EDA Tools and Simulation Lab A.Y.

2022-23

Geethanjali College of Engineering and Technology

(UGC Autonomous)
Cheeryal (V), Keesara (M), Medchal District – 501 301 (T.S)

EDA Tools and Simulation Lab

(Course code-18EC41L3)
LABORATORY INSTRUCTOR MANUAL

For
IV year B.Tech I semester ECE
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
2022-23

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GEETHANJALI COLLEGE ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Keesara (M), Cheeryal (V), Medchal(dist), Telangana, 501301

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering

EDA Tools and Simulation Lab

LABORATORY INSTRUCTOR MANUAL

Prepared by Verified by
K.Victor Dr. P. Srihari

Faculty In-Charge HOD

Dr. S. Valli sree

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LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

PART – A (Minimum 4 experiments are to be conducted)

Experiments using MATLAB/ Octave or Equivalent Software
1. Generation of 3- dimensional Radiation Pattern for a dipole antenna.
2. Generation of Radiation Pattern for linear array antenna.
3. Simulation of Electrostatic fields in free space.
4. Study the performance of First order and second order systems.
5. Study the effect of PI & PD Controller on the system performance.
6. Determination of Gain Margin, Phase Margin and hence analyze the stability of a given
system using Bode Plot.

PART – B (Minimum 8 experiments are to be conducted)

Experiments Using Multisim/ Pspice or Equivalent Software
1. Verify the frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier.
2. Verify the frequency response of voltage shunt feedback amplifier.
3. Design and Verify RC phase shift Oscillator using BJT for a given frequency of oscillations
4. Design and Verify the frequency response of a single tuned amplifier for a given resonant frequency.
5. Design and Simulation of Constant – K Low Pass filter
6. Design and Simulation of Attenuator
7. Simulation of transient response of Second Order System
8. Design and Simulate LPF, HPF Active filters (second order Butterworth)
9. Design and Simulate generation of Sine, Square and Triangular waves using IC 741.
10. Design and Simulate Monostable and Astable Multi-vibrator using IC 555 Timer.

Equipment required:

Computers: 30
Software: As indicated above

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List of Contents

S.No Page No.

1 List of Contents i
2 Syllabus ii
3 List of Experiments iii
4 Vision & Mission of the Institute v
5 Vision & Mission of the department v
6 Program Educational Objectives (PEOs) vi
7 vi
Program Outcomes (POs)
8 vii
Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)
9 Preface vii
10 Equipment available in the Lab viii

11 Course Objectives and Outcomes of the Lab Course ix

12 Mapping of Course with Programme Educational Objectives x
13 Pre-requisite(S) xi
14 Assessment xi
15 General Instructions to the Students xii
16 Code of Conduct for the Laboratories and precautions xiii
17 List of Experiments to be performed xiv

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Syllabus
AR18

18EC41L3 – EDA Tools and Simulation Lab

IV Year. B.Tech. I Sem

L T P/D C
- - 2/- 1
Prerequisite(s): 20EC21001- Signals and systems

Course Objectives: Develop ability to

1. Learn simulation procedures for understanding electrostatic fields and radiation pattern of
antennas.
2. Study the transient response of a given system.
3. Understand the simulation concepts of frequency response of amplifiers, filters.
4. Learn the simulation methods for generating various signals using ICs 741 and 555.

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student would be able to
CO1. Simulate and analyze the electrostatic fields and radiation pattern of antennas.
CO2. Obtain the transient response of given system.
CO3. Design and simulate the frequency response of various electronic circuits and systems.
CO4. Design and simulate various signal generation circuits using ICs 741 and 555.

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
PART – A (Minimum 4 experiments are to be conducted)
Experiments using MATLAB/ Octave or Equivalent Software
1. Generation of 3- dimensional Radiation Pattern for a dipole antenna.
2. Generation of Radiation Pattern for linear array antenna.
3. Simulation of Electrostatic fields in free space.
4. Study the performance of First order and second order systems.
5. Study the effect of PI & PD Controller on the system performance.
6. Determination of Gain Margin, Phase Margin and hence analyze the stability of a given
system using Bode Plot.

PART – B (Minimum 8 experiments are to be conducted)

Experiments Using Multisim/ Pspice or Equivalent Software
1. Verify the frequency response of two stage RC coupled amplifier.
2. Verify the frequency response of voltage shunt feedback amplifier.
3. Design and Verify RC phase shift Oscillator using BJT for a given frequency of
oscillations
4. Design and Verify the frequency response of a single tuned amplifier for a given resonant
frequency.
5. Design and Simulation of Constant – K Low Pass filter
6. Design and Simulation of Attenuator
7. Simulation of transient response of Second Order System
8. Design and Simulate LPF, HPF Active filters (second order Butterworth)
9. Design and Simulate generation of Sine, Square and Triangular waves using IC 741.
10. Design and Simulate Monostable and Astable Multi-vibrator using IC 555 Timer.

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Equipment required:
Computers: 30
Software: As indicated above

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The Vision of the institute

Geethanjali visualizes dissemination of knowledge and skills to students, who would eventually contribute
to the well being of the people of the nation and global community.

The Mission of the institute

Our mission is to become a high quality premier educational institution, to create technocrats, by ensuring
excellence, through enriched knowledge, creativity and self development

Vision of ECE Department:

To impart quality technical education in Electronics and Communication Engineering emphasizing

analysis, design/synthesis and evaluation of hardware/embedded software using various Electronic Design
Automation (EDA) tools with accent on creativity, innovation and research thereby producing competent
engineers who can meet global challenges with societal commitment.

Mission of ECE Department:

i. To impart quality education in fundamentals of basic sciences, mathematics, electronics and
communication engineering through innovative teaching-learning processes.
ii. To facilitate Graduates define, design, and solve engineering problems in the field of Electronics and
Communication Engineering using various Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools.
iii. To encourage research culture among faculty and students thereby facilitating them to be creative and
innovative through constant interaction with R & D organizations and Industry.
iv. To inculcate teamwork, imbibe leadership qualities, professional ethics and social responsibilities in
students and faculty.

Program Educational Objectives of B. Tech (ECE) Program:

I. To prepare students with excellent comprehension of basic sciences, mathematics and engineering
subjects facilitating them to gain employment or pursue postgraduate studies with an appreciation
for lifelong learning.
II. To train students with problem solving capabilities such as analysis and design with adequate
practical skills wherein they demonstrate creativity and innovation that would enable them to
develop state of the art Equipment/Software and technologies of multidisciplinary nature for societal
development.
III. To inculcate positive attitude, professional ethics, effective communication and interpersonal skills
which would facilitate them to succeed in the chosen profession exhibiting creativity and innovation
through research and development both as team member and as well as leader.
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Program Outcomes (POs)

Engineering graduates will be able to:

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering fundamentals,

and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex engineering
problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural sciences,
and engineering sciences.
3. Design/ Development of Solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems and design
system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate consideration for
the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of Complex Problems: Use research-based knowledge and research methods
including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and synthesis of the information
to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and modern
engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex engineering activities with
an understanding of the limitations.
6. The Engineering and Society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to assess
societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities relevant to the
professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and Sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering solutions in
societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and need for sustainable
development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and norms of
the engineering practice.
9. Individual and Team Work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or leader in
diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the engineering
community and with society at large such as, being able to comprehend and write effective reports
and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project Management and Finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the engineering
and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member and leader in a team,
to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-Long Learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage in
independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

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Program Specific Outcomes (PSOs)

1. An ability to design an Electronic and Communication Engineering system, component, or process

and conduct experiments, analyze, interpret data and prepare a report with conclusions to meet
desired needs within the realistic constraints such as economic, environmental, social, political,
ethical, health and safety, manufacturability and sustainability.
2. An ability to use modern Electronic Design Automation (EDA) tools, software and electronic
Equipment/Software to analyze, synthesize and evaluate Electronics and Communication
Engineering systems for multidisciplinary tasks.

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COURSE OBJECTIVES AND OUTCOMES OF THE LAB COURSE

Course Objectives: Develop ability to

1. Learn simulation procedures for understanding electrostatic fields and radiation pattern of
antennas.
2. Study the transient response of a given system.
3. Understand the simulation concepts of frequency response of amplifiers, filters.
4. Learn the simulation methods for generating various signals using ICs 741 and 555.

Course Outcomes: At the end of the course, the student would be able to
CO1. Simulate and analyze the electrostatic fields and radiation pattern of antennas.
CO2. Obtain the transient response of given system.
CO3. Design and simulate the frequency response of various electronic circuits and systems.
CO4. Design and simulate various signal generation circuits using ICs 741 and 555.

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MAPPING OF COURSE WITH PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES:

S.No Course Code Course Semester PEO PEO PEO

1 2 3
component
EDA Tools and
Design Automation 18EC41L3 √
1 and Simulation I √ √
Simulation Lab

EDA Tools and Simulation Lab Type Program outcomes

CO 1: Simulate and analyze the electrostatic fields and Analyze PO1, PO2, PO3,
radiation pattern of antennas.
Implement PO4,PO5,PO8,PO9,PO10

CO 2: Obtain the transient response of given system. Analyze PO1, PO2, PO3,
Implement PO4,PO5,PO8,PO9,PO10
CO 3: Design and simulate the frequency response of various Analyze PO1, PO2, PO3,
electronic circuits and systems. Implement PO4,PO5,PO8,PO9,PO10
CO 4: Design and simulate various signal generation circuits using Analyze PO1,
ICs 741 and 555. Implement PO4,PO5,PO8,PO9,PO10

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Assessment

For laboratory work, there shall be a Continuous Internal Evaluation (CIE) during the semester for 30
marks. And 70 marks are assigned for lab/ practical semester End Exams (SEE).

Of the 30 marks for CIE,

➢ day-to-day work – 15 marks (Record-5M, observation -5M & dress code -5M)

➢ Two internal practical tests (each of 15 marks) average including viva voce-15 marks

Semester End Exams (SEE) conducted as per the Autonomous regulations, carries 70 marks.

INSTRUCTIONS TO LABORATORY TEACHERS:

1. Observation book and lab records submitted for the lab work are to be checked and signed before
the next lab session.

2. Students should be instructed to switch ON the power supply after the connections are checked by
the lab assistant / teacher.

3. The promptness of submission should be strictly insisted by awarding the marks accordingly.

4. Ask viva questions at the end of the experiment.

5. Do not allow students who come late to the lab class.

6. Encourage the students to do the experiments innovatively.

7. Fill continuous Evaluation sheet, on continuous basis.

8. Ensure that the students are dressed in a formal way.

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EVALUATION OF INTERNAL MARKS (30 Marks):

a) 15 marks are awarded for day to day work as follows (Based on the continuous
evaluation sheet):-

1) Record book….............................................5 marks

2) Attendance and behavior of student .............. 5 marks
3) Viva and performance ....................................5 marks

b) 15 marks are awarded for conducting laboratory test as follows:-

1) Write up ....................................................... 5 marks
2) Conduction of the experiment...................... 5 marks
3) Viva .............................................................. 5 marks

EVALUATION OF EXTERNAL MARKS (70 Marks):

70 marks are awarded for conducting laboratory test as follows:-

1) Circuit diagram -15

2) Procedure -10

3) Tabular columns and expected graphs ----- 10

4) Experimentation and calculation ----------- 15
5) Graphs and result 10
6) Viva 10

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INTRODUCTION TO MULTISIM

Multisim is a simulation tool that can be used to expedite the analysis and design of various circuits,
including ones containing digital devices, transistors, diodes, op amps, and even motors.This handout
is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather it will get you started in simulating Direct Current (DC)
circuits. Alternating Current (AC), transient, and frequency response capabilities will be discussed
later in the course. You are encouraged to actively use Multisim asyou are proceeding through this
introduction.

To start Multisim, select from the program list:

PROGRAM – ELECTRONICS WORKBENCH – MULTISIM 8

It should bring up a window similar to that shown in Figure 1 (the window to the left of this can be
closed – it is available for managing multiple project windows). If you do not see a grid, select from
the top toolbar
VIEW -> SHOW GRID

SHORT-CUT TO SHORT-CUT TO
PLACE PARTS PLACE METERING
MEASUREMENT
COMMON LIBRARIES DEVICES
OF PARTS

Figure 1: Blank Circuit Sheet (Project Window) when Multisim is Activated

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Note this “sheet of paper” is where you will construct the circuit of interest. The icons on the right
of Figure 1 are measurement and instrumentation Requirements such as DMM’s, function
generators, wattmeters, etc. The components you need today are available via the toolbar just above
the blank sheet (see Fig. 1). The buttons towards the left will access some of the most important
libraries where sources and resistors may be found. For instance, to specify a DC source, you can
mouse-select the first button on the lower left which opens the SOURCES library. The first entry
(family) is POWER_SOURCES and the second Component is the DC_POWER source which we
can see in Figure 2. Double-clicking the DC_POWER entry willallow you to bring the source into
the project workspace and locate it via the mouse.

Figure 2: Navigating the SOURCES Library

Alternatively, as shown in Figure 1, the right-side of the lower toolbar also provides a short cut to
some frequently-used parts. For example, the DC source can also be located and placed by clicking
the blue button furthest to the left as shown in Figure 3 and double-clicking PLACE DC VOLTAGE
SOURCE. By double-clicking the icon in the project window, you can adjust any parameters
available for a part. For instance, for the DC VOLTAGE SOURCE, the voltage value is one obvious
parameter.

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Figure 3: Short-Cut Placement of DC Power Source

Let’s consider next that we wish to “simulate” the circuit shown in Figure 4, including inserting the
appropriate measurement devices. Note the resistors can be found by selecting the second icon on
the lower toolbar (the BASIC Group), then choosing the BASIC_VIRTUAL Family, and finally
RESISTOR_VIRTUAL for the component. The advantage of the virtual resistor is that you can set
it to any value, as compared to the RESISTOR family where only standard values areavailable
(though with tolerances). The virtual resistor can also be placed by clicking the third blue button
from the left and selecting PLACE VIRTUAL RESISTOR. The meters are found at the eighth blue
button. Note we want a “Horizontal” oriented ammeter (terminals on the left and right) and a
“Vertical” oriented voltmeter (terminals on the top and bottom). Upon collecting these six
components, your project workspace should appear as shown in Figure 5. Note the resistors are 1kΩ
, and the voltmeter has an internal resistance of 10MΩ .

10Ω

12V 100Ω

10Ω

Figure 4: Desired Circuit

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Figure 5: Collection of Components and Meters Required

Most importantly, every circuit that we build must have a ground reference. It is found in the
SOURCES – POWER_SOURCES library or via the first blue button on the left. This is the
symbol found in the lower left part of the project workspace. If “ground” is not specified, the
circuit will not simulate.

Note, we can change the resistor values by double-clicking the icon and entering the new
resistance. We can rotate components by right-clicking the icon and selecting, for instance, 90
Clockwise. Finally, we can move components by left-selecting them and moving the mouse
pointer to the desired location as shown in Figure 6.

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Figure 6: Component Values Adjusted and Icons Realigned

Finally, components are interconnected by single left clicking one terminal of Part A, extending the
wire over to Part B, and completing the connection by left-clicking on one of the terminals ofPart
B. Once a wire is positioned, you may also connect a component to the wire in a similar manner. To
have Multisim list the node numbers on the circuit, from the top toolbar select

OPTIONS -> SHEET PROPERTIES-> NET NAMES (Check Show All)

The final rendering of the circuit of Figure 4 is then shown in Figure 7. Note that the “ground”
node is always specified as node 0.

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Figure 7: Final Interconnected Circuit

Note that if we wish to mimic what we encountered in Lab #1 where the ammeter resistance
noticeably effected our measured, we need to change the internal resistance to about 5.5 . Todo
this, double-click the ammeter icon and change the resistance value. To then “run” the simulation,
you need to specify

SIMULATE -> RUN

from the top toolbar or simply press the lightning bolt button in the middle toolbar. Note this button
also allows you to stop the simulation. The results for our circuit are shown in Figure 8.

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START/STOPSIMULATION

Figure 8: Simulation with Real Ammeter Included

If you wish to modify the circuit, you must first “stop” the simulation, then you can change parameter
values, delete connections, or add new components. This should be enough of an introduction for now
to allow you to create DC circuits and measure quantities of interest usingavailable meters.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 1 DATE:

GENERATION OF 3- DIMENSIONAL RADIATION PATTERN FOR A DIPOLE

ANTENNA
Aim: To generate 3-dimensional radiation pattern for a dipole antenna

Requirements:

1. PC with windows
2. MATLAB software

Theory:

In radio and telecommunications a dipole antenna or doublet is the simplest and most widely used class
of antenna. The dipole is any one of a class of antennas producing a radiation pattern approximating that of
an elementary electric dipole with a radiating structure supporting a line current so energized that the current
has only one node at each end. A dipole antenna commonly consists of two identical conductive elements
such as metal wires. The driving current from the transmitter is applied, or for receiving antennasthe output
signal to the receiver is taken, between the two halves of the antenna. Each side of the feedline to the
transmitter or receiver is connected to one of the conductors.

It consists of two conductors of equal length oriented end-to-end with the feedline connected between them.
Dipoles are frequently used as resonant antennas. If the feedpoint of such an antenna is shorted, then it will
be able to resonate at a particular frequency. Using the antenna at around that frequency is advantageous in
terms of feed point impedance, so its length is determined by the intended wavelength (orfrequency) of
operation. The most commonly used is the center-fed half-wave dipole which is just under ahalf-wavelength
long. The radiation pattern of the half-wave dipole is maximum perpendicular to the conductor, falling to
zero in the axial direction, thus implementing an omnidirectional antenna if installed vertically, or (more
commonly) a weakly directional antenna if horizontal.

Dipoles are also employed as driven elements in more complex antenna designs such as the Yagi antenna
and driven arrays. Dipole antennas are used to feed more elaborate directional antennas such asa horn
antenna, parabolic reflector, or corner reflector.

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Pseudo code:
1.Definite variables in spherical coordinates

2.Evaluate radiation intensity

3.Expand theta to span entire space

4.Expand phi to span entire space

5.Plot routine

Expected Output:

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Program:

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Result: Generated the 3-Dimensional radiation pattern of dipole antenna

Outcome:
After conducting this experiment students are able to observe radiation pattern of a dipole antenna.

Discussion Questions:
1. Specify the shape of the radiation pattern of a half-wave dipole antenna?

2. What happens when the radiation resistance of the antenna matches the characteristic
impedance of the transmission line?

3. What is the impedance offered by a Half Wave Dipole?

4. Write the expression for impedance offered by a dipole antenna?

5. Write the difference between dipole antenna and monopole antenna.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2 DATE:

GENERATION OF RADIATION PATTERN FOR LINEAR ARRAY ANTENNA

Aim: To generate radiation pattern for linear array in Broad side direction and End fire direction

Requirements:

1. PC with windows
2. MATLAB software

Theory:

An antenna array (or array antenna) is a set of multiple connected antennas which work together as a single
antenna, to transmit or receive radio waves. The individual antennas (called elements) are usually connected to
a single receiver or transmitter by feedlines that feed the power to the elements in a specific phase relationship.
The radio waves radiated by each individual antenna combine and superpose, adding together (interfering
constructively) to enhance the power radiated in desired directions, and cancelling (interfering destructively) to
reduce the power radiated in other directions. Similarly, when used for receiving, the separate radio frequency
currents from the individual antennas combine in the receiver with the correct phase relationship to enhance
signals received from the desired directions and cancel signals from undesired directions. More sophisticated
array antennas may have multiple transmitter or receiver modules, each connected to a separate antenna element
or group of elements.

An antenna array can achieve higher gain (directivity), that is a narrower beam of radio waves, than could
be achieved by a single element. In general, the larger the number of individual antenna elements used, the higher
the gain and the narrower the beam. Some antenna arrays (such as military phased array radars) are composed
of thousands of individual antennas. Arrays can be used to achieve higher gain, to give path diversity (also called
MIMO) which increases communication reliability, to cancel interference from specific directions, to steer the
radio beam electronically to point in different directions, and for radio direction finding (RDF).

The term antenna array most commonly means a driven array consisting of multiple identical driven
elements all connected to the receiver or transmitter. A parasitic array consists of a single driven element
connected to the feedline, and other elements which are not, called parasitic elements.

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Pseudo code:

1.Read the Number of elements in array n

2.Read the distance between two elements d
3.Read the phase difference 𝜙
4.Calculate the Path Difference %𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑒=(d/ 𝜆) cos 𝜙
6.Calculate the Phase Difference % 𝜓 = 2 π (Path Difference)
7.Obtain the normalized field pattern % E = sin(nψ/2)/ n sin(ψ/2)
7. Plot the Radiation Pattern
Expected Output:

Fig(a): Broad side radiation for linear array

Fig(b): End fire radiation for linear array

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Program:

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Result: Generated the radiation pattern for a linear array in Broad side direction and End fire direction.

Outcome: After conducting this experiment students are able to explain broad side and end fire radiations
using linear array

Discussion Questions:

1. Define antenna array.

2. What is array factor?

3. What is the condition for broad-side radiation?

4. What is the condition for end-fire radiation?

5. Write an example for non-linear antenna array?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 3 DATE:

SIMULATION OF ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS IN FREE SPACE

Aim: To observe the electrostatic fields in free space using MATLAB

Requirements:

1. PC with windows
2. MATLAB software

Theory:

An electric field represented as E-field is the physical field that surrounds electrically-charged particles and
exerts force on all other charged particles in the field, either attracting or repelling them. It also refers to the
physical field for a system of charged particles. Electric fields originate from electric charges, or from time-
varying magnetic fields. Electric fields and magnetic fields are both manifestations of the electromagnetic force,
one of the four fundamental forces (or interactions) of nature.

Electric fields are important in many areas of physics, and are exploited practically in electrical
technology. In atomic physics and chemistry, for instance, the electric field is the attractive force holding
the atomic nucleus and electrons together in atoms. It is also the force responsible for chemical bonding between
atoms that result in molecules.

The electric field is defined mathematically as a vector field that associates to each point in space the
(electrostatic or Coulomb) force per unit of charge exerted on an infinitesimal positive test charge at rest at that
point. The derived SI units for the electric field are volts per meter (V/m), exactly equivalent to
newtons per coulomb (N/C).

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Pseudo code:

1. Definite variables in spherical coordinates

2. Evaluate Electrostatic fields in spherical cooardinates.

3.convert spherical coordinates to cartesian coordinates

5.Plot routine

Expected Output:

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Program:

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Result: Observed the electrostatic fields in free space using MATLAB.

Outcome: After conducting this experiment students are able to how radiation occurs in an electrostatic field

Discussion Questions:

1. Define Electric Field.

2. What is the unit to measure electric field?

3. What are the sources for electrostatic field?

4. Define electric field intensity?

5. Define electric flux?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 4 DATE:

STUDY OF THE PERFORMANCE OF FIRST AND SECOND ORDER SYSTEMS

Aim: To study the performance characteristics of a given First/Second order system specified in terms of time
domain specifications.

Theory:

Systems with energy storage elements cannot respond instantaneously and will exhibit transient responses. To
study the time response of a system, it is considered to be initially at rest i.e. the output and all-time derivatives
before t=0 are zero.Basically, the time response of the system is composed of steady-state response and transient
response.

The Transient response represents the fluctuation in the output of the system on applying input before achieving
the final value. It is that part of the time response that goes to zero as time becomes large. It is also referred to
as Dynamic response of the system. Steady state response is that part of the total response that remains after the
transient dies out. It represents the finally achieved output of the system.

Order of a System:

The order of the system is given by the order of the differential equation that represents the system. The order
can be obtained from the Transfer function of the system also. It is the order of the denominator polynomial
(highest power of s in the denominator polynomial-in the case of continuous systems). The transient response
characteristics of a system for a unit step input are specified in terms of the time domain specifications
(Performance indices).

First Order System:

1
• The closed loop Transfer function of a First Order system can be given as H(s) =
1+Ts
1 −t
• Its Unit Impulse response is h(t) = T
e T u(t)

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• The unit impulse response, h(t) is an exponentially decaying signal for positive values of ‘t’ and is zero
for negative values of ‘t’.
𝐭
−
• The Step response of the first order system is 𝐲(𝐭) = [𝟏 − 𝐞 𝐓 ] 𝐮(𝐭)

• The unit step response, y(t) has both the transient and the steady state terms.
t
−
• The transient term in the unit step response is −e T u(t) and the steady state term is u(t).
• The value of the unit step response y(t) is zero for t ≤ 0. It is gradually increasing from zero and reaches
a final value equal to one in the steady state. Thus, steady state value depends on the magnitude of the
input.
• At t = T, y(t)=0.632, i.e. the response reached 63.2% of its final value.
• This T is referred to as the Time constant of the system, which an indication of how fast the system
tends to reach the final value.
• A large time constant corresponds to a sluggish system and a small time constant corresponds to a fast
response.

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The unit ramp response of the first order system, is
t t
− −
y(t) = [t − T(1 − e T)] u(t), where the Transient response is Te T u(t) and the steady state
response is (t − T)u(t).

t
t2 2 2 −
• Unit parabolic response of the first order system is y(t) = [ − Tt + T − T e T] u(t), where the
2
t 2
Transient term is −T2e− Tu(t) and the steady state term is (t − Tt + T2)u(t).
2
• From these responses, it can be concluded that the first order control systems are not stable with the ramp
and parabolic inputs because these responses go on increasing even at infinite amount of time.
• The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step inputs because these responses have
bounded output.
• But the impulse response doesn’t have steady state term. So, the step signal is widely used in the time
domain for analyzing the control systems from their responses.
• Performance characteristics of First order system are its Time constant and the steady state output.

Performance Study:

• Consider an RC Low pass filter with R=2Kohms and C = 0.01Farads

• Verify that the Time Constant T = RC and that obtained from the step response of the system are same
• Find the steady state output of the system.

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Design:

• RC LPF is a first order system

• Time constant T = RC = 20sec
1
• The Transfer function is H(s) =
1+20s

Pseudo Code for Plotting the unit step response of the First Order System

1.Read the components

2.Finding the Sytem Function
3.Plotting the Step response of the system
4.Finding the steady state value
5.Finding the Time constant of the circuit from the step response
6.Plot the response

Sample Response of a system:

systemfunction =

20 s + 1

Continuous-time transfer function.

steadystateoutput =

1.0000

Timeconstant =

19.9000

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Program:

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Step Response of a System:

▪ Step Response can also be obtained as:

step(num,denum,t)

step(systemfunction)

▪ Transfer function can also be printed as:

printsys(num,denum)

Second order System:

• The Transfer function of a second order system is given as

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ω2n
H(s) = s2 + 2ζωns + ω2n

where ωn is the natural undamped frequency(rad⁄sec); ζ = Damping ratio

▪ The Transient response of a practical system often exhibits damped oscillation before reaching steady
state.
▪ The oscillatory response of a system can be shown as below:

Delay Time (𝐭𝐝): Time required for the response to reach 50% of its final value, for the very first time.

Rise Time (𝐭𝐫):

• For Underdamped systems: Time taken for the response to raise from 0% to 100% of its maximum value
• For Overdamped systems: Time taken for the response to raise from 10% to 90% of its value
• For Critically damped systems: Time taken for the response to raise from 5% to 95% of its value.

Peak Time (𝐭𝐩): Time required for the response to reach the peak value for the very first time.

Peak Overshoot (𝐌𝐩):Normalized difference between the maximum value and the final steady state output.
maximum Value−Final value
% Peak Overshoot= X100
Final Value

Settling Time (𝐭𝐬): Time required for the response to reach and stay within the specified tolerance band
(normally 2% to 5% of the final value).

▪ Pseudo Code for Plotting the unit step response of the Second order System
1.Read the value of the natural undamped frequency
2.Read the value of the damping ratio
3. Find the System Function
4. Plot the Step response of the system
5.Find Peak value of the output.
6.Find Steady state output
7.compute of peak time
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8. Find the rise time of the system
9. Find the Time required for the output to reach 10% of its peak
10.Find the Time required for the output to reach 90% of its peak
11.compute of Delay Time
12.compute of Percentage peak overshoot
13.compute of settling Time
14.Dispaly the findings.

Sample Response of a System:

Enter the natural undamped frequency 2

wn = 2
Enter the damping ratio0.5
zeta = 0.5000
systemfunction =

s^2 + 2 s + 4

Continuous-time transfer function.

The steadystate output is 1.0000

The peak Time in sec is 1.8200
The rise Time in sec is 0.8200
The delay Time in sec is 0.6600
The peak Overshoot is 0.1630
The Settling Time in sec is 4.0200

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Program:

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Result: studied the performance characteristics of a given First/Second order system specified in terms of time domain
specifications.

Outcome: After conducting this experiment students are able to understand the performance characteristics of a
First/Second order system specified in terms of time domain specifications.

Discussion Questions:

1. Define the dynamic response of a system

2. Define steady state response of a system

3. How to define order of a system

4. what is transient response characteristics of a system

5. Discuss the following

i. Delay Time

ii. Rise Time

iii. Peak Time

iv. Peak Overshoot

v. Settling Time

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5 DATE:

STUDY THE EFFECT OF PI & PD CONTROLLER ON THE SYSTEM

PERFORMANCE
Aim: To Study the effect of PI & PD Controller on the system performance

Requirements:

3. PC with windows
4. MATLAB software

Theory:

P Controller:

P controller is mostly used in first order processes with single energy storage to stabilize the unstable process.
The main usage of the P controller is to decrease the steady state error of the system. As the proportional gain
factor K increases, the steady state error of the system decreases. However, despite the reduction, P control can
never manage to eliminate the steady state error of the system. As we increase the proportional gain, it provides
smaller amplitude and phase margin, faster dynamics satisfying wider frequency band and larger sensitivity to
the noise. We can use this controller only when our system is tolerable to a constant steady state error. In addition,
it can be easily concluded that applying P controller decreases the rise time and after a certain value of reduction
on the steady state error, increasing K only leads to overshoot of the system response. P control also causes
oscillation if sufficiently aggressive in the presence of lags and/or dead time. The more lags (higher order), the
more problem it leads. Plus, it directly amplifies process noise.

P-I Controller:

P-I controller is mainly used to eliminate the steady state error resulting from P controller. However, in terms of
the speed of the response and overall stability of the system, it has a negative impact. This controller is mostly
used in areas where speed of the system is not an issue. Since P-I controller has no ability to predict the future
errors of the system it cannot decrease the rise time and eliminate the oscillations. If applied, any amount of I
guarantees set point overshoot.

P-D Controller:

The aim of using P-D controller is to increase the stability of the system by improving control since it has an
ability to predict the future error of the system response. In order to avoid effects of the sudden change in the
value of the error signal, the derivative is taken from the output response of the system variable instead of the
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error signal. Therefore, D mode is designed to be proportional to the change of the output variable to prevent the
sudden changes occurring in the control output resulting from sudden changes in the error signal. In addition, D
directly amplifies process noise therefore D-only control is not used.

Open loop transfer function definition:

sys = tf(Numerator,Denominator)
ex: sys_ol=tf(5,[1 6 11 6]); %Open loop plant=5/(s^316s^2+11s16)

Closed loop plant without controller with unity feedback:

sys_cl=feedback(sys_ol,1);

MATLAB function designs a PID controller of type type for the plant sys:
C = pidtune(sys,type)
Design of PI controller
[Gc_PI,info_PI] = pidtune(sys_ol,'PI');

Design of PD Controller
[Gc_PD, info_PD] = pidtune(sys_ol,'PD');

Pseudo code :

1. Defime Open loop plant

2. Define the Closed loop plant without controller with unity feedback
3.Design of PI controller
4. display PI controller details
5. find the transfer function of PI controller
6.Design of PD Controller
7.Display PD controller details
5. find the transfer function of PD controller
6.Plot the Findings

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Model Graphs:

Fig: 5.1. System Response with Different Controllers

Fig: 5.2. Comparison of System Performance with different Controllers

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Program:

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Result: Studied the effect of PI & PD Controller on the system performance.

Outcome: After conducting this experiment students are able to understand and the effect of PI & PD
Controller on the system performance

Discussion Questions:

1. What is the main function of PD controller?

2. What is the effect of PI and PD controller on system performance?

3. What is the transfer function of a PD controller?

4. Discuss the need of a control to improve the system performance.

5. What are different types of controllers?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6 DATE:

DETERMINATION OF GAIN MARGIN, PHASE MARGIN AND STABILITY OF

THE SYSTEM USING BODE PLOT
Aim: To determine gain margin, phase margin and stability of the system using bode plot

Requirements:

1. PC with windows
2. MATLAB software

Theory:

A Bode plot is a graph commonly used in control system engineering to determine the stability of a control system. A
Bode plot maps the frequency response of the system through two graphs – the Bode magnitude plot (expressing the
magnitude in decibels) and the Bode phase plot (expressing the phase shift in degrees).

Bode Plot

Fig: 6.1 The Gain Margin and Phase Margin shown on a Bode Plot

Gain Margin

The greater the Gain Margin (GM), the greater the stability of the system. The gain margin refers to the amount of gain,
which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a magnitude in dB.

We can usually read the gain margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram above). This is done by

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calculating the vertical distance between the magnitude curve (on the Bode magnitude plot) and the x-axis at the
frequency where the Bode phase plot = 180°. This point is known as the phase crossover frequency.
It is important to realize that the Gain and the Gain Margin are not the same things. In fact, the Gain Margin is the
negative of the gain (in decibels, dB). This will make sense when we look at the Gain margin formula.

Gain Margin Formula

The formula for Gain Margin (GM) can be expressed as:

GM = 0 - G dB

Where G is the gain. This is the magnitude (in dB) as read from the vertical axis of the magnitude plot at the phase
crossover frequency.

In our example shown in the graph above, the Gain (G) is 20. Hence using our formula for gain margin, the gain margin
is equal to 0 – 20 dB = -20 dB (unstable).

Phase Margin

The greater the Phase Margin (PM), the greater will be the stability of the system. The phase margin refers to the amount
of phase, which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed as a phase in
degrees.
We can usually read the phase margin directly from the Bode plot (as shown in the diagram above). This is done by
calculating the vertical distance between the phase curve (on the Bode phase plot) and the x-axis at the frequency where
the Bode magnitude plot = 0 dB. This point is known as the gain crossover frequency.
It is important to realize that the phase lag and the Phase Margin are not the same things. This will make sense when we
look at the phase margin formula.

Phase Margin Formula

The formula for Phase Margin (PM) can be expressed as:

PM = ϕ - (- 180)

Where ϕ is the phase lag (a number less than 0). This is the phase as read from the vertical axis of the phase plot at the
gain crossover frequency.
In our example shown in the graph above, the phase lag is -189°. Hence using our formula for phase margin, the phase
margin is equal to -189° – (-180°) = -9° (unstable).
As another example, if an amplifier’s open-loop gain crosses 0 dB at a frequency where the phase lag is -120°, then the
phase lag -120°. Hence the phase margin of this feedback system is -120° – (-180°) = 60° (stable).

Bode Plot Stability

Below is a summarized list of criteria relevant to drawing Bode plots (and calculating their stability):

Gain Margin: Greater will the gain margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers to the amount of gain,
which can be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in dB.

Phase Margin: Greater will the phase margin greater will be the stability of the system. It refers to the phase which can
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be increased or decreased without making the system unstable. It is usually expressed in phase.

Gain Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which the magnitude curve cuts the zero dB axis in the bode
plot.

Phase Crossover Frequency: It refers to the frequency at which phase curve cuts the negative times the 180o axis in this
plot.

Corner Frequency: The frequency at which the two asymptotes’ cuts or meet each other is known as break frequency or
corner frequency.
Resonant Frequency: The value of frequency at which the modulus of G (jω) has a peak value is known as the resonant
frequency.

Plotting Bode Plot for the given LTI system:

The commands used to plot Bode diagrams for the given LTI system is
• bode (n, d) --- ‘n’ and ‘d’ are the numerator and denominator of the given Transfer function
• bode(sys)---‘sys’ is the LTI model of the system, created using either tf or zpk function
o sys=tf(n, d),generates a transfer function using numerator ‘n’, denominator ‘d’ and stores in the
variable ‘sys’
o [n, d] =zp2tf(z, p ,k) expresses the transfer function as a ratio of two polynomials, when zeros z,
poles p and the gain k are given
The frequency range and number of points are automatically selected.
• Bode (n, d,ω) –ω specifies user defined frequency range in rad/sec.
• [mag, phase, ω] = bode (n, d)

Magnitude in dB versus frequency in rad/sec on log scale

Phase angle indegrees versus frequency in rad/sec on log scale

10
1.H(s) =
s2+7s

Pseudo Code:
1.Define numerator
2.Define denominator
3.Find the Bode plot

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Model Graph:

Program:

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200(s+3) 200s+600
2. H(s) = =
s(s+2)(s2+4s+100) (s2+2s)(s2+4s+100)

** The product of two polynomials can be obtained using the convolution between the two coefficient vectors,
representing the two polynomials

Pseudo Code:

1.Define numerator
2.Define denominator
3.Find the Bode plot

Model Graph:
.

Program:

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3. Plotting Bode diagram in the specified frequency range ω = 0.01 to 1000 rad/sec
200(s+1)
H(s) = 2
s(s +10s+100)

Pseudo Code:
1.Define numerator
2.Define denominator
3.Find the Bode plot

Model Graph:

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Program:

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Result: Determined gain margin, phase margin and stability of the system using bode plot.

Outcome: After conducting these experiment students are able to determined gain margin, phase margin and
stability of the system using bode plot

Discussion Questions:

1. Define stability of a system

2. What is Gain Margin of a system

3. Define Phase Margin.

4. What is Gain Crossover Frequency.

5. What is Phase Crossover Frequency.

6. Define Corner Frequency.

7. Define Resonant Frequency.

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PART – B

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EXPERIMENT NO. 1 DATE:

TWO STAGE RC COUPLED AMPLIFIER

Aim: 1. To obtain the frequency response of the Two Stage RC Coupled Amplifier

2. To find the Voltage Gain and Bandwidth.

Requirements: Multisim Software

Component:
Name Quantity

BJT BC107 2

Resistors 100K, 10k, 2,3,2,2

2.2k, 1.5k

Capacitors 10µF,100µF
3,2,1

Theory:
This is most popular type of coupling as it provides excellent audio fidelity. A coupling capacitor is
used to connect output of first stage to input of second stage. Resistances at base, collector and emitter terminals
of the transistors form biasing and stabilization network. Emitter bypass capacitor offers low reactance paths to
signal. Coupling Capacitor transmits AC signal, blocks DC. Cascaded stages amplify the signal, the overall
gain is increased. Thus coupling is done for more gain and overall gain of two stages equals to A=A1+A2 in
dB
A1=voltage gain of first stage=20 log V01/Vs
A2=voltage gain of second stage=20 log V02/V01
A= 20 log V02/Vs
When ac signal is applied to the base of the transistor, amplified output appears across the collector resistor
RC. It is given to the second stage for further amplification and signal appears with more strength. Frequency
response curve is obtained by plotting a graph between frequency and gain in dB .The gain is constant in mid
frequency range and gain decreases on both sides of the mid frequency range. The gain decreases in the low
frequency range due to coupling capacitor Cc and at high frequencies due to junction capacitance Cbe.

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Circuit diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram on a new editor window in Multisim.
2. Set source voltage Vs=2.5mV or 5 mV at 1 kHz frequency at the input.
3. Select interactive option in Analysis and run the software to observe the output on the CRO
4. Select AC sweep from Analysis menu to observe the frequency response at the first and second stage output
nodes.
5. Select the X axis and and Y axis limits suitably for AC sweep.
6. Plot the graph: A1 verses frequency,A2 verses frequency on a semi log graph sheet.
7. Calculate the bandwidth from the graphs by placing the cursors at -3dB gain points on the frequency response
curve.

Expected wave forms:

Input wave form: First stage output Second stage output:

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Frequency response:

Calculations from the graph:

Bandwidth of first stage = BW1 =FH1-FL1 (in Hz)
Over all bandwidth of two stage amplifier = BW2 = FH2-FL2 (in Hz)

Result:
Stage -1 Over all
Mid band gain = ----------- Mid band gain = -----------
Lower 3 dB frequency = ---------- Lower 3 dB frequency = ----------
Upper 3 dB frequency = ---------- Upper 3 dB frequency = ----------
Bandwidth = ----------- Bandwidth = -----------

Outcomes: students are able to calculate the overall gain and bandwidth of a 2-stage RC coupled amplifier.

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Discussion Questions:

1. What is the necessity of cascading?

2. What is 3dB bandwidth?

3. Why RC coupling is preferred in audio range?

4. Explain various types of Capacitors?

5. Why it is known as RC coupling?

6. What is the purpose of emitter bypass capacitor?

7. Which type of biasing is used in RC coupled amplifier?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 2 DATE:

VOLTAGE SHUNT FEEDBACK AMPLIFIER

Aim: 1. To verify input-output waveforms of voltage shunt feedback amplifier.

2. To obtain its mid band gain and bandwidth from the frequency response.

Requirements: Multisim Software:

Name Quantity

BJT BC107 1

Resistors 100K, 10k, 2,1,1,2

2k, 1k

Capacitors 10µF,100µF
3, 1

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:

In voltage shunt feedback amplifier, voltage is sampled at he output and shunt mixing indicates current mixing.
As input is current signal and output is voltage signal, it is said to be trans resistance amplifier with gain Rmf.

Band width is defined as the range frequencies over which gain is greater than or equal to 0.707 times the
maximum gain or up to 3 dB down from the maximum gain. Bandwidth (BW) = fh- fl.

Where, fh= Upper cut-off frequency and fl= Lower cut-off frequency.

Cut-off frequency is the frequency at which the gain is 0.707 times the maximum gain or 3dB down from the
maximum gain. In all feedback amplifiers we use negative feedback, so gain is reduced and bandwidth is
increased. Rmf= Rm/ [1+ Rmβ]

BWf= BW [1+ Rmβ]

Where Rmf= Gain with feedback

Rm= Gain without feedback β= feedback gain.

BWf = Bandwidth with feedback and

BW = Bandwidth without feedback

Output resistance and input resistance both will decrease due to shunt connections at input and output. So
R0f=R0/[1+Avβ] and Rif=Ri/[1+Avβ] Where R0f= Output resistance with feedback

R0= Output resistance without feedback.

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Rif = Input resistance with feedback

Ri= Input resistance without feedback

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram on a new editor window in Multisim.
2. Set source voltage Vs=30mV at 1 kHz frequency at the input.
3. Select “interactive” option in Analysis and run the software to observe the output on the CRO
4. Select AC sweep from Analysis menu to observe the frequency response without feedback
connection.
5. Connect the feedback network and run AC sweep to observe frequency response with feedback.
6. Select the X axis and and Y axis limits suitably for AC sweep.
7. Calculate the bandwidth from the graphs by placing the cursors at -3dB gain points on the frequency
response curve.
8. Plot the graph for gain in dB verses frequency for both with feedback and without feedback
connection on a semi log graph sheet.

Model graphs:

Input Wave form Output Wave form

Frequency Response:

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Result:

S.no Parameter Without Feedback With Feedback Units

1 Max. Gain in dB

2 -3dB Gain

3 Lower Cutoff Frequency

4 Upper Cutoff Frequency

5 Bandwidth

Outcomes:

Students are able to conduct the experiment and analyze frequency response of Voltage Shunt feedback
amplifier.

Discussion Questions:

1. Voltage shunt feedback amplifier behaves as a controlled source.

2. Why is this amplifier called as trans resistance amplifier?

3. What is the effect on h-parameters values of a BJT in a negative feedback amplifier?

4. Write the expressions for de-sensitivity factor, feedback ratio and gain of basic amplifier for this
amplifier.

5. What is the effect of Voltage shunt connection on input and output impedances? Give the
expressions of the same.

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EXPERIMENT NO .3 DATE:

RC PHASE SHIFT OSCILLATOR USING BJT

Aim: To design and verify the frequency of oscillations of RC phase shift oscillator using BJT for a given
frequency.

Requirements: MultiSim Software

Components:

Name Quantity

Transistor BC 107 1

Biasing resistors 100K, 10K, 2.2K. 10K pot 1,1,1,1

Capacitors 10 µF, 100 µF 2, 1

Resistors in phase shift network As per design values

Capacitors in phase shift network As per design values

Theory:

RC-Phase shift Oscillator has a CE amplifier followed by three sections of RC phase shift feedback networks.
The output of the last stage is returned to the input of the amplifier. The values of R and C are chosen such that
the phase shift of each RC section is 60º.Thus the RC ladder network produces a total phase shift of 180º
between its input and output voltage for the given frequencies. Since CE Amplifier produces 180 º phase shift,
the total phase shift from the base of the transistor around the circuit and back to the base will be exactly 360º
or 0º. This satisfies the Barkhausen condition for sustaining oscillations. Total loop gain of this circuit is greater
than or equal to 1, this condition used to generate the sinusoidal oscillations.

The frequency of oscillations of RC-Phase Shift Oscillator is,

f = 1/2πRC√(6+4k) where k=RC / R

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Circuit Diagram:

Design Procedure:

To find resistor R and C in the feedback network:

1. Select the Value of Rc from a given CE amplifier.

2. The typical value of k = 2.7 for sustained oscillations.
k = RC/R =>R =

Choose R as available nearest standard value.

3. Calculate the value of C from the expression

f = 1/2πRC√(6+4k)

C=

Eg. f= 5KHz Rc= 2.2K, k= 2.7

R = k/Rc = 1.22K

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Choose R as available nearest standard value = 1K.

f = 1/2πRC√(6+4k)

C= 0.05 µF

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in figure according to the designed values.

2. Select “interactive” option in Analysis menu to observe the output wave form on virtual oscilloscope.
3. Adjust the variable resistor at the emitter untill a sinusoidal wave appears on the oscilloscope and note
down the output amplitude and time period (Td).
4. Calculate the frequency of oscillations theoretically and verify it practically (f=1/Td).
5. The design can be verified for different frequencies of oscillations.

Practical Calculations:

Td = time period of oscillations

f = 1/Td

Tabular column:

Resistance Capacitance Theoretical Time Practical

frequency period of frequency
(Ω) (F) waveform
(KHz) 1/ Td (KHz)
on CRO
Td(ms)

0.5

Output Waveform:

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Result: The RC phase shift oscillator is designed for the specified frequency and compared the theoretical and
practical values.

Outcomes: Students are able to design and analyze RC-phase shift oscillator.

Discussion Questions:

1. Give the for frequency of oscillations for RC phase shift oscillator?

2. What is the total phase shift produced by the RC ladder network?

3. What is the gain of RC phase shift oscillator?

4. What is the difference between damped oscillations and undamped oscillations?

5. What are the applications of RC phase shift oscillators?

6. How many resistors and capacitors are used in RC phase shift network and why?

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EXPERIMENT NO: 4 DATE:

SINGLE TUNED VOLTAGE AMPLIFIER

Aim: 1. To design a single tuned voltage amplifier for a given resonant frequency.

2. To obtain the frequency response of the amplifier and to find bandwidth.

Requirements: MultiSim Software

Components:

Name Quantity

Transistor BC547 1

Resistors 1K, 10K 1,1

Capacitors 10µF, 100µF,0.001µF 1,1

Inductor As per designed values

Circuit Diagram:

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Theory:

An amplifier circuit with a single tuner section being at the collector of the amplifier circuit is called as Single
tuned amplifier circuit. A simple transistor amplifier circuit consisting of a parallel tuned circuit at its collector
makes a single tuned amplifier circuit. The values of capacitance and inductance of the tuned circuit are selected
such that its resonant frequency is equal to the frequency to be amplified. The tuned circuit offers high impedance
to the signal frequency, which helps to offer high output across the tuned circuit. As high impedance is offered
only for the tuned frequency, all the other frequencies which get lower impedance are rejected by the tuned
circuit. Hence the tuned amplifier selects and amplifies the desired frequency signal.

The parallel resonance occurs at resonant frequency f0 when the circuit has a high Q. the resonant frequency is
given by

f0 =1/2π√ (LC).

At resonant frequency f0 the impedance of parallel tuned circuit is very high and is purely resistive. The voltage
across RL is therefore maximum, when the circuit is tuned to resonant frequency. Hence the voltage gain is
maximum at resonant frequency and drops off above and below it. The higher the Q, the narrower will the curve
be.

Design Procedure:

Assume C=0.001µF

Calculate the value of L from the equation below

f0=1/2π√ (LC)

L=

Eg: f0 = 455 KHz

Assume C=0.001µF

L= 122.6 µH

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram on a new editor window in Multisim.

2. Set source voltage Vs=50 mV at 1 kHz frequency at the input.

3. Select “AC sweep” from Analysis menu to observe the frequency response at the output node.
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4. Select the X axis and and Y axis limits as “linear” for AC sweep.
5. Note down the frequency at which the gain is maximum and compare with the specified frequency.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graphs by placing the cursors at Amax/√2 gain points on the frequency
response curve.
7. Plot the graph, gain verses frequency on a normal graph sheet as shown in expected graph.

Observations:

Maximum gain Amax =

Bandwidth =

Frequency at which gain is maximum: Theoretical f0 =

Practical f0 =

Frequency response:

Result: The single tuned voltage amplifier has been designed and its bandwidth has been calculated.

Outcomes: Students are able to design and calculate the bandwidth of a single tuned amplifier.

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Discussion questions:

1. What do you mean by tuned amplifiers?

2. What are advantages and disadvantages of tuned amplifiers?

3. What are the applications of tuned amplifiers?

4. Define resonant frequency?

5. Define Quality factor.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 5 DATE:

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF CONSTANT–K LOW PASS FILTER

Aim: 1. To design a constant-k low pass filter.

2. To obtain the cut of frequency, frequency response filter and to find pass band of the circuit.

Requirements: MultiSim Software

Components:

Inductor L=20mH L/2=10mH

Capacitor C=0.32uF C/2=0.16uF
Resistor 500 ohms 500 ohms
Theory:

Filters are frequency-selective networks that attenuate signals at some frequency and allow others to pass with
or without attenuation. A filter is constructed from purely reactive elements. Ideally, filters should produce no
attenuation in the desired band called as pass band and should provide attenuation at all other frequencies called
attenuation band and or stop band. The frequency which separates the pass band and stop band is called cut-off
frequency. Filter networks are widely used in communication systems to separate various channels in carrier
frequency telephone circuits.

Input
Input

(a) T- section (b) 𝝅 - section

Figure1: Constant-K Type Low Pass filters

A T or 𝜋 network is said to be of the constant k type if Z1 and Z2 are opposite types of reactance satisfying the
relation Z1 Z2=k2

Where k is a constant, independent of frequency. K is reffered as design impedance or nominal

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impedance of the constant-k filter. The consrant T or 𝜋 type filter is also known as prototype filter because of
other complex networks can be derived from it. Figure shows T or 𝜋 networks.

In constant-k low pass filter: Z1= jωL & Z2= −j(1/ωC) = 1/jωC
1 𝐿
A. Nominal Impedance: 𝑘 = √𝑍 𝑍 = √(𝑗𝜔𝐿)( )=√
1 2 𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝐶

B. Cut-off Frequency: fc = 1/ π(LC)½

Hence, the pass band starts at f=0 and continues up to the Cut-off frequency fc, All the frequencies
above fc are in the attenuation or stop band.
𝑓
C. Attenuation Constant (𝑎): In pass band, 𝛼 = 0 & in stop band, 𝛼 = 2 cosh−1( )
𝑓𝑐

The attenuation constant 𝛼 is zero throughout the pass band but increases gradually from cut off
frequency. The variation is shown in fig.
𝑓
D. Phase Constant (𝖰): In stop band 𝛽 = 𝜋, & In pass band , 𝛽 = 2 sin−1( )
𝑓𝑐

The phase constant 𝛽 is zero at zero frequency and increases gradually through the pass band and
reaches 𝜋 at cut off frequency, and remains at 𝜋 for all frequencies beyond cut-off frequency. The variation is
shown in fig.
𝑘
E. Characteristic Impedance: 𝑍𝑂𝑇 = 𝑓
√1−( )2
𝑓𝑐

The plot of characteristic impedance versus frequency is shown in figure.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure (a) variation of 𝛼 with frequency (b) variation of 𝛽 with frequency (c) variation of characteristic

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impedance.

𝐿 1
Design Procedure: 𝑘=√ & 𝑓𝑐 = 𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝐶

𝑘 1
By solving k and 𝑓 , we get 𝐿= & 𝐶=
𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑐 𝜋𝑓𝑐𝑘

Circuit Diagram:

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Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram on a new editor window in Multisim.
2. Set source voltage Vs= 1Vrms at 1 kHz frequency at the input.
3. Select interactive option in Analysis and run the software to observe the output in the plot generated.
4. Select AC sweep from Analysis menu to observe the frequency response at the output node.
5. Select the X axis and and Y axis limits suitably for AC sweep.
6. Calculate the bandwidth from the graphs by placing the cursors at -3dB gain points on the frequency
response curve.
Expected wave form:

Result: Constant-K type low pass filter is designed and verified the responses.

Outcomes: Students are able to calculate the cut off frequency, attenuation constant, phase constant of a
Constant-K type Low pass filter.

Discussion questions:

1. Define low pass filter?

2. Define cut-off frequency?

3. What is the value of α in the pass band of constant k-low pass filter?

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4. What is the value of β in the attenuation band of constant k-low pass filter?

5. What is the K in constant -k type filters?

6. What is M derived filter?

7. What is the Relation between Decibel & Nepers .

8. Give the classification of filters on the basis of frequency.

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EXPERIMENT NO. 6 DATE:

DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF ATTENUATOR

Aim: To design Lattice and T-type Attenuators and verify the Attenuation Constant in decibels

Theory:

▪ An Attenuator is a 2-port resistive network which is used to reduce the signal level when used between a
generator and a load.
▪ Attenuators may be Symmetrical or Asymmetrical and they may provide fixed or variable attenuation.
▪ The attenuation is expressed in decibels as follows.
P1
Attentuation in dB = 10 log10
P2
Where P1 is the input power and P2 is the output power
For a properly matched network,

V12
P1 = I2 R 0
1
=
R0

V22
P2 = I22R0 =
R0

Where R0 is the characteristic resistance of the network

Lattice Attenuator
A lattice is a general type of symmetrical and balanced network. Any symmetrical balanced and unbalanced
network can be transformed into an equivalent lattice network. Figure 6.1 shows a lattice network terminated
through a characteristic impedance R0.

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Figure 6.1: Lattice Attenuator terminated with a Characteristic Resistance R0

The elements of a lattice attenuator can be specified in terms of characteristic impedance and propagation
constant.

Figure 6.2: Modified Network of Lattice Attenuator

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Bisection theorem

A network is said to have been bisected when the open-circuited and short-circuited input impedances of the two
bisected networks are equivalent.
Also, the square root of the product of these impedances is the characteristic impedance of the whole network

❖ Any symmetrical balanced or unbalanced network can be transformed into an equivalent lattice
network.
❖ The series arm of the lattice is equal to the short-circuited impedance of the bisected network.
❖ The diagonal arm is equal to the open-circuited impedance of the bisected network.

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T-Type Attenuator

A T-type attenuator is a symmetrical unbalanced network as shown in figure 6.3 and its bisected network is
shown in figure 6.4.

Figure 6.3: T-type attenuator

Figure 6.4: Bisection of T-type attenuator

From the bisection theorem,

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Π-type Attenuator

A symmetrical Π-type attenuator is shown in figure 6.5 and its bisection is shown in figure 6.6 as follows.

Figure 6.5: Π-type Attenuator

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Figure 6.6: Bisection of Π-type Attenuator

From Bisection theorem,

From lattice Network,

Solving these equations,

6a. Design a lattice attenuator if the characteristic resistance is 200 Ω and attenuation is 20 dB.

(i) Determine resistances RA and RB for designing the lattice attenuator

(ii) Lattice Attenuator circuit using the estimated resistances

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(iii) Procedure:

Step 1: Design the attenuator circuit shown in figure 6.3 using the multisim software.
Step 2: Apply input voltage V1=5V
Step 3: Measure the output voltage across the characteristic resistance.
Step 4: Calculate Attenuation in dB and it should be approximately equal to 20 dB.

(iv) Results
Expected Output: Attenuation=20 dB
Actual Output: Attenuation =

6b. Design a symmetrical T-section attenuator to give an attenuation of 60 dB and characteristic resistance
of 500 Ω.

(i) Determination of R1 and R2 resistance

(ii) T-type attenuator circuit using the estimated resistances

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(iii) Procedure:

Step 1: Design the attenuator circuit shown in figure 6.4 using the multisim software.
Step 2: Apply input voltage V1=5V
Step 3: Measure the output voltage across the characteristic resistance.
Step 4: Calculate Attenuation in dB and it should be equal to 60 dB.

Expected Output: Attenuation=60 dB

Actual Output: Attenuation =

6c. Design a Π-type attenuator to give an attenuation of 20 dB and characteristic resistance of 500 Ω.

(i) Determination of R1 and R2 resistance

(ii) Π-type attenuator circuit using the estimated resistances

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(iii) Procedure:

Step 1: Design the attenuator circuit shown in figure 6.4 using the multisim software.
Step 2: Apply input voltage V1=5V
Step 3: Measure the output voltage across the characteristic resistance.
Step 4: Calculate Attenuation in dB and it should be approximately equal to 20 dB.

(iv) Results
Expected Output: Attenuation=20 dB
Actual Output: Attenuation =

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EXPERIMENT NO.7 DATE:

TRANSIENT RESPONSE SECOND ORDER SYSTEM

Aim: To simulation of transient response of Second Order System for

i. Underdamped
ii. Critically damped
iii. Overdamped
Requirements: Multisim Software
Theory:

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Circuit Diagram:

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram on a new editor window in Multisim.
2. Set the initial and final level of step source voltage under the value tab by double clicking the source
voltage.
3. Set R1=40Ω for underdamped response of the system.

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4. Select Transient from Analysis menu, set the initial conditions to zero, select the output variable and
run the simulation
5. Observe the Output for transient response of second order system underdamped.
6. Set R1=200Ω and repeat the step 4 for critical damped response of the system
7. Set R1=1KΩ and repeat the step 4 for over damped response of the system
8. Plot all the three responses on a graph and study transient response of Second Order System

Expected Graph:

Result:

Simulated the transient response of Second Order System for

i. Underdamped
ii. Critical damped
iii. Overdamped

Output:

After conducting these experiment students are able to simulate and understand the transient response of Second
Order System for different damping conditions.

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Discussion Questions:
1. What is a second order system?

2. Discuss the significance of Characteristic equation of a control system.

3. What are the reasons for transient response in a system?

4. What are the types of damped oscillation?

5. How does natural frequency determine the behavior of a system?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 8 DATE:

DESIGN AND SIMULATE LPF, HPF ACTIVE FILTERS (SECOND ORDER

BUTTERWORTH)

Aim: To design and simulate second order active LPF and HPF and study their characteristics.
Requirements: Multisim Software

Components required:
Name Quantity

Op-amp IC731C 1

Resistors 1K, 10k, 5.86k 2,1,1

Capacitors 0.01µF 2

Theory:
With passive filter circuits containing multiple stages, the loss in signal amplitude called “Attenuation” can
become quiet severe. One way of restoring or controlling this loss of signal is by using amplification through the
use of Active Filters. As their name implies, Active Filters contain active components such as operational
amplifiers, transistors or FET’s within their circuit design. They draw their power from an external power source
and use it to boost or amplify the output signal. Filter amplification can also be used to either shape or alter the
frequency response of the filter circuit by producing a more selective output response, making the output
bandwidth of the filter narrower or even wider. Then the main difference between a “passive filter” and an
“active filter” is amplification.
An active filter generally uses an operational amplifier (op-amp) within its design and in the Operational
Amplifier tutorial we saw that an Op-amp has a high input impedance, a low output impedance and a voltage
gain determined by the resistor network within its feedback loop. Unlike a passive high pass filter which has in
theory an infinite high frequency response, the maximum frequency response of an active filter is limited to the
Gain/Bandwidth product (or open loop gain) of the operational amplifier being used. Still, active filters are
generally much easier to design than passive filters, they produce good performance characteristics, very good
accuracy with a steep roll-off and low noise when used with a good circuit design.

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Circuit diagrams
LOWPASS FILTER

Active Low Pass Filter (2nd Order)

HIGH PASS FILTER

Active High pass Filter (2nd order)

Procedure:

LOW PASS FILTER:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the low pass filter circuit diagram.

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2. Apply 2V p-p sine wave input to the the circuit at Vin.
3. Keep the input voltage constant and vary the frequency on semi-log scale ranging from 10Hz to 1MHz
and note down the corresponding outputs.
4. Observe the theoretical and practical values of the cutoff frequency.
5. Draw the graph between voltage gain and frequency and mark the cutoff frequency.

HIGH PASS FILTER:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the high pass filter circuit diagram (fig 2).
2. Apply 2V p-p sine wave input to the capacitor C2 at Vin.
3. Keep the input as voltage constant and vary the frequency on semi-log scale ranging from 10Hz to
1MHz and note down the corresponding outputs on CRO. Observe the theoretical and practical voltage
gains.
4. Draw the graph between voltage gain and frequency and mark the cutoff frequency

Expected waveforms:
LOW PASS FILTER

HIGHPASS FILTER

Frequency Response of LPF and HPF

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Result:
Designed and observed the first order high pass and low pass filters for the given specifications.

LPF HPF
Pass band band gain = ----------- Pass band band gain = -----------
Upper 3 dB frequency = ---------- Lower 3 dB frequency = ----------

Outcome:
After conducting these experiment students are able to design the active low pass and high pass filters.

Discussion Questions:

1. How does the gain of the first order low pass filter vary?

2. Name the filter that has two stop bands.

3. Which filter performs exactly the opposite to the band-pass filter?

4. How can a first order low pass filter can be converted into second order low pass filter?

5. Differentiate active and passive filters

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EXPERIMENT NO. 9 DATE:

DESIGN AND SIMULATE GENERATION OF SINE, SQUARE AND TRIANGULAR WAVES

USING IC 741

Aim: To design and simulate Sine, square and triangular wave generators using IC 741

Requirements: Multisim Software

Components required:
Name Quantity

Op-amp IC731C 1

Resistors 1K, 10k, 5.86k 5,1,1

Capacitors 0.1µF, 0.01 µF 3, 2

Theory:
RC oscillator is build using an amplifier and a RC network in feedback. For any oscillator the two prime
requirements to generate sustained and constant oscillations are
1. The total phase shift around loop must be 0 or 360 degrees.
2. The loop gain should be equal to unity
This is known as “Barkhausen Criterion”
In RC phase shift oscillator op-amp is used as an amplifier in inverting configuration. It gives 180o phase shiftin
its output. So the RC feedback network following the amplifier has to produce additional 180o phase shift to make
total phase shift 360o /0o. The circuit oscillates at a frequency F = 1 / 2πRC√6. The time period of the output of
the uA741 square wave generator can be expressed using the following equation:

The common practice is to make the R3 equal to R2. Then the equation for the time period can
be simplified as: T=2.1976R1C1
The frequency can be determined by the equation: F=1/T

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Circuit diagrams:

Sine wave Generator: (RC phase shift oscillator):

Sine wave Generator

Square and Wave form generator:

Square Wave Generator and Integrator

Triangular wave generator:

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Procedure:
For Sine Wave Generation:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Observe the output waveform.
3. Calculate theoretical and practical output signal frequency and compare them.

For Square Wave Generation

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Observe the output waveform.
3. Calculate theoretical and practical output signal frequency and compare them.

For Triangular Wave Generation

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram
2. Observe the output waveform.
3. Calculate theoretical and practical output signal frequency and compare them.

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Expected Waveforms:

Result:
Designed and verified the waveforms of waveform Generator using IC741.

Outcome: After conducting this experiment, students are able to design and generate sine, square and
triangular waveforms using IC741

Discussion Questions:

1. What are the different ways of generating Sinusoidal waves?

2. What are different ways of generating square wave voltage waveforms?

3. What is phase-shift oscillator?

4. What is formula for frequency of oscillations for RC phase shift oscillator?

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5. What is formula for frequency of oscillations for square wave generated in your experiment?

6. What is formula for frequency of oscillations for triangular wave generated in your experiment?

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EXPERIMENT NO. 10 DATE:

DESIGN AND SIMULATE MONOSTABLE AND ASTABLE MULTI-VIBRATOR

USING IC 555 TIMER

Aim: To design and simulate monostable and astable multi vibrators using IC 555 timer

Components required:
Name Quantity

IC 555 timer 1

Resistors 47K, 2.2k, 10k 1,1,1

Capacitors 0.1µF, 0.01 µF 1, 1

Theory:
Introduction

The Multivibrator circuits are widely used in electronics. It is the electronics circuit which is used to implement
the two state devices like Relaxation Oscillator, Timer and Flip-flops. The two states refer to the two voltage
levels of the output. (e.g 0V, and 5V). Many times the two voltage levels are also represented as either logic high
(e.g 5V) and logic low. (e.g 0V).
Astable multivibrator

In the 555 Oscillator above, pin 2 and pin 6 are connected together allowing the circuit to retrigger itself on each
and every cycle allowing it to operate as a free running oscillator. During each cycle capacitor, C charges up
through both timing resistors, R1 and R2 but discharges itself only through resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is
connected to the discharge terminal, pin 7. Then the capacitor charges up to 2/3Vcc (the upper comparator limit)
which is determined by the 0.693(R1+R2)C combination and discharges itself down to 1/3Vcc (the lower
comparator limit) determined by the 0.693(R2.C) combination. This results in an output waveform whose voltage
level is approximately equal to Vcc - 1.5V and whose output "ON" and "OFF" time periods are determined by
the capacitor and resistors combinations. The individual times required completing one charge and discharge
cycle of the output is therefore given as:

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t2 = 0.693 R2C
T = t1 + t2
Frequency(F) = 1/T
Duty cycle = Ton

Monostable multivibrator

It has one stable and one quasi stable state. The circuit is useful for generating single output pulse of time duration
in response to a triggering signal. The width of the output pulse depends only on external components connected
to the op-amp. The diode gives a negative triggering pulse. When the output is +Vsat, a diode clamps the
capacitor voltage to 0.7V then, a negative going triggering impulse magnitude Vi passing through RC and the
negative triggering pulse is applied to the positive terminal. Let us assume that the circuit is instable state. The
output V0i is at +Vsat. The diode D1 conducts and Vc the voltage across the capacitor ‘C’ gets clamped to 0.7V,
the voltage at the positive input terminal through R1R2 potentiometer divider is +ßVsat. Now, if a negative
trigger of magnitude Vi is applied to the positive terminal so that the effective signal is less than 0.7V.the output
of the Op-Amp will switch from +Vsat to –Vsat. The diode will now get reverse biased and the capacitor starts
charging exponentially to –Vsat. When the capacitor charge Vc becomes slightly more negative than –ßVsat, the
output of the op-amp switches back to +Vsat. The capacitor ‘C’ now starts charging to +Vsat through R untilVc
is 0.7V.
V0 = Vf + (Vi-Vf) 𝑒𝑡/𝑅𝐶 ,
ß = R2/(R1+R2)
If Vsat >> Vp and R1=R2 and ß = 0.5,
Then, T = 0.69RC
Circuit diagrams:
Monostable multivibrator:

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Fig: 8.1 Monostable multivibrator

Astable multivibrator:

Fig: 8.2 Astable multivibrator

Procedure:
Monostable multivibrator:-

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram

2. Apply Negative triggering pulses of frequency 1 KHz at pin 2.
3. Observe the output waveform at pin 3 and measure capacitor voltage across it at pin 6
4. Theoretically calculate the pulse duration as T=1.1. R1C1
5. Compare it with experimental values.
6. Plot the graph for the input and output waveforms.

Astable multivibrator:-
1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram
2. Observe the output waveform at pin 3 and measure capacitor voltage across it at pin 6.
3. Theoretically calculate the Time period as T=0.69 RBC + 0.69 (RA + RB) C
4. Compare it with experimental values.
5. Plot the graph for the input and output waveforms.

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Model waveforms:
Monostable multivibrator:-

Fig: 8.3 Waveforms at monostable output and capacitor

Astable multivibrator:-

Fig: 8.4 Waveforms at astable multivibrator output and capacitor

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Result: Designed and verified the waveforms of monostable multivibrator and Astable multivibrator using
555 Timer.

Outcome: After conducting this experiment, students are able to design the monostable multivibrator and
Astable multivibrator using IC 555 Timer.

Discussion Questions:

1. Define duty cycle.

2. Draw the pin diagram of 555 timers

3. What are the applications of 555 timers in monostable mode?

4. Write down the expression for output pulse width in monostable mode

5. Write down the expression for output pulse width in Astable mode?

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