:
1
|ψi = √ (|0i + |1i)
2
π
Negative x-axis On the negative x-axis, we have θ = 2
and φ = π.
Plugging these values into the equation:
1
|ψi = √ (|0i − |1i)
2
Thus, the positive x-axis is referred to as ”positive,” and the negative
x-axis is referred to as ”negative.”
Positive y-axis On the positive y-axis, we have θ = π2 and φ = π2 .
Plugging these values into the equation:

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 1
|ψi = √ (|0i + i|1i)
2
π 3π
Negative y-axis On the negative y-axis, we have θ = 2
and φ = 2
.
Plugging these values into the equation:
1
|ψi = √ (|0i − i|1i)
2
This completes the calculation of the qubit states on the axes of the Bloch
sphere.

6 Single and Two-Qubit Systems

6.1 Single Qubit
A single qubit can exist in any superposition of the |0i and |1i states. When
measured, the qubit collapses to either |0i or |1i with probabilities |α|2 and
|β|2 , respectively. Quantum gates manipulate the qubits state by rotating it
on the Bloch Sphere (e.g., Hadamard, Pauli-X, Y, Z gates, etc.). A single
qubit is the quantum counterpart of a classical bit, but it can exist in a
superposition of states, represented as:

|ψi = α|0i + β|1i

The qubit state can be described using two parameters: amplitudes
α and β, and probabilities that emerge when measuring the qubit. The
state of a qubit can be visualized as a point on the Bloch sphere, with
each qubit state represented by a vector on this sphere.The key features of
a qubitsuperposition and interferenceare central to quantum computing and
enable it to perform certain computations exponentially faster than classical
computers.

6.2 Two Qubits

A two-qubit system can represent 4 states: |00i, |01i, |10i, and |11i. In
quantum mechanics, when dealing with more than one qubit, the state space
of the system is not simply the sum of the individual qubit spaces, but the

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tensor product of those spaces. The tensor product allows us to describe the
states of multiple qubits in a unified way.

Tensor Product of Qubits

A single qubit exists in a 2-dimensional complex vector space. The two
basis states are typically |0i and |1i. The state of a single qubit can be
written as a superposition of these two basis states:

|ψi = α1 |0i + β1 |1i

where α1 and β1 are complex coefficients[amplitudes], and the normaliza-
tion condition |α1 |2 + |β1 |2 = 1 holds. Now, for a two-qubit system, the
state space is the tensor product of two individual qubit state spaces. If
the first qubit is in the state |ψ1 i = α1 |0i + β1 |1i and the second qubit is in
the state |ψ2 i = α2 |0i + β2 |1i, the combined state of the two-qubit system
is:

|ψi = |ψ1 i ⊗ |ψ2 i = (α1 |0i + β1 |1i) ⊗ (α2 |0i + β2 |1i)

The tensor product ⊗ creates a superposition of all possible states of
the two qubits. The result of the tensor product is:

|ψi = α1 α2 |00i + α1 β2 |01i + β1 α2 |10i + β1 β2 |11i

Thus, the state of the two-qubit system is a superposition of four
possible states: |00i, |01i, |10i, and |11i.

The Two-Qubit State Space

- Each qubit has a 2-dimensional state space, so two qubits together have a
state space of dimension 2 × 2 = 4. - The basis states for two qubits are: -
|00i - |01i - |10i - |11i
The general state of two qubits is therefore a linear combination of
these basis states:

|ψi = α00 |00i + α01 |01i + α10 |10i + α11 |11i

where α00 , α01 , α10 , α11 are complex coefficients.

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Entanglement and Two-Qubit States
One of the most important features of two-qubit systems is entanglement,
where the state of the two qubits cannot be factored into the product of their
individual states.

Example of a Product State

A product state of two qubits is one where each qubit is in a definite state,
and the overall state is simply the tensor product of the individual states.
For example, the state |ψ1 i = |0i for the first qubit and |ψ2 i = |1i for the
second qubit gives:

|ψi = |0i ⊗ |1i = |01i

This is a separable state because it can be written as a product of two
states.

Example of an Entangled State

A famous example of an entangled state is the Bell state (also known
as the EPR pair), which cannot be written as a product of individual qubit
states. One of the Bell states is:
1
|Φ+ i = √ (|00i + |11i)
2
This state is entangled because it cannot be factored into the product of
two individual qubit states. For instance, the first qubit is in a superposition
of |0i and |1i, and so is the second qubit, but their individual states are
correlated in such a way that if you measure the first qubit and find it in
state |0i, the second qubit will automatically collapse into state |0i as well,
and similarly for state |1i.

Measurement of Two-Qubit States

When measuring the state of a two-qubit system, we measure the system
as a whole, and the measurement will collapse the system into one of the
four basis states: |00i, |01i, |10i, or |11i. The probability of measuring a
particular state is given by the square of the magnitude of the corresponding
coefficient in the superposition.

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 For example, for the state:

|ψi = α00 |00i + α01 |01i + α10 |10i + α11 |11i

The probability of measuring the state |00i is:

P (00) = |α00 |2

Tensor Product Notation and Properties

• The tensor product of two states |Ai and |Bi is denoted |Ai ⊗ |Bi.

• The dimension of the tensor product space is the product of the di-
mensions of the individual spaces. For example, a single qubit has a
2-dimensional space, so two qubits have a 2 × 2 = 4-dimensional space.

Summary
• The tensor product is used to combine the states of two (or more)
quantum systems, such as two qubits.

• The state of a two-qubit system is a superposition of all possible

combinations of the two qubits’ states.

• A two-qubit system has a 4-dimensional state space, spanned by the

basis |00i, |01i, |10i, and |11i.

• Entangled states are quantum states where the qubits cannot be

described independently, and their properties are correlated in ways
that cannot be separated.

7 N- Qubit
An N-qubit system refers to a quantum system composed of N quantum
bits (qubits), where each qubit can exist in a superposition of both 0 and 1
states simultaneously.The possible states of an N-qubit system are all possi-
ble combinations of the individual qubit states, represented as binary strings
of length N. Thus, an N-qubit system can represent 2N distinct states simul-
taneously due to the superposition principle.

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 When N = 3, the system has 3 qubits, and the possible states are all the
binary strings of length 3. These 8 possible states are:

|000i, |001i, |010i, |011i, |100i, |101i, |110i, |111i

8 Direct representation of quantum states

In quantum mechanics, the Dirac notation (also called bra-ket notation) is
used to represent quantum states and their duals. The notation consists of
two components:

• A ket |ψi represents a quantum state as a column vector in the Hilbert

space.

• A bra hψ| represents the dual vector (conjugate transpose), correspond-

ing to a linear functional that acts on a quantum state.

Dirac Notation
Ket: |ψi
The ket |ψi represents a quantum state as a column vector in the Hilbert
space.
For example, a quantum state |ψi can be represented as:
 
α1
|ψi = α2 

α3
where α1 , α2 , α3 are complex numbers (amplitudes) corresponding to the
coefficients of the basis states.

Bra: hψ|
The bra hψ| represents the dual vector (the conjugate transpose of the ket).
If |ψi is a column vector, then hψ| is the row vector, and its elements are the
complex conjugates of the corresponding elements in the ket.
For example:

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hψ| = α1∗ α2∗ α3∗
where α1∗ , α2∗ , α3∗ are the complex conjugates of the coefficients α1 , α2 , α3
from the ket.

Scalar Product (Inner Product)

The inner product (or scalar product) between two states |φi and |ψi is
represented as:

hφ|ψi
This represents a complex number and is calculated by multiplying the
bra hφ| by the ket |ψi. Its the dot product of two vectors (in the case of
finite-dimensional Hilbert spaces).
For example, for two states:
   
α1 β1
|ψi = α2 , |φi = β2 
  
α3 β3
the inner product hφ|ψi is:

hφ|ψi = β1∗ α1 + β2∗ α2 + β3∗ α3

This scalar product is linear in the bra and conjugate-linear in the ket.

Outer Product
The outer product of two states |ψi and |φi is denoted by |ψihφ|, and it
results in a matrix (or operator) rather than a scalar.
For example, for the states:
   
α1 β1
|ψi = α2 , |φi = β2 
  
α3 β3
the outer product |ψihφ| is:

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    
α1
α 1 β1
∗
α 1 β2
∗
α 1 β3
∗

|ψihφ| = α2  β1∗ β2∗ β3∗ = α2 β1∗ α2 β2∗ α2 β3∗ 

α3 α3 β1∗ α3 β2∗ α3 β3∗
This is a matrix (or operator) that can be used to construct quantum
operators, such as projection operators or other linear transformations in
quantum mechanics.

Summary of Dirac Notation

• Ket |ψi: Column vector (quantum state).

• Bra hψ|: Row vector (conjugate transpose of the ket).

• Inner product hφ|ψi: Scalar value (complex number).

• Outer product |ψihφ|: Matrix (or operator).

This notation is widely used in quantum mechanics to simplify the rep-

resentation of quantum states and their operations.

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