Slemani Polytechnic University ‫زانکۆی پۆلیتەکنیکی سلێمانی‬

Technical College of Engineering ‫کۆلێجی تەکنیکی ئەندازیاری‬

Communication Department ‫بەشی ئەندازیاری گەیاندن‬

Electronic Lab
Laboratory Manual
First Stage
First Course

2024- 2025
 Experiment No.1
Diode valve effect
Aim:

1. Shows the fundamental characteristic of the diode, its valve capability.

2. Demonstrates the behavior of a forward and reverse biased diode.

Apparatus:

1. The SO4203-7A "Diodes" card:

3. DC source (10 V).
5. Two voltmeters.
6. Connecting wires.

Theory:
Donor impurities are introduced into one-side and acceptor impurities into the other side of a
single crystal of an intrinsic semiconductor to form a p-n diode with a junction calleddepletion
region. This region gives rise to a potential barrier Vγ called Cut- in Voltage. This isthe voltage
across the diode at which it starts conducting. The P-N junction can conduct beyond this
Potential. The P-N junction supports uni-directional current flow. If +ve terminal of the input
supply is connected to anode (P-side) and –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to
cathode (N- side), then diode is said to be forward biased. In this condition the height of the
potential barrier at the junction is lowered by an amount equal to given forward biasing voltage.
Both the holes from p-side and electrons from n-side cross the junction simultaneously and
constitute a forward current. If –ve terminal of the input supply is connected to anode (p-side)
and +ve terminal of the input supply is connected to cathode (n- side) then the diode is said to
be reverse biased. In this condition an amount equal to reverse biasing voltage increases the
height of the potential barrier at the junction. Both the holes on p-side and electrons on n-side
tend to move away from the junction thereby increasing the depleted region. However the
process cannot continue indefinitely, thus a small current called reverse saturation current
continues to flow in the diode. This small current is due to thermally generated carriers.

Procedure

1. Set up the experiment circuit shown in Figure (1) using the SO4203-7A "Diodes" card.
 Figure (1)
2. Open the following virtual instruments from the Instruments menu
- DC source.
- Voltmeter A.
- Voltmeter B.
and adjust them as shown in the table (1).

2. Open the following virtual instruments from the Instruments menu

- DC source.
- Voltmeter A.
- Voltmeter B.
and adjust them as shown in the table (1).

DC source Power ON,

Reduce the amplitude until voltmeter B shows
a value of -10 V (Minus LED is lit)

3. Measure the output voltage across resistor R3 and enter it into the corresponding box.
V Output voltage

4. Set the DC source to a negative voltage. There is no need to change the circuit or the
setting of the voltmeter.
5. Measure the output voltage across resistor R3 and enter it into the corresponding box.
V Output voltage

Questions:

1. What is your interpretation of the two voltages measured?

2. Comment on diode operation under zero biasing condition.
3. How does PN-junction diode act as a switch?
4. What is peak inverse voltage?
5. What is meant by forward bias and reverse bias?
6. What are the applications of PN junction diode?
 Experiment No.2
V-I characteristic of a diode
Aim:

1. To plot Volt-Ampere Characteristics of Silicon P-N Junction Diode.

2. To find cut-in Voltage for Silicon P-N Junction diode.

Apparatus:
1. The SO4203-7A "Diodes" card:
2. DC source (10 V).
3. One voltmeter.
4. One ammeter.
5. Connecting wires.

Theory:

The diode is a device formed from a junction of n-type and p-type semiconductor material.
The lead connected to the p-type material is called the anode and the lead connected
to the n-type material is the cathode. In general, the cathode of a diode is marked by a solid
line on the diode. When it is forward biased, it will pass current. When it is reversed biased,
current flow is blocked. The I-V characteristics of most semiconductor diodes are modeled
reasonably well by

Where:
I : the forward current.
V : the forward voltage.
Is : the saturation current.
VT = KT/ q is the thermal voltage = 0.026 V at rums temperature

In the forward conduction region the exponential term dominates and we can use the simpler
expression

Conversely in the reverse saturation region the exponential term quickly becomes
insignificant and

The full current voltage characteristic of a semiconductor diode is shown in Figure (1).

Figure 1: V-I graph for a diode

Above the cut-in voltage (the threshold voltage) the current increases rapidly.

Under reverse bias only a tiny reverse saturation current flows unless the voltage exceed a
critical “breakdown” value VZ , at which point the reverse current increases rapidly.

Procedure:

1. Set up the following experiment as in figure (2) using the SO4203-7A "Diodes"
card:

Figure (2)
 2. Open the DC Voltage Source virtual instrument by selecting Instruments |
Voltage Sources | DC Voltage Source from the menu or by clicking on the diagram
below, and select the settings as indicated in the following table. Then switch the
instrument on using the POWER switch.

3. Open the Voltmeter A virtual instrument to display the diode voltage UF by selecting
Instruments | Measuring Instruments | Voltmeter A from the menu or by clicking on
the diagram below, and select the settings as indicated in the following table.

4. Connect the Ammeter between X3 and X4.

5. Set each of the values stipulated in the table in succession on the DC Voltage Source
virtual instrument. Switch the virtual instrument to the 10 V range for values greater than
1V.
6. Use the measuring instruments to measure the diode voltage UF and the diode
current IF and enter these values in the table (1).
 Table (1)

7. From what voltage does the diode begin to conduct? V

This voltage is called the threshold voltage and depends on the semiconductor material.
8. Set each of the negative values stipulated in the table in succession in order to perform
measurements in the reverse direction.
9. Use the measuring instruments to measure the diode voltage UR and the diode current
IR and enter these values in the table (2).
Table (2)

10. Does a current flow during the second series of measurements?

No
Yes
11. Plot the graph between V and I for forward and revers bias.
Questions:

1. Define semiconductor diode.

2. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes.
3. Define depletion region of a diode.
4. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
5. What is the diode equation?
6. What is the break down voltage?
 Experiment No.3
Load line analysis of a diode
Aim:
To study the load line and operation point of a diode.

Apparatus:
6. The SO4203-7A "Diodes" card:
7. DC source (10 V).
8. One voltmeter.
9. One ammeter.
10. Connecting wires.

Theory:

The volt-ampere characteristics of diodes are nonlinear. Because of this nonlinearity,

many of the techniques you have learned in basic circuit theory courses for dealing
with linear circuits do not apply to circuits involving diodes. In fact, much of your
study of electronics will be concerned with techniques for analyzing circuits
containing nonlinear elements.

Graphical methods provide one approach to analyzing these kinds of circuits. For
example, consider the circuit shown in Figure 1. Applying Kirchhoff's voltage law,
we can write

........... (1)
We assume that the values of Vss and R are known and that we wish to find i D and
vD. Thus, Equation (1) has two unknowns, and another relationship between i D and
vD is needed to find a solution. The needed relationship is available in graphical form
in Figure 2, which shows the volt-ampere characteristic of the diode.

We can obtain the solution by plotting Equation (1) on the same set of axes used for
the diode characteristic. It plots as a straight line that can be drawn if two points
satisfying the equation are located. A simple method for locating these points is to
assume that iD = 0. Then Equation (1) yields vD = Vss. This pair of values is shown as
point A in Figure 2. A second point results if we assume that vD = 0, in which case
the equation yields iD = Vss/R. This pair of values is shown as point B in Figure 2.
Then, connecting points A and B results in the plot, which is called the load line.
The operating point is the intersection of the load line and the diode characteristic.

Figure 1. Circuit for load-line analysis.

Figure 2. Load-line analysis of the circuit.

Procedure:

1. Set up the following experiment as in figure (2) using the SO4203-7A "Diodes"
card:

Figure (2)
 2. Open the DC Voltage Source virtual instrument by selecting Instruments |
Voltage Sources | DC Voltage Source from the menu or by clicking on the diagram
below, and select the settings as indicated in the following table. Then switch the
instrument on using the POWER switch.

3. Open the Voltmeter A virtual instrument to display the diode voltage UF by selecting
Instruments | Measuring Instruments | Voltmeter A from the menu or by clicking on
the diagram below, and select the settings as indicated in the following table.

4. Connect the Ammeter between X3 and X4.

5. Set each of the values stipulated in the table in succession on the DC Voltage Source
virtual instrument. Switch the virtual instrument to the 10 V range for values greater than
1V.
6. Use the measuring instruments to measure the diode voltage UF and the diode
current IF and enter these values in the table (1).
 Table (1)

7. the graph between V and I for forward and revers bias.

Questions:
1. Plot V-I characteristic of the diode and draw load line.
2. Find Q-point.
3. Discuss your results.
4. What’s a Q-point of a diode?
4. What’s load line Analysis and how it is applies to diode networks?
5. What’s the significance and importance of the load line analysis?
 Experiment No.4
Half-Wave Rectifier
Aim:
1. To convert AC into DC.
2. To plot input and output waveform of the Half Wave Rectifier.
3. To find the dc voltage output VDC .

Apparatus:

1. The SO4203-7A "Diodes" card:

3. Alternating power supply voltage.
4. An oscilloscope.
5. Connecting wires.
Theory:
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional
waveform with non-zero average component is called a rectifier. A practical half wave
rectifier with a resistive load is shown in the figure (1).

Figure (1): Circuit diagram of half-have rectifier.

During the positive half cycle of the input the diode conducts and all the input voltage is
dropped across RL.
But during the negative half cycle the diode is reverse biased and is in off state and so
the output voltage is zero as shown in figure (2-b).

Figure (2): Wave form of half wave rectifier (a) input, (b) output.
Procedure:
1. Set up the following experiment as in figure (3) using the SO4203-7A "Diodes" card.

Figure (3) Setup of the experiment

2. Open the Function Generator virtual instrument by selecting Instruments | Voltage
Sources | Function Generator from the menu or by clicking on the diagram below, and
select the settings as indicated in the following table. Then switch the instrument on using
the POWER switch.
 3. Open the Oscilloscope virtual instrument by selecting Instruments | Measuring
Instruments | Oscilloscope from the menu or by clicking on the diagram below, and
select the settings as indicated in the following table.

4. Using the oscilloscope, measure the input voltage UI and the output voltage Uo
across the resistor R3. Drag the oscilloscope trace that you obtain to the following
placeholder graphic. Enter the settings of your oscilloscope in the fields provided too
as shown in figure (4).
5. Calculate the average value of output voltage VDC.

Figure (4) Input and output voltages

Questions:

7. What is a rectifier?
8. What’s the working principle of half-wave rectifier?
9. What are disadvantages of half wave rectifier?
10. What are the applications of rectifiers?
11. Define the term efficiency of rectifier.
12. Why does a rectifier need a transformer?
13. Draw the circuit diagram of half wave rectifier with input in figure (5-a) to give
output in figure (5-b).

Figure (5)
 Experiment No. 5 & 6
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier and the capacitor input filter
Aim:
1. To Study Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.
2. Demonstrate the operation of a capacitor input filter when connected to the output
of full-wave bridge rectifier.
3. To plot input and output waveform of the Full Wave Rectifier.
4. To find VDC and PIV for Full Wave Bridge Rectifier.
5. To find ripple factor.

Apparatus:

1. Four Silicon diode 1N4007.

2. One Resistance 100k ohm.
3. Two capacitors 1µF and 0,01 µF .
4. Alternating power supply voltage.
5. An oscilloscope.
6. S.O. Board.
7. Connecting wires.

Theory:
A device is capable of converting a sinusoidal input waveform into a unidirectional waveform
with non-zero average component is called a rectifier.
The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an AC voltage to DC voltage using both half
cycles of the input AC voltage. The Bridge rectifier has four diodes connected to form a Bridge.
The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge as shown in figure
(1).

Figure (1): Circuit diagram of full wave bridge rectifier.

For the positive half cycle of the input AC voltage, diode D1 and D2 conducts whereas
diodes D3 and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with
the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows through RL.
For the negative half cycle of the input AC voltage, diode D3 and D4 conducts
whereas diodes D1 and D2 remain in the OFF state. The conducting
diodes will be in series with the load resistance RL and hence the load current flows
through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle. Thus a bidirectional wave is
converted into a unidirectional wave as shown in figure (2).

Figure 2: Input and output voltage waveforms for full-wave bridge rectifier.

If a simple capacitor filter is connected to the rectifier output as in Figure 3, the output
voltage is smoothed and approaches its ideal DC value as shown in figure 4. The capacitor
charges up while the diodes are conducting, and then discharges when the diodes are not
conducting to maintain current flow through the load as shown in figure 5.

Figure (3): Circuit diagram of full wave bridge rectifier with filter.
 Figure 4: Input and output voltage waveforms for full-wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter

Figure 5: Resultant output waveform.

The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and discharging is called the ripple
voltage.
Ripple factor is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and is defined as

Where
Vr(pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage.
VDC is the dc (average) value of the filter’s output voltage, as illustrated in Figure (6).
The ripple factor can be lowered by increasing the value of the filter capacitor or increasing
the load resistance.
 Figure 6: Vr(pp) and VDC determine the ripple factor.

Procedure:

1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure (1).

2. Close all virtual instruments that you may have opened. Then open the
following virtual instruments from the Instruments menu:
- Function generator as shown in figure (7).
- Oscilloscope as shown in figure (8).

Adjust the function generator and Oscilloscope as shown in the table (1).

Figure (7): Function generator.

Table (1)
 Figure (8): Oscilloscope

3. Use the oscilloscope to measure the input voltage (Vp(in) ) as well as the output voltage
( Vp(out) ) across resistor RL recording your result .
4. Plot input and output waveforms.
5. Calculate the average value of output voltage VDC=0.636 Vp(out)
6. Calculate the PIV of the diode.
7. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in figure (3). Add the smaller capacitor C=0.01 µf
9. Plot input and output waveform.
10 Replace the smaller capacitor 0,01 µf with the larger capacitor C=1 µf. .
10. Plot input and output waveform.
12 Find ripple factor when using capacitor C=1 µf.

Questions:

1. What is the advantage of full wave rectifier?

2. What are the differences between full wave rectifier and half wave rectifier?
3. While selecting a diode, the most important consideration is its PIV, why?
4. What’s the ripple factor? How can we decrease the ripple factor?
5. Explain the two-diodes full-wave rectifier circuit.
6. What are the applications of full wave rectifier?
7. What is meant by filter?