UNIT 7

LESSON 1

Rational Expressions: a ratio (fraction) of two polynomials

Simplifying Rational Expressions: (x^2 + 11x + 18) / (x^2 + x - 2)

1)​ Factor the numerator and denominator: (x + 2)(x + 9) / (x + 2)(x - 1)
2)​ Cancel out like terms: (x + 2)(x + 9) / (x + 2)(x - 1)
FINAL ANSWER: (x + 9) / (x - 1)

Multiplying Rational Expressions: ((x^2 - 9)/(x^2 + 6x + 9)) * ((x^2 + x - 2)/(x^2 - 1))

1)​ Factor the numerator and denominator:
((x - 3)(x + 3)/(x + 3)(x + 3)) * ((x + 2)(x - 1)/(x + 1)(x - 1))
2)​ Cancel like terms: ((x - 3)(x + 3)/(x + 3)(x + 3)) * ((x + 2)(x - 1)/(x + 1)(x - 1))
FINAL ANSWER: (x - 3) / (x + 3) * (x + 2) / (x + 1)

Dividing Rational Expressions: ((x^2 - 4x -21)/(x^2 -3x - 10)) / ((x^2 + 4x + 3)/(x^2 - 4x - 5))
1)​ Swap the numerator and denominator of the second fraction:
((x^2 - 4x -21)/(x^2 -3x - 10)) / ((x^2 - 4x - 5 )/(x^2 + 4x + 3))
2)​ Factor the numerator and denominator:
((x + 3)(x - 7)/(x + 2)(x - 5)) / ((x + 1)(x - 5)/(x + 3)(x + 1))
3)​ Cancel like terms from all rational expressions:
((x + 3)(x - 7)/(x + 2)(x - 5)) / ((x + 1)(x - 5)/(x + 3)(x + 1))
​ FINAL ANSWER: (x - 7) / (x + 2)

Adding/Subtracting Rational Expressions: ⅕ + 2/7 = 17/35

1)​ Make the denominators the same:
1*7/5*7 + 2*5/7*5 = 17/35
2)​ Add the numerators: 7/35 + 10/35 = 17/35

Finding the LCD(Least Common Denominator):

EX 1 - 7/6x + 5/8x
1)​ Factor out the denominators: 6x = 2 * 3 * x 8x = 2 * 2 * 2 * x = 2^3 x
2)​ Pick the numbers with the highest degree to multiply: (2^3)(3)(x) = 24x
3)​ Factor out the denominator (do not include variable): 6 = 2(3) 8 = 4(2)
4)​ Pick out the biggest numbers of each denominator to multiply with the other fraction’s
numerator: 7*4 = 28 and 5*3 = 15
FINAL ANSWER: 28/24x + 15/24x = 43/24x

EX 2 - 1/7x + ⅖
1)​ Multiply the denominators with each other: 1/7x(5) + 2/5(7x)
2)​ Cross multiply numerators: 1*5 and 2*7x
3)​ 5/7x(5) + 14x/7x(5) = (5 + 14x) /7x(5)
Ex 3 - ⅓ + 5/9
1)​ Find common factor between denominators: 3 = 1(3) and 9 = 3(3)
2)​ Multiply one of the denominator so it could be equal to the other: 3(⅓) + 5/9 = 3/9 + 5/9
FINAL ANSWER: 8/9

LESSON 2

Complex fraction: fraction where numerator or denominator has 1+ fractions

Simplifying Complex fractions:

EX 1 - ((y^2 - 5y +4)/(y^2 - 1)) / ((y^2 - 9)/(y^2 + 5y + 4))
1)​ Change to multiplication problem and invert the second fraction:
((y^2 - 5y +4)/(y^2 - 1)) * ((y^2 + 5y + 4)/(y^2 - 9))
2)​ Factor the numerator and denominator:
((y - 4)(y - 1)/(y + 1)(y - 1)) * ((y + 4)(y + 1)/(y + 3)(y - 3))
3)​ Cancel out like terms from both expressions:
((y - 4)(y - 1)/(y + 1)(y - 1)) * ((y + 4)(y + 1)/(y + 3)(y - 3))
FINAL ANSWER: ((y - 4)(y + 4)) / ((y - 3)(y + 3))

EX 2 - (x/3 - 4)/(5 + 1/x)

1)​ Solve for the numerator and denominator:
(x - 12/3) / (5x + 1/x)
2)​ Rewrite as multiplication problem and invert the second fraction:
(x - 12/3) * (x/5x + 1)
3)​ Multiply numerators together and denominators together (simplify):
x(x - 12) / 3(5x + 1) = (x^2 - 12x) / (15x + 3)

Solving Rational Equations:

EX 1 - 12/x = 24/x + 5
1)​ Cross multiply: 12 * (x + 5) and 24 * x
2)​ Equate the products: 12x + 60 = 24x
3)​ Basic algebra: 24x - 12x so 12x = 60 so 60/12 is equal to x = 5

EX 2 - 5x/x - 2 = 7 + 10/x - 2
1)​ Find the least common denominator to equate all denominators:
5x / x - 2 = (7*x - 2/1* x - 2) + 10/x - 2
2)​ Equate the numerators: 5x = 7x - 14 + 10
3)​ Basic algebra: -2x = -4 so then -4/-2 so then x = 2

Finding Domain:
If x = a, then a is not included in the domain. X is equal to every real number besides a
{x E R | x =/= a}
Extraneous Solutions: root of transformed equation but is not the root and is excluded from the
domain of the original equation
To check for extraneous solutions, plug in the value into the equation. If it is not equal to the
original equation, it is an extraneous solution.

LESSON 3

Rational graphs: have both a vertical and horizontal asymptote

Domain: {x = all real numbers|x =/= Vex} or {Vex < x < infinity} or {-infinity < x < Vex}
Range: {y = all real number|y =/= Hoy} or {Hoy < y < infinity} or {-infinity < y < Hoy}

Transformation: y = (# / (x + h)) + k
-​ When function is positive, passes through quadrants 1 and 3
-​ When function is negative, passes through quadrants 2 and 4

(x + h) controls vertical asymptote. Denominator cannot be equal to zero. Value of x that makes
denominator zero is called a domain restriction

Horizontal asymptote is the RATIO of the LEADING COEFFICIENTS of the numerator and
denominator (this is only when DEGREE of numerator and denominator is equal)
-​ If degree of numerator is less than denominator, Hoy = 0
-​ If degree of numerator is greater than denominator, Hoy = none

LESSON 4

Direction Variation: y = kx (k = y/x)

-​ Passes through (0,0)
-​ K is slope or constant of variation
-​ Y varies directly to x
-​ Variables change at the same rate

Inverse variation: y = k/x (k = xy)

-​ Y varies inversely as x
-​ As one variable increases, the other decreases
-​ Graph is rational function

Joint variation: y = kxz

-​ Y varies jointly as x and z
-​ More than one variable in a DIRECT VARIATION problem

Combination variation: combine the 3 types of variation:

EX. y varies inversely as x and directly as z →y = (kz)/x
UNIT 8
LESSON 1

Exponential functions: exponent is a variable

​ ​ ​ Graph has only a horizontal asymptote
​ ​ ​ Y = ab^x
-​ A is constant (a cannot be equal to zero)
-​ B is base (b > 0 and b cannot be equal to one)
-​ X is a real number

Transformation: + ab^(x + h) + k
-​ Negative exponent or 0 < b < 1 means exponential decay (when y is decreasing on right)
-​ Positive exponent or b > 1 means exponential growth (when y is increasing on right)
-​ Negative base reflects across x-axis

LESSON 2

f(t) = (a)(b)^t/k →a is initial amount

​ ​ →b is rate of growth
​ ​ →t is actual time lapsed
​ ​ →k is time is takes to grow at given rate
EX 1) You invest $100 and the amount doubles every 5 years, how much money will you have
in 20 years? →f(t) = (100)(2)^20/5

What if there is percent? →f(t) = (a)(1 + r)^t/k →a is initial amount

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ →r is rate of growth or decay written as a decimal
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ →t is actual time lapsed
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ →k is time is takes to grow at given rate
EX 1) the original value of a painting is $9,000 and the value increases by 7% each year. Find
the painting’s value in 15 years →f(t) = (9,000)(1 + 0.07)^15/1

Compound Interest? →f(t) = principle(1 + r/n)^nt →principle is initial or given amount

​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ →r is rate of growth or decay seen as decimal
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ →n is number of times it is compounded a year
​ ​ ​ ​ ​ ​ →t is actual time lapsed
EX 1) $1200 is invested at a rate of 2% compounded quarterly. Find the value after 3 years
​ f(t) = (1200)(1 + 0.02/4)^4(3)

General rule
-​ If exponent is zero, value is one →6^0 = 1
-​ If fraction to power of negative exponent, value is whole →1/6^-1 = 6
-​ If number to power of negative exponent, 1/value →7^-2 = 1/49
-​ If fraction to power of positive exponent, only bottom changes →1/5^3 = 1/125
Solving exponential equations:
EX 1. 5^2x = ⅕
1)​ Make bases the same →5^2x = 5^-1
2)​ Equate the powers →2x = -1
3)​ Basic algebra →x = -1/2

EX 2. 36^2x = ⅙
1)​ Make bases the same →(6^2)^2x = 6^-1
2)​ Equate powers →(2)2x = -1
3)​ Basic algebra → x = -1/4

EX 3. 8^2x - 1 = 1/32
1)​ Makes bases the same →(2^3)^2x - 1 = (2^5)^-1
2)​ Equate powers → (3)(2x) = (5)(-1)
3)​ Basic algebra → x = -1/3

EX 4. sqrt(7^2x) = 49
1)​ Make bases the same →(7^2x)^½ = 7^2
2)​ Equate powers →(2x)½ = 2
3)​ Basic algebra →x = 2

EX 5. sqrt(9^3x) = 1/81
1)​ Make bases the same →(9^3x)^½ = 9^-2
2)​ Equate powers → (3x)½ = -2
3)​ Basic algebra →x = -4/3

If it is not possible to make bases the same, use calculator

UNIT 9
LESSON 1,2, and 3

Logarithm: logb(y) = x (where b is the base, y is the argument and x is the exponent)
​ It is the INVERSE of exponential functions
​ It is a EXPONENT
​ Graph has only Vertical asymptote

Entering Log in calculator: (when entering the next value, click to the right)
When log has euler number as base →ln (next to 4)
When log has base of 10 → log (next to 7)
When log has base not equal to 10 →math-alpha-math

Logarithm properties:
-​ The base cannot be negative or 0
 -​ The base cannot be equal to 1
-​ The argument cannot be negative

How to find the exponent through logarithmic equations: log6(36) = x

1)​ Rewrite in exponential form: 6^x = 36
2)​ Make bases the same: 6^x = 6^2
3)​ Equate the exponents: x = 2

How to find base through logarithmic equations: logx(1/25) = -2

1)​ Rewrite in exponential form: x^-2 = 1/25
2)​ Make the exponents the same: x^-2 = 5^-2
3)​ Equate the bases: x = 5

Inverse functions of Logs: y = log5(x - 7)

1)​ Switch x and y positions: x = log5(y - 7)
2)​ Rewrite as exponential function: 5^x = y - 7
Extra step - isolate y: 5^x + 7 = y

Change base formula: log(argument) divided by log(base) = log base(argument)

EX. log2(7) = log(7) / log(2)

Logarithm of a power: When argument is to power of exponent, when rewriting, exponent of

argument is before log
​ EX. log(3^2) = 2 log(3)

Logarithm of a product: When adding 2 logs, multiply the arguments together IF THE BASES
ARE THE SAME
​ EX. log2(3) + log2(5) = log2(3 * 5)

Logarithm of a quotient: When subtracting 2 logs, divide the arguments by each other IF THE
BASES ARE THE SAME
​ EX. log2(6) - log2(2) = log2(6/2)

Condensing logs: Goal is to reach a single term for argument:

​ EX. log5(48) - 4log5(2) = log5(48/16) = log5(3)

Solving Log Equations:

Ex 1 - log2(x + 7) + log2(x) = 3
1)​ Condense the log: log2(x + 7 * x) = log2(x^2 + 7x) = 3
2)​ Rewrite as exponential function: x^2 + 7x = 2^3 (8)
3)​ Set equation equal to zero: x^2 + 7x - 8 = 0
4)​ Factor: (x + 8)(x - 1)
5)​ Check for extraneous solutions: x = -8 is extraneous, x = 1 is a real solution
EX 2 - log(x) = 4 log(2) - log(2)
1)​ log(x) = log(16) - log(2) = log(16/2) = log(8)
2)​ log(x) = log(8)
3)​ x = 8

Ex 3 - log3(x^2 -22) = 3
1)​ 3^3 = 27 = x^2 - 22
2)​ 0 = x^2 - 22 - 27
3)​ 0 = x^2 - 49
4)​ 49 = x^2
5)​ 7 = x

THINGS TO REMEMBER:
-​ When a logarithm has no visible base, the base is actually 10
-​ Ln = loge(x) where e is the euler number (the base is an euler number)
-​ When a logarithmic equation has the same base and arguments, exponent is equal to 1
-​ When the exponent of an argument is equal to the base, the log is equal to the argument
-​ When an argument is equal to the base, the log is equal to the exponent of the argument

UNIT 10
LESSON 1 - 5

Probability density functions contains the mean (average), standard deviation, and data
values

ABOUT THE GRAPH:

-​ Maximum is at the center
-​ Symmetric at the mean
-​ The mean, mode and median are equal

How to find standard deviation on calculator:

1)​ stat-EDIT
2)​ Enter values
3)​ state-CALC-1 (var-stats)
4)​ 5th on the list

How to find mean: 3, 11, 4, 6, 8, 9, 6

1)​ Add all data values together: 3 + 11 + 4 + 6 + 8 + 9 + 6 = 47
2)​ Divide sum by # of values there: 47/7 = 6.7

How to find z-score (# of units away from mean): (given value - mean)/standard deviation

Empirical Rule: 68-95-99.7

 ●​ 68% of data fall within one standard deviation of the mean
●​ 95% of data fall within 2 standard deviations of the mean
●​ 99.7% of data fall within 3 standard deviations of the mean

Normaldist notation: (mean, standard deviation)

To find Area under curve given x1 and x2:

1)​ Stat-vars →2 (normal cdf)
2)​ Enter the lower and upper value as well as the mean and standard deviation (unless not
given)
3)​ Enter
4)​ Put probability as decimal unless asked for percentage or percent answers are ok

To find area under curve from negative infinity to x1 (in word problems, this when you’re trying to
find percentage under x1):
1)​ Stat-vars →2 (normal cdf)
2)​ Enter the lower value as -10^99 and upper value as x1. Enter mean and standard
deviation (unless not given)
3)​ Enter and Put probability as decimal unless asked for percentage or percent answers
are ok

To find area under curve from negative infinity to x1 (in word problems, this when you’re trying to
find percentage above x1):
1)​ Stat-vars →2 (normal cdf)
2)​ Enter the lower value as x1 and upper value as 10^99. Enter mean and standard
deviation (unless not given)
3)​ Enter and Put probability as decimal unless asked for percentage or percent answers
are ok

To find area under curve up to mean value (almost always 50%)

1)​ Stat-vars →2 (normal cdf)
1) if positive infinity to mean value, Enter the lower value as mean value and upper value
as positive infinity.
3) if negative infinity to mean value, enter the lower value as negative infinity and upper
value as mean value
2)​ Enter mean and standard deviation
3)​ Enter and Put probability as decimal unless asked for percentage or percent answers
are ok

THINGS TO REMEMBER:
-​ Use z-score when comparing
-​ If asked for exact number of area under curve, multiply given number with decimal

LESSON 6
How to enter permutation, combination and fundamental thinking on TI calculator:

UNIT 11
LESSON 1

Arithmetic sequence: sequence where there is a common difference (d) between terms
A linear function

How to find the nth term of an arithmetic sequence: An = a1 + (n - 1) * d

(where a1 is the first term, An is the nth term, n is the nth term, and d is the common difference)
EX 1. A24 = 2 + (24 - 1)3
1)​ Solve (n - 1) → A24 = 2 + (23)3
2)​ Basic algebra: A24 = 2 + 69 → A24 = 71

How to find EXPLICIT FORMULA of an arithmetic sequence (there is no given nth term)
Ex 1. An = 2 + (n - 1)3
An = 2 + (3n - 3)
An = 3n - 1
How to write RECURSIVE FORMULA of an arithmetic sequence:
EX 1. ​ 2 , 5 , 8 , 11
1)​ State the first term: a1 = 2
2)​ Add common difference to A(n - 1): an = a(n - 1) + 3
a(n - 1) is written like log-base formula

How to write terms GIVEN RECURSIVE FORMULA:

EX 1. A1 = -2 an = 2a(n - 1) - 1
1)​ Subtract nth term by one: A2 (2 - 1) = 1 → A1 = -2
2)​ Plug in the term into the formula: 2(-2) - 1 = -5 →A2 = -5

How to find missing terms/ARITHMETIC MEANS between terms:

EX 1. 2, __, __, 20
1)​ Find common difference
1)​ Write out formula: 2 + 3d = 20
2)​ Basic algebra: 3d = 18 →d = 6
2) add common difference to sequence: 2, 8, 14, 20

Geometric sequence: where there is a common ratio (r) between terms

​ ​ ​ An exponential function

How to find the nth term of a geometric sequence: An = a1(r^(n - 1))

(where a1 is the first term, An is the nth term, n is the nth term, and r is the common ratio)
EX 1. A11 = 2(3^(11 - 1))
 1)​ Solve (n - 1): 11 - 1 = 10
2)​ Basic algebra: A11 = 2(3^10) →A11 = 2(59,049) →A11 = 118,098

How to find EXPLICIT FORMULA of geometric sequence:

EX 1. -4, 12, -36, 108
1)​ Find common ratio: 12/-4 = -3, -36/12 = -3, 108/-36 = -3
2)​ Plug into formula: An = -4(-3^(n - 1))

How to write RECURSIVE FORMULA given geometric sequence:

EX 1. -4, 12, -36, 108
1)​ State the first term: a1 = -4
2)​ Multiply a(n - 1) by common ratio: an = a(n - 1)(-3)

How to find missing terms/GEOMETRIC MEANS between terms:

EX 1. 1, __, __, __, 256
1)​ Find common ratio
1) set up formula: 1(r^4) = 256
2) isolate common ratio: r = 256^¼ →r = +4
2) plug into sequence:
​ 1) with r = +4: 1, 4, 16, 64, 256
​ 2) with r = -4: 1, -4, 16, -64, 256

LESSON 2

Series: the sum of all the terms of an arithmetic/geometric sequence added together
Notation - greek letter sigma with upper and lower limit on top and bottom
​ ​ (set lower limit equal to something)
​ ​ (on TI calculator: MATH 0)

Formula of arithmetic series: Sn = (n(a1 + an)) / 2

(where n is the number of terms, a1 is the first term, an is the last term, s is the sum)

Another formula of arithmetic series: Sn = n/2(2a1 + (n - 1)d)

(where n is the number of terms, a1 is the first term, d is the common difference, s is the sum)

Formula of geometric series: Sn = (a1(r^n - 1)) / (r - 1)

(where n is the number of terms, a1 is the first term, r is the common ratio, s is the sum)

LESSON 3

Infinite series: adding an unlimited number of a sequence of numbers

​ ​ To find sum on TI calculator: Math 0 →set upper limit to 100

Expressing infinite series sum (because it has no actual sum):

EX 1. ½ + ¼ + ⅛ + 1/16 + 1/32
1)​ Is the series geometric or arithmetic:
2)​ Write geometric sequence formula An = a1(r^(n - 1)): ½ (½^(n-1))
3)​ Plug into infinite sigma notation

EX 2. 5 + 11 + 17 + 23 + 29
1)​ Is the series arithmetic or geometric:
2)​ Write arithmetic sequence formula An = a1 + (n - 1)d: 5 + (n-1) * 6
3)​ Simplify: An = 5 + 6n - 6 →An = 6n + 1
4)​ Plug into infinite sigma notation

Convergent series: if the series has a limit as n approaches infinity, it is convergent

​ ​ In the case geometric series, if -1 < r < 1, it is convergent
Solving infinite convergent geometric series: S = a1 / (1 - r)

Divergent series: if the series has no limit as n approaches infinity, it is divergent

​ ​ In the case of geometric series, if -1 > r or 1 < r, then it is divergent

Finite series: adding a limited number of a sequence of numbers

​ ​ To find sum on TI calculator: Math 0 →set upper limit to # of terms

Finite Arithmetic formulas:

●​ Sn = (n/2)(a1 + an)
●​ Sn = (n/2)(2a1 + (n - 1)d)

Finite Geometric formulas:

●​ Sn = (a1(r^n - 1)) / (r - 1)

Things to remember:
-​ If signs are alternating between negative and positive, common ratio is negative