Electric Circuits

Techniques of Circuit Analysis

Circuit Terminology
❑ Node: A point where two or more circuit elements join
m a, b, c, d, e, f and g

❑ Essential node: A node where three or more circuit elements join

m b, c, e, and g

❑ Path: A trace of adjoining basic elements with no element

included more than once
m Examples: R1-R5-R6, v2-R2

❑ Branch: A path that connects

two nodes
m V1, v2, R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7 and I
Circuit Terminology
❑ Essential branch: A path which connects two essential nodes
without passing through an essential node
m V1-R1, R2-R3, v2-R4, R5, R6, R7, I

❑ Loop: A path whose last node is the same as the starting node
m V1-R1-R5-R6-R4-v2

❑ Mesh: A loop that does not enclose any other loops

m V1-R1-R5-R3-R2, v2-R2-R3-R6-R4, R5-R7-R6, and R7-I
Circuit Analysis
❑ A circuit is said to be solved when the voltage across
and the current in every element have been determined
❑ How many unknowns need to be determined?

m How many equations need to be solved?

m Can one reduce the number of needed equations?
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
❑ Ohm’s law
❑ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)
❑ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations
❑ Voltage divider rule
❑ Current divider rule

❑ Node voltage method

❑ Mesh current method

❑ Source transformations
❑ Thevenin equivalent circuits
❑ Norton equivalent circuits
❑ Superposition
Systematic Approach
❑ Apply KVL in the meshes
❑ Apply KCL at the essential nodes: b, c, and e
❑ Get 6 equations and 6 unknowns
❑ Direct method becomes cumbersome
❑ Two new circuit analysis techniques
m Node-Voltage Method
m Mesh-Current Method
Node-Voltage Method
❑ Step 1: Make neat circuit
m No branches cross over
❑ Step 2: Identify the essential nodes (ne)
❑ Step 3: Choose reference node
m Usually node that connects to most branches
❑ Step 4: Need (ne-1) node voltage equations to solve the circuit
❑ Step 5: Define the node
voltages at all other essential
nodes
m Voltage node: Voltage rise from
the reference node to one non-reference
essential node (v1 and v2)
Node-Voltage Method: Example I

❑ Apply KCL at node 1

❑ Substitute the values of currents by voltages using
❑ KVL
❑ Ohm’s Law
❑ Similar procedure at node 2
❑ 2 equations 2 unknowns (ne-1) 🡪 The system is solved
Example 1

❑
Node-Voltage Method: Example II

❑ Modify the example: Substitute the 4 A source with a resistor

and solve
❑ Modify the example: Substitute the 30V voltage source by a
current source and solve
❑ Modify the example: Insert a resistor between points a and b
Example II

❑
Example 3
Example III

❑
Node-Voltage Method: Dependent
Sources

❑ 2 equations
❑ 1 additional constraint due to the dependent source
Example

❑
Example

❑
Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
❑ Voltage source is only element between two essential
nodes (one of them is the reference node):
m Reduce number of required equation
m Node voltage equation on node 1 is useless (cannot
find current in the 100V source); but v1 is known
Node-Voltage Method: Special Cases
❑
 Node-Voltage Method: Supernode
❑ Voltage source is only element between two essential
nodes (non reference nodes):
m Reduce number of required equations
m Form supernodes

m Supernode :node 2 and 3

Solution

❑
Solution

❑
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
❑ Ohm’s law
❑ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)
❑ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

❑ Voltage divider rule

❑ Current divider rule
❑ Node voltage method

❑ Mesh current method

❑ Source transformations

❑ Thevenin equivalent circuits

❑ Norton equivalent circuits

❑ Superposition
Circuit Terminology
❑ Planar circuits:
m Circuits that can be drawn on a
plane with no crossing
branches
❑ Nonplanar circuits:
m Circuits that cannot be drawn
in such a way that all the node
connections are maintained
and no branches overlap
Mesh-Current Method
1. Applies only to planar circuits
2. Write a set of mesh-current equations using KVL
❑ How many equations are needed?
3. Mesh current is the current that exists only in the
perimeter of a mesh
❑ Can be different from corresponding branch currents
4. Need be-(ne-1) equations
m Number of meshes
in the circuit
Mesh-Current Method: Example I
❑ Apply KCL at the
node
❑ KVL in the two
meshes
❑ Alternative quick
simple method
❑ Mesh Current
Mesh-Current Method: Example II
Mesh-Current Method: Dependent
Source

❑ Additional
constraint equation
Mesh-Current Method: Super Mesh
❑ Current source is only element in an essential branch
m Form supermesh (merge the 2 meshes into 1 big mesh)
• Temporarily remove the current source
• Keep the original mesh currents
m Save one mesh current equation
m Return back the current source (relate currents)
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
❑ Both reduce number of required equations

❑ Both are systematic

❑ Which method is better?

m Which requires less equations?
m Does circuit contain supernodes?
m Does circuit contain supermeshes?
m Does it help to solve some portion of the circuit?
m Etc.
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
❑ Find power dissipated in the 300Ω resistor
m Need to find the voltage or the current

❑ Mesh_Current Method: 5 mesh equations & 1 constraint equation

❑ Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations 🡪reduce to 2 equations since a
voltage source is between 2 nodes, & 1 constraint equation
Node-Voltage vs. Mesh-Current: The
Winner is?
❑ Find v0

❑ Node-Voltage Method: 3 equations and 2 constraint equations

❑ Mesh_Current Method: 3 mesh equations🡪 reduce to 1 equation
(super mesh) & 2 constraint equation
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
❑ Ohm’s law
❑ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)
❑ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

❑ Voltage divider rule

❑ Current divider rule
❑ Node voltage method

❑ Mesh current method

❑ Source transformations

❑ Thevenin equivalent circuits

❑ Norton equivalent circuits

❑ Superposition
Source Transformations
❑ From voltage source in
series with a resistor to a
current source in parallel
with same resistor (or vice
versa)
❑ Connect RL🡪 If same current
flowing from a to b 🡪 same
voltage drop
m Equivalent circuits
Source Transformations: Example I
❑ Find the power associated with the 6 V source
Source Transformations:
Special case
❑ From voltage source in series with
a resistor to a current source in
parallel with same resistor (or vice
versa)
❑ Nothing is changed at terminals
a and b
Source Transformations: Example II
❑ Find v0
Circuit Analysis: Techniques
❑ Ohm’s law
❑ Kirchhoff’s laws (KVL and KCL)
❑ Resistor series-parallel and ∆-to-Y transformations

❑ Voltage divider rule

❑ Current divider rule
❑ Node voltage method

❑ Mesh current method

❑ Source transformations

❑ Thevenin equivalent circuits

❑ Norton equivalent circuits

❑ Superposition
Thevenin and Norton Equivalents
❑ Motivation: Concentrate on circuit
supplying outlet only at the outlet
terminals
m How?
m Apply Thevenin and Norton equivalents to
simplify analysis!
Thevenin Norton
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
❑ Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
❑ Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
❑ Three cases:
m Case 1: Independent voltage and current
sources
m Case 2: Independent and Dependent voltage and
current sources
m Case 3: Only dependent voltage and current
sources
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 1
❑ Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
m Increase load resistance to have an open circuit
m Calculate open circuit voltage across ab
m Use any circuit analysis technique
m Vth=32 V
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 1
❑ Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
m Replace voltage source by a short circuit
m Replace current source by an open circuit
m Find Req as looking from the two terminals a and b

m Rth=8Ω
Determine VTh

❑
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
❑ Mission accomplished ☺
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 2
❑ Determine Thevenin voltage Vth
m Same as Case 1
m Find V open circuit from terminals a and b

m Vth=-5 V
Determine Vth (Vab)

❑
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Case 2
❑ Determine Thevenin resistance Rth
m Short circuit the terminals a and b
m Find isc
m Rth =Vth/isc
 Computing Isc

❑
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit
❑ Mission accomplished ☺
Thevenin Equivalent Circuit:
Summary
❑ Thevenin voltage Vth : open circuit voltage
❑ Thevenin resistance Rth (case dependent)
❑ Case 1: Independent voltage and current sources
m Can also use method of case 2 (isc)
m Can also use method of case 3 BUT
• first deactivate independent sources
❑ Case 2: Independent and Dependent voltage and
current sources
m Can also use method of case 3 BUT
• first deactivate independent sources and keep
dependent sources
Norton Equivalent Circuit

❑ Similar to Thevenin circuit except that it consists of

an independent current source in parallel with a
Norton equivalent resistor
❑ Find Norton Equivalent
m Sometimes easier to find it directly from initial
circuit
m Sometimes easier to get Thevenin equivalent and
do source transformation to get the Norton
equivalent
❑ Hint: Analyze the circuit well before finding
Thevenin equivalent to get Norton equivalent
Norton Equivalent Circuit
Maximum Power Transfer
❑ Transfer from a source to a load
m Efficiency of the transfer (e.g. power utility systems)
m Amount of transferred power (e.g. communications or
instrumentation systems)
❑ Maximum power transfer
m Matched load: RL=Rth
Maximum Power Transfer:
Example
❑ Find RL such that there is maximum power
transfer and calculate the power
m Matched load: RL=Rth
m Need to find Thevenin Equivalent
Superposition
❑ Principle of superposition: when linear system is excited
with more than one independent source of energy, the
total response is the sum of the individual responses
m Useful in design and analysis of circuits
m Voltage source replaced by short circuit and current source
replaced by open circuit
m Sometime makes the analysis more complicated; when to use it?
Superposition: Example