Research Methodology and IPR

MODULE-1
Introduction to Business Research

In today’s educational and competitive environment, Marketing Research is a very crucial

topic which must be learned and understood as it being an inevitable and essential factor for
survival and growth.
Research in common parlance refers to a search for knowledge. Once can also define research
as a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact,
research is an art of scientific investigation. Research is an academic activity and as such the
term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
What is Research?
Research is defined as a ‘‘systematic inquiry aimed at providing information to solve
managerial problems.’’ The term systematic is related to the scientific method, the idea being
that research is the process of inquiry conducted in the best, or at least, most appropriate
way.
Redman and Mory define research as a “systematized effort to gain new knowledge.”
Research is an academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense.
According to Clifford Woody research comprises defining and redefining problems,
formulating hypothesis or suggested solutions; collecting, organising and evaluating data;
making deductions and reaching conclusions; and at last, carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypothesis.
D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson in the Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences define research as
“the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalising to extend,
correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the
practice of an art.”
Research is, thus, an original contribution to the existing stock of knowledge making for its
advancement. It is the pursuit of truth with the help of study, observation, comparison and
experiment. In short, the search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of
finding solution to a problem is research. The systematic approach concerning generalization
and the formulation of a theory is also research. As such the term ‘research’ refers to the
systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem, formulating a hypothesis,
collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain conclusions either in the
form of solutions(s) towards the concerned problem or in certain generalizations for some
theoretical formulation.
Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific
purpose, one may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad
groupings:
1) To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with
this object in view are termed as exploratory or formulative research studies);

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2) To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group

(studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3) To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is
associated with something else (studies with this object in view are known as
diagnostic research studies)
4) To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are
known as hypothesis-testing research studies).
Characteristics of Research
Research is the scientific investigation of phenomena which includes collection, presentation,
analysis and interpretation of facts that lines an individual’s speculation with reality.
Characteristics of Research can be explained as below:
a) Empirical: Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.
b) Logical: Research is based on valid procedures and principles.
c) Cyclical: Research is a cyclical process because it starts with a problem and ends with a
problem.
d) Analytical: Research utilizes proven analytical procedures in gathering the data, whether
historical, descriptive, and experimental and case study.
e) Critical: Research exhibits careful and precise judgment.
f) Methodical: Research is conducted in a methodical manner without bias using systematic
method and procedures.
g) Replicability: The research design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the
researcher to arrive at valid and conclusive results.
Motivation in Research
The possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
• Desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits;
• Desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems, i.e., concern over
practical problems initiates research;
• Desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work;
• Desire to be of service to society;
• Desire to get respectability.
However, this is not an exhaustive list of factors motivating people to undertake research
studies. Many more factors such as directives of government, employment conditions,
curiosity about new things, desire to understand causal relationships, social thinking and
awakening, and the like may as well motivate (or at times compel) people to perform research
operations.
Types of Research
1) Descriptive vs. Analytical: Descriptive research includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries
of different kinds. The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of
affairs as it exists at present. In social science and business research quite often use the term
Ex post facto research for descriptive research studies. The main characteristic of this method
is that the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has happened
or what is happening. Most ex post facto research projects are used for descriptive studies in
which the researcher seeks to measure such items as, for example, frequency of shopping,
preferences of people, or similar data. Ex post facto studies also include attempts by
researchers to discover causes even when they cannot control the variables.

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In analytical research, on the other hand, the researcher has to use facts or information
already available, and analyse these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
2) Applied vs. Fundamental: Research can either be applied (or action) research or
fundamental (to basic or pure) research. Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business organisation, whereas
fundamental research is mainly concerned with generalisations and with the formulation of
a theory. “Gathering knowledge for knowledge’s sake is termed ‘pure’ or ‘basic’ research.”
Research concerning some natural phenomenon or relating to pure mathematics are
examples of fundamental research. Similarly, research studies, concerning human behaviour
carried on with a view to make generalisations about human behaviour, are also examples of
fundamental research, but research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research.
3) Quantitative vs. Qualitative: Quantitative research is based on the measurement of
quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.
Qualitative research, on the other hand, is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e.,
phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind.
4) Conceptual vs. Empirical: Conceptual research is that related to some abstract idea(s) or
theory. It is generally used by philosophers and thinkers to develop new concepts or to
reinterpret existing ones. On the other hand, empirical research relies on experience or
observation alone, often without due regard for system and theory. It is data-based research,
coming up with conclusions which are capable of being verified by observation or experiment.
5) Other Types of Research: All other types of research are variations of one or more of the
above stated approaches, based on either the purpose of research, or the time required to
accomplish research, on the environment in which research is done, or on the basis of some
other similar factor. Form the point of view of time, we can think of research either as one-
time research or longitudinal research. In the former case the research is confined to a single
time-period, whereas in the latter case the research is carried on over several time-periods.
Research can be field-setting research or laboratory research or simulation research,
depending upon the environment in which it is to be carried out. Research can as well be
understood as clinical or diagnostic research. Such research follows case-study methods or
in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal relations. Such studies usually go deep into the
causes of things or events that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing
data gathering devices. The research may be exploratory or it may be formalized. The
objective of exploratory research is the development of hypotheses rather than their testing,
whereas formalized research studies are those with substantial structure and with specific
hypotheses to be tested. Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past, including the philosophy of
persons and groups at any remote point of time. Research can also be classified as conclusion-
oriented and decision-oriented. While doing conclusion oriented research, a researcher is
free to pick up a problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes. Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision
maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon research according to his
own inclination.
Research Approaches
There are two basic approaches to research, viz.,
1) Quantitative approach and the
2) Qualitative approach.

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1) Quantitative Approach
It involves the generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to rigorous
quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion.
This approach can be further sub-classified into:
a) Inferential Approach: The purpose of inferential approach to research is to form a data
base from which to infer characteristics or relationships of population. This usually means
survey research where a sample of population is studied (questioned or observed) to
determine its characteristics, and it is then inferred that the population has the same
characteristics.
b) Experimental Approach: Experimental approach is characterised by much greater control
over the research environment and in this case some variables are manipulated to observe
their effect on other variables.
c) Simulation Approach: Simulation approach involves the construction of an artificial
environment within which relevant information and data can be generated. This permits an
observation of the dynamic behaviour of a system (or its sub-system) under controlled
conditions. The term ‘simulation’ in the context of business and social sciences applications
refers to “the operation of a numerical model that represents the structure of a dynamic
process.
2) Qualitative Approach
Qualitative approach to research is concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes,
opinions and behaviour. Research in such a situation is a function of researcher’s insights and
impressions. Such an approach to research generates results either in non-quantitative form
or in the form which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis. Generally, the
techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and depth interviews are used.
Significance of Research
Increased amounts of research make progress possible. Research inculcates scientific and
inductive thinking and it promotes the development of logical habits of thinking and
organisation. Importance or significance of research can be presented as below:
1) The role of research in several fields of applied economics, whether related to business
or to the economy as a whole, has greatly increased in modern times. The increasingly
complex nature of business and government has focused attention on the use of research in
solving operational problems. Research, as an aid to economic policy, has gained added
importance, both for government and business.
2) Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system.
For instance, government’s budgets rest in part on an analysis of the needs and desires of the
people and on the availability of revenues to meet these needs. The cost of needs has to be
equated to probable revenues and this is a field where research is most needed. Through
research we can devise alternative policies and can as well examine the consequences of each
of these alternatives. Decision-making may not be a part of research, but research certainly
facilitates the decisions of the policy maker. Government has also to chalk out programmes
for dealing with all facets of the country’s existence and most of these will be related directly
or indirectly to economic conditions. The plight of cultivators, the problems of big and small
business and industry, working conditions, trade union activities, the problems of distribution,
even the size and nature of defence services are matters requiring research. Thus, research is
considered necessary with regard to the allocation of nation’s resources.

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3) Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems
of business and industry. Operations research and market research, along with motivational
research, are considered crucial and their results assist, in more than one way, in taking
business decisions. Market research is the investigation of the structure and development of
a market for the purpose of formulating efficient policies for purchasing, production and
sales. Operations research refers to the application of mathematical, logical and analytical
techniques to the solution of business problems of cost minimisation or of profit maximisation
or what can be termed as optimisation problems. Motivational research of determining why
people behave as they do is mainly concerned with market characteristics. In other words, it
is concerned with the determination of motivations underlying the consumer (market)
behaviour. All these are of great help to people in business and industry who are responsible
for taking business decisions. Research with regard to demand and market factors has great
utility in business. Given knowledge of future demand, it is generally not difficult for a firm,
or for an industry to adjust its supply schedule within the limits of its projected capacity.
Market analysis has become an integral tool of business policy these days.
4) Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships and in
seeking answers to various social problems. It provides the intellectual satisfaction of
knowing a few things just for the sake of knowledge and also has practical utility for the social
scientist to know for the sake of being able to do something better or in a more efficient
manner. Research in social sciences is concerned both with knowledge for its own sake and
with knowledge for what it can contribute to practical concerns.
In addition to what has been stated above, the significance of research can also be understood
keeping in view the following points:
• To those students who are to write a master’s or Ph.D. thesis, research may mean a
careerism or a way to attain a high position in the social structure;
• To professionals in research methodology, research may mean a source of livelihood;
• To philosophers and thinkers, research may mean the outlet for new ideas and
insights;
• To literary men and women, research may mean the development of new styles and
creative work;
• To analysts and intellectuals, research may mean the generalisations of new theories.
Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important
source of providing guidelines for solving different business, governmental and social
problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.
Research Methods Vs Methodology
Research methods may be understood as all those methods/techniques that are used for
conduction of research. Research methods or techniques, thus, refer to the methods the
researchers use in performing research operations. In other words, all those methods which
are used by the researcher during the course of studying his research problem are termed as
research methods. Since the object of research, particularly the applied research, it to arrive
at a solution for a given problem, the available data and the unknown aspects of the problem
have to be related to each other to make a solution possible.
Research methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem. It may be
understood as a science of studying how research is done scientifically. In it we study the
various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher in studying his research problem
along with the logic behind them. It is necessary for the researcher to know not only the

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research methods/techniques but also the methodology. Researchers not only need to know
how to develop certain indices or tests, how to calculate the mean, the mode, the median or
the standard deviation or chi-square, how to apply particular research techniques, but they
also need to know which of these methods or techniques, are relevant and which are not, and
what would they mean and indicate and why. Researchers also need to understand the
assumptions underlying various techniques and they need to know the criteria by which they
can decide that certain techniques and procedures will be applicable to certain problems and
others will not. All this means that it is necessary for the researcher to design his methodology
for his problem as the same may differ from problem to problem.
Research methodology we not only talk of the research methods but also consider the logic
behind the methods we use in the context of our research study and explain why we are using
a particular method or technique and why we are not using others so that research results
are capable of being evaluated either by the researcher himself or by others.
Research and Scientific Method
For a clear perception of the term research, one should know the meaning of scientific
method. The two terms, research and scientific method, are closely related. Research, as we
have already stated, can be termed as “an inquiry into the nature of, the reasons for, and the
consequences of any particular set of circumstances, whether these circumstances are
experimentally controlled or recorded just as they occur. Further, research implies the
researcher is interested in more than particular results; he is interested in the repeatability of
the results and in their extension to more complicated and general situations.”
On the other hand, the philosophy common to all research methods and techniques, although
they may vary considerably from one science to another, is usually given the name of scientific
method. In this context, Karl Pearson writes, “The scientific method is one and same in the
branches (of science) and that method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity
of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material; the man who classifies facts of
any kind whatever, who sees their mutual relation and describes their sequences, is applying
the Scientific Method and is a man of science.”
Scientific method is the pursuit of truth as determined by logical considerations. The ideal of
science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. Scientific method attempts to achieve
“this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates and
a combination of these three in varying proportions.”
In scientific method, logic aids in formulating propositions explicitly and accurately so that
their possible alternatives become clear. Further, logic develops the consequences of such
alternatives, and when these are compared with observable phenomena, it becomes possible
for the researcher or the scientist to state which alternative is most in harmony with the
observed facts.
The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates which can be stated as under:
• It relies on empirical evidence;
• It utilizes relevant concepts;
• It is committed to only objective considerations;
• It presupposes ethical neutrality, i.e., it aims at nothing but making only adequate and
correct statements about population objects;
• It results into probabilistic predictions;
• Its methodology is made known to all concerned for critical scrutiny are for use in
testing the conclusions through replication;

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• It aims at formulating most general axioms or what can be termed as scientific

theories.
Importance of Knowing How Research is Done
The study of research methodology gives the student the necessary training in gathering
material and arranging or card-indexing them, participation in the field work when required,
and also training in techniques for the collection of data appropriate to particular problems,
in the use of statistics, questionnaires and controlled experimentation and in recording
evidence, sorting it out and interpreting it. In fact, importance of knowing the methodology
of research or how research is done stems from the following considerations:
a) For one who is preparing himself for a career of carrying out research, the importance
of knowing research methodology and research techniques is obvious since the same
constitute the tools of his trade. The knowledge of methodology provides good
training specially to the new research worker and enables him to do better research.
It helps him to develop disciplined thinking or a ‘bent of mind’ to observe the field
objectively. Hence, those aspiring for careerism in research must develop the skill of
using research techniques and must thoroughly understand the logic behind them.
b) Knowledge of how to do research will inculcate the ability to evaluate and use
research results with reasonable confidence. In other words, we can state that the
knowledge of research methodology is helpful in various fields such as government or
business administration, community development and social work where persons are
increasingly called upon to evaluate and use research results for action.
c) When one knows how research is done, then one may have the satisfaction of
acquiring a new intellectual tool which can become a way of looking at the world and
of judging every day experience. Accordingly, it enables use to make intelligent
decisions concerning problems facing us in practical life at different points of time.
Thus, the knowledge of research methodology provides tools to took at things in life
objectively.
d) In this scientific age, all of us are in many ways consumers of research results and we
can use them intelligently provided we are able to judge the adequacy of the methods
by which they have been obtained. The knowledge of methodology helps the
consumer of research results to evaluate them and enables him to take rational
decisions.
Research Process
Research process consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out
research and the desired sequencing of these steps:
1) Formulating the Research Problem: There are two types of research problems, viz., those
which relate to states of nature and those which relate to relationships between variables. At
the very outset the researcher must single out the problem he wants to study, i.e., he must
decide the general area of interest or aspect of a subject-matter that he would like to inquire
into. Initially the problem may be stated in a broad general way and then the ambiguities, if
any, relating to the problem be resolved. Then, the feasibility of a particular solution has to
be considered before a working formulation of the problem can be set up. The formulation
of a general topic into a specific research problem, thus, constitutes the first step in a scientific
enquiry.

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Steps in Research Process

2) Extensive Literature Survey: Once the problem is formulated, a brief summary of it should
be written down. For this purpose, the abstracting and indexing journals and published or
unpublished bibliographies are the first place to go to. Academic journals, conference
proceedings, government reports, books etc., must be tapped depending on the nature of the
problem. In this process, it should be remembered that one source will lead to another. The
earlier studies, if any, which are similar to the study in hand should be carefully studied. A
good library will be a great help to the researcher at this stage.
3) Development of Working Hypotheses: After extensive literature survey, researcher should
state in clear terms the working hypothesis or hypotheses. Working hypothesis is tentative
assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences. As such
the manner in which research hypotheses are developed is particularly important since they
provide the focal point for research. They also affect the manner in which tests must be
conducted in the analysis of data and indirectly the quality of data which is required for the
analysis. In most types of research, the development of working hypothesis plays an
important role. Hypothesis should be very specific and limited to the piece of research in hand
because it has to be tested. The role of the hypothesis is to guide the researcher by delimiting
the area of research and to keep him on the right track.
4) Preparing the Research Design: The research problem having been formulated in clear cut
terms, the researcher will be required to prepare a research design, i.e., he will have to state
the conceptual structure within which research would be conducted. The preparation of such
a design facilitates research to be as efficient as possible yielding maximal information. In
other words, the function of research design is to provide for the collection of relevant
evidence with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money. But how all these can be
achieved depends mainly on the research purpose. Research purposes may be grouped into
four categories, viz., (i) Exploration, (ii) Description, (iii) Diagnosis, and (iv) Experimentation.
A flexible research design which provides opportunity for considering many different aspects
of a problem is considered appropriate if the purpose of the research study is that of
exploration.
5. Determining Sample Design: All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry
constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’. A complete enumeration of all the items in the
‘population’ is known as a census inquiry. It can be presumed that in such an inquiry when all
the items are covered no element of chance is left and highest accuracy is obtained. But in
practice this may not be true. Even the slightest element of bias in such an inquiry will get

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larger and larger as the number of observations increases. Moreover, there is no way of
checking the element of bias or its extent except through a resurvey or use of sample checks.
Besides, this type of inquiry involves a great deal of time, money and energy. Not only this,
census inquiry is not possible in practice under many circumstances. For instance, blood
testing is done only on sample basis. Hence, quite often we select only a few items from the
universe for our study purposes.
Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With probability
samples each element has a known probability of being included in the sample but the non-
probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability. Probability
samples are those based on simple random sampling, systematic sampling, stratified
sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on
convenience sampling, judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.
6) Collecting the Data: In dealing with any real life problem it is often found that data at hand
are inadequate, and hence, it becomes necessary to collect data that are appropriate. There
are several ways of collecting the appropriate data which differ considerably in context of
money costs, time and other resources at the disposal of the researcher.
Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. If the researcher
conducts an experiment, he observes some quantitative measurements, or the data, with the
help of which he examines the truth contained in his hypothesis.
The researcher should select one of these methods of collecting the data taking into
consideration the nature of investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial
resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.
7) Execution of the Project: Execution of the project is a very important step in the research
process. If the execution of the project proceeds on correct lines, the data to be collected
would be adequate and dependable. The researcher should see that the project is executed
in a systematic manner and in time. If the survey is to be conducted by means of structured
questionnaires, data can be readily machine-processed. In such a situation, questions as well
as the possible answers may be coded. If the data are to be collected through interviewers,
arrangements should be made for proper selection and training of the interviewers. The
training may be given with the help of instruction manuals which explain clearly the job of the
interviewers at each step. Occasional field checks should be made to ensure that the
interviewers are doing their assigned job sincerely and efficiently.
8) Analysis of Data: After the data have been collected, the researcher turns to the task of
analysing them. The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations such as
establishment of categories, the application of these categories to raw data through coding,
tabulation and then drawing statistical inferences. The unwieldy data should necessarily be
condensed into a few manageable groups and tables for further analysis. Thus, researcher
should classify the raw data into some purposeful and usable categories. Coding operation is
usually done at this stage through which the categories of data are transformed into symbols
that may be tabulated and counted. Editing is the procedure that improves the quality of the
data for coding. With coding the stage is ready for tabulation. Tabulation is a part of the
technical procedure wherein the classified data are put in the form of tables. The mechanical
devices can be made use of at this juncture. A great deal of data, especially in large inquiries,
is tabulated by computers. Computers not only save time but also make it possible to study
large number of variables affecting a problem simultaneously.
9) Hypothesis-Testing: After analysing the data as stated above, the researcher is in a position
to test the hypotheses, if any, he had formulated earlier. Do the facts support the hypotheses

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or they happen to be contrary? This is the usual question which should be answered while
testing hypotheses.
Various tests, such as Chi square test, t-test, F-test, have been developed by statisticians for
the purpose. The hypotheses may be tested through the use of one or more of such tests,
depending upon the nature and object of research inquiry.
10) Generalisations and Interpretation: If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it
may be possible for the researcher to arrive at generalisation, i.e., to build a theory. As a
matter of fact, the real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalisations.
If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the
basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation. The process of interpretation may quite
often trigger off new questions which in turn may lead to further researches.
11) Preparation of the Report or the Thesis: Finally, the researcher has to prepare the report
of what has been done by him. Writing of report must be done with great care keeping in
view the following:
• The layout of the report should be as follows: (i) the preliminary pages; (ii) the main
text, and (iii) the end matter.
• At the end of the report, appendices should be enlisted in respect of all technical data.
Bibliography, i.e., list of books, journals, reports, etc., consulted, should also be given
in the end. Index should also be given specially in a published research report.
Criteria of Good Research
Whatever may be the types of research works and studies, one thing that is important is that
they all meet on the common ground of scientific method employed by them. One expects
scientific research to satisfy the following criteria:
• The purpose of the research should be clearly defined and common concepts be used.
• The research procedure used should be described in sufficient detail to permit another
researcher to repeat the research for further advancement, keeping the continuity of
what has already been attained.
• The procedural design of the research should be carefully planned to yield results that
are as objective as possible.
• The researcher should report with complete frankness, flaws in procedural design and
estimate their effects upon the findings.
• The analysis of data should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance and the
methods of analysis used should be appropriate. The validity and reliability of the data
should be checked carefully.
• Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the data of the research and
limited to those for which the data provide an adequate basis.
• Greater confidence in research is warranted if the researcher is experienced, has a
good reputation in research and is a person of integrity.
Qualities of Good Research
Qualities of a good research are as under:
a) Good research is systematic: It means that research is structured with specified steps to
be taken in a specified sequence in accordance with the well-defined set of rules. Systematic
characteristic of the research does not rule out creative thinking but it certainly does reject
the use of guessing and intuition in arriving at conclusions.
b) Good research is logical: This implies that research is guided by the rules of logical
reasoning and the logical process of induction and deduction are of great value in carrying

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out research. Induction is the process of reasoning from a part to the whole whereas
deduction is the process of reasoning from some premise to a conclusion which follows from
that very premise. In fact, logical reasoning makes research more meaningful in the context
of decision making.
c) Good research is empirical: It implies that research is related basically to one or more
aspects of a real situation and deals with concrete data that provides a basis for external
validity to research results.
d) Good research is replicable: This characteristic allows research results to be verified by
replicating the study and thereby building a sound basis for decisions.
Problems Encountered by Researchers in India
Researchers in India, particularly those engaged in empirical research, are facing several
problems.
Some of the important problems are as follows:
1) Lack of a scientific training in the Research methodology: The lack of a scientific training
in the methodology of research is a great impediment for researchers in our country. There
is paucity of competent researchers. Many researchers take a leap in the dark without
knowing research methods. Most of the work, which goes in the name of research is not
methodologically sound.
2) Insufficient interaction: There is insufficient interaction between the university research
departments on one side and business establishments, government departments and
research institutions on the other side. A great deal of primary data of non-confidential nature
remain untouched/untreated by the researchers for want of proper contacts.
3) Most of the business units in our country do not have the confidence that the material
supplied by them to researchers will not be misused and as such they are often reluctant in
supplying the needed information to researchers.
4) Research studies overlapping one another are undertaken quite often for want of adequate
information. This results in duplication and fritters away resources. This problem can be
solved by proper compilation and revision, at regular intervals, of a list of subjects on which
and the places where the research is going on.
5) There does not exist a code of conduct for researchers and inter-university and
interdepartmental rivalries are also quite common.
6) Many researchers in our country also face the difficulty of adequate and timely secretarial
assistance, including computerial assistance. This causes unnecessary delays in the
completion of research studies.
7) Library management and functioning is not satisfactory at many places and much of the
time and energy of researchers are spent in tracing out the books, journals, reports, etc.,
rather than in tracing out relevant material from them.
8) There is also the problem that many of our libraries are not able to get copies of old and
new Acts/Rules, reports and other government publications in time.
9) There is also the difficulty of timely availability of published data from various government
and other agencies doing this job in our country. Researcher also faces the problem on
account of the fact that the published data vary quite significantly because of differences in
coverage by the concerning agencies.
10) There may, at times, take place the problem of conceptualization and also problems
relating to the process of data collection and related things.

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Research Application in business decisions

Business managers in each field— whether human resources or production, marketing or
finance—are constantly being confronted by problem situations that require effective and
actionable decision making.
Most of these decisions require additional information or information evaluation, which can
be best addressed by research. While the nature of the decision problem might be singularly
unique to the manager, organization and situation, broadly for the sake of understanding, it
is possible to categorize them under different heads.
1) Marketing Function
This is one area of business where research is the lifeline and is carried out on a vast array of
topics and is conducted both in-house by the organization itself and outsourced to external
agencies. Broader industry- or product-category-specific studies are also carried out by
market research agencies and sold as reports for assisting in business decisions. Studies like
these could be:
• Market potential analysis; market segmentation analysis and demand estimation.

• Market structure analysis which includes market size, players and market share of
the key players.

• Sales and retail audits of product categories by players and regions as well as
national sales; consumer and business trend analysis—sometimes including short-
and long-term forecasting.
Other than these, an organization also carries out researches related to all four Ps of
marketing, such as:
a) Product Research: This would include new product research; product testing and
development; product differentiation and positioning; testing and evaluating new products
and packaging research; brand research—including equity to tracks and imaging studies.
b) Pricing Research: This includes price determination research; evaluating customer value;
competitor pricing strategies; alternative pricing models and implications.
c) Promotional Research: This includes everything from designing of the communication mix
to design of advertisements, copy testing, measuring the impact of alternative media vehicles,
impact of competitors’ strategy.
D) Place Research: This includes locational analysis, design and planning of distribution
channels and measuring the effectiveness of the distribution network.
2) Personnel and Human Resource Management
Human Resources (HR) and organizational behaviour is an area which involves basic or
fundamental research as a lot of academic, macro-level research may be adapted and
implemented by organizations into their policies and programmes.
Applied HR research by contrast is more predictive and solution-oriented. Though there are
a number of academic and organizational areas in which research is conducted, yet some key
contemporary areas which seem to attract more research are as follows:
a) Performance Management: This includes leadership analysis development and evaluation;
organizational climate and work environment studies; talent and aptitude analysis and
management; organizational change implementation, management and effectiveness
analysis.
b) Employee Selection and Staffing: This includes pre and on-the-job employee assessment
and analysis; staffing studies.
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c) Organizational Planning and Development: This includes culture assessment—either

organization specific or the study of individual and merged culture analysis for mergers and
acquisitions; manpower planning and development.
d) Incentive and Benefit Studies: These include job analysis and performance appraisal
studies; recognition and reward studies, hierarchical compensation analysis; employee
benefits and reward analysis, both within the organization and industry best practices.
e) Training and Development: These include training need gap analysis; training development
modules; monitoring and assessing impact and effectiveness of training.
f) Other Areas: Other areas include employee relationship analysis; labours tudies;
negotiation and wage settlement studies; absenteeism and accident analysis; turnover and
attrition studies and work-life balance analysis.
3) Financial and Accounting Research
a) Asset Pricing, Corporate Finance and Capital Markets: The focus here is on stock market
response to corporate actions (IPOs or Initial Public Offerings, takeovers and mergers),
financial reporting (earnings and firm specific announcements) and the impact of factors on
returns, e.g., liquidity and volume.
b) Financial Derivatives and Interest Rate and Credit Risk Modeling: This includes analysing
interest rate derivatives, development and validation of corporate credit rating models and
associated derivatives; analysing corporate decision- making and investment risk appraisal.
c) Market Based Accounting Research: This includes analysis of corporate financial reporting
behaviour; accounting-based valuations; evaluation and usage of accounting information by
investors and evaluation of management compensation schemes.
d) Auditing and Accountability: This includes both private and public sector accounting
studies, analysis of audit regulations; analysis of different audit methodologies; governance
and accountability of audit committees.
e) Financial Econometrics: This includes modelling and forecasting involatility, risk estimation
and analysis.
f) Other Areas: Other related areas of investigation are in merchant banking and insurance
sector and business policy and economics areas.
4) Production and Operation Management
This area of management is one in which quantifiable implementation of the research results
takes on huge cost and process implications. Research in this area is highly focused and
problem specific. The decision areas in which research studies are carried out are as follows:
• Operation planning which includes product/service design and development; resource
allocation and capacity planning.
• Demand forecasting and decision analysis.
• Process planning which includes production scheduling and material requirement
management; work design planning and monitoring.
• Production scheduling and material requirement management; work design planning
and monitoring.
• Project management and maintenance management studies.
• Logistics and supply chain, and inventory management analysis.
Quality estimation and assurance studies which include Total Quality Management
(TQM) and quality certification analysis.

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5) Cross-Functional Research
Business management being an integrated amalgamation of all these and other areas
sometimes requires a unified thought and approach to research. These studies require an
open orientation where experts from across the disciplines contribute to and gain from the
study.
• Corporate governance and ethics—the role of social values and ethics and their
integration into a company’s working is an area that is of critical significance to any
organization.
• Technical support systems, enterprise resource planning systems, knowledge
management, and data mining and warehousing are integrated areas requiring
research on managing coordinated efforts across divisions.
• Ecological and environmental analysis; legal analysis of managerial actions; human
rights and discrimination studies.
Research ethics
Research Ethics is a world-wide set of principles governing the way any research involving
interaction between the researcher and other humans or human tissue or data relating to
humans, is designed, managed, and conducted. In preparing a research project, the dignity,
rights, safety, and well-being of human participants must at all times be considered, respected
and safeguarded.
Marketing research has experienced a resurgence with the widespread use of the Internet
and the popularity of social networking. It is easier than ever before for companies to connect
directly with customers and collect individual information that goes into a computer database
to be matched with other pieces of data collected during unrelated transactions. The way a
company conducts its market research these days can have serious ethical repercussions,
impacting the lives of consumers in ways that have yet to be fully understood. Further,
companies can be faced with a public backlash if their market research practices are perceived
as unethical.
Ethical issues in Marketing Research
1) Deceptive Practices: The ease with which a company can access and gather data about its
customers can lead to deceptive practices and dishonesty in the company's research
methods. This type of ethical problem can run the gamut — from not telling customers that
information is being collected when they visit a website to misrepresenting research results
by changing database numbers. Any action that uses lies and deception to find out or establish
information about consumers falls under this category.
2) Invasion of Privacy: One of the most serious ethical considerations involved in market
research is invasion of privacy. Companies have an unprecedented ability to collect, store and
match information relating to customers that can infringe on a person's right to privacy. In
many instances, the customer does not know or understand the extent of the company's
infiltration into his life. The company uses this information to reach the customer with
targeted advertising, but the process of targeting can have a chilling effect on personal
freedom.
3) Breaches of Confidentiality: Another significant ethical consideration involved in market
research involves breaches of confidentiality. Companies regularly share information about
customers with partners and affiliates, requiring the customer to opt-out of the sharing if he
doesn't want to be involved. Some companies sell information they have gathered on

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customers to outside companies. Ethically, any unauthorized disclosure of customer

information is problematic.
4) Objectivity: Marketing and advertising have a significant impact on public perceptions.
Market researchers have an ethical obligation to conduct research objectively, so that
available data allows for the development of a balanced or reality-based picture. Researchers
who allow their own prejudices to skew their work tend to contribute to the perpetuation of
stereotypes in advertising, the development of destructive social constructs and the enabling
of unjust profiting from poverty.
5) Allowing Subjectivity into the Research: Research suppliers must avoid using biased
samples, misusing statistics, ignoring relevant data, and creating a research design with the
goal of supporting a predetermined objective.
6) Selling Unnecessary Research: A research supplier dealing with a client who has little or no
familiarity with marketing research often has the opportunity to " trade the client up"
7) Violating Client Confidentiality: information about a client's general business activities or
the results of a client's project should not be disclosed to a third party. The supplier should
not even disclose the name of a client unless permission is received in advance.
8) Client Ethics: Like research supplier's clients (or users) also have a number of ethical do's
and don'ts. Some of the more common client problems are requesting bids when a supplier
has been predetermined, requesting bids to obtain free advice and methodology, making
false promises, and issuing unauthorized REPs.
9) Requesting Bids to obtain free Advice and Methodology: It is not uncommon for a client
to prefer one research supplier over another. Such a preference may be due to a good working
relationship, cost considerations, ability to make deadlines, friendship, or quality of the
research staff. Having a preference per se is not unethical. It is unethical, however, to
predetermine which supplier will receive a contract and yet ask for proposals from other
suppliers to satisfy corporate requirements.
10) Requesting Bids to Obtain and Methodology: Client companies seeking bargain
basement prices have been known to solicit detailed proposals, including complete
methodology and a sample questionnaire, from a number of suppliers. After "picking the
brains" of the suppliers, the client assembles a questionnaire and then contracts directly with
field services to gather the data.
11) Making False Promises: Another technique used by unethical clients to lower their
research costs is to hold out a non-existent carrot.
Developing a Research Proposal
A research proposal is intended to convince others about a worthwhile research project and
that has the competence and the work-plan to complete it.
Broadly the research proposal must address the following questions:
▪ What to accomplish?
▪ Why to do it and how?
▪ How to do it?
The Elements of a Research Proposal
The elements of a research proposal are highlighted below:
1) Title: It should be concise and descriptive. It must be informative and catchy. An effective
title not only prick’s the readers interest, but also predisposes him/her favorably towards the
proposal. Often titles are stated in terms of a functional relationship because such titles
clearly indicate the independent and dependent variables. The title may need to be revised
after completion of writing of the protocol to reflect more closely the sense of the study.

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2. Abstract: It is a brief summary of approximately 300 words. It should include the main
research question, the rationale for the study, the hypothesis (if any) and the method.
Descriptions of the method may include the design, procedures, the sample, and any
instruments that will be used. It should stand on its own, and not refer the reader to points
in the project description.
3. Introduction: The introduction provides the readers with the background information. Its
purpose is to establish a framework for the research, so that readers can understand how it
relates to another research. It should answer the question of why the research needs to be
done and what will be its relevance. It puts the proposal in context.
4. Objectives: Research objectives are the goals to be achieved by conducting the
research. They may be stated as ‘general’ and ‘specific’.
The general objective of the research is what is to be accomplished by the research project,
for example, to determine whether or not a new vaccine should be incorporated in a public
health program.
The specific objectives relate to the specific research questions the investigator wants to
answer through the proposed study and may be presented as primary and secondary
objectives.
5. Variables: During the planning stage, it is necessary to identify the key variables of the
study and their method of measurement and unit of measurement must be clearly indicated.
Four types of variables are important in research:
a) Independent variables: variables that are manipulated or treated in a study in order
to see what effect differences in them will have on those variables proposed as being
dependent on them. The different synonyms for the term ‘independent variable’
which are used in literature are: cause, input, predisposing factor, risk factor,
determinant, antecedent, characteristic and attribute.
b) Dependent variables: variables in which changes are results of the level or amount of
the independent variable or variables.
6. Questions and/ or hypotheses: A hypothesis can be defined as a tentative prediction or
explanation of the relationship between two or more variables. In other words, the
hypothesis translates the problem statement into a precise, unambiguous prediction of
expected outcomes. Hypotheses are not meant to be haphazard guesses, but should reflect
the depth of knowledge, imagination, and experience of the investigator. In the process of
formulating the hypotheses, all variables relevant to the study must be identified.
7. Methodology: The guiding principle for writing the Methods section is that it should
contain sufficient information for the reader to determine whether the methodology is
sound. Some even argue that a good proposal should contain sufficient details for another
qualified researcher to implement the study.
This section should include.
• Research design
• Sample size
• Ethical issues
• Study instruments
• Collection of data
• Data analysis
8. Expected Outcome: In this section researcher has to specify the expected outcome of the
proposed study.
9. References: The proposal should end with relevant references on the subject.

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10. Appendixes: Include the appropriate appendixes in the proposal. For example: Interview
protocols, sample of informed consent forms, cover letters sent to appropriate stakeholders,
official letters for permission to conduct research.
Questions
3 Marks
1) What is Research?
2) What is Descriptive
3) What is Analytical Research?
4) What is Applied Research?
5) What is Fundamental Research?
6) What is Quantitative Research?
7) Qualitative Research?
8) What is Conceptual Research?
9) What is Empirical Research?
10) What is one-time research?
11) What is longitudinal research?
12) What is field-setting research?
13) What is laboratory research?
14) What is clinical research?
15) What is diagnostic research?
16) What is exploratory Research
17) What is formalized Research?
18) What is Historical research?
19) What is conclusion-oriented research?
20) What is decision-oriented?
21) What is a Research Proposal?
7 Marks
1) What are the Objectives of Research?
2) Substantiate the Characteristics of Research
3) What are the possible motives for doing research in Business
4) Discuss the two different Approaches used in research
5) Distinguish between Research Methods and Research Methodology
6) What are Criteria used for Good Research?
7) What are the qualities of Good Research?
10 Marks
1) Explain different types of Types of Research
2) Identify and explain Significance and importance of Research
3) Draw the neat flow chart of research process and explain different steps involved in the
research process.
4) What are the different Problems Encountered by Researchers in India?
5) Explain Research Application in business decisions
6) Explain ethical issues involved in Business Research
7) What are the Elements of a Research Proposal ?

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