Module 12

Enlightenment
and Revolution
Essential Question
In what ways were the ideas introduced by European scientists and thinkers between
the 1500s and 1700s revolutionary?

About the Map: This 1660 map drawn by In this module you will learn how Enlightenment scientists and thinkers
Dutch-German cartographer Andreas Cellarius challenged old ideas in science, the arts, government, and religion.
shows the solar system as described by Polish
astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus. Copernicus’s
concept of a heliocentric universe helped to What You Will Learn …
set off the Scientific Revolution. Lesson 1: The Scientific Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
The Big Idea In the mid-1500s, scientists began to question
accepted beliefs and make new theories based on experimentation.
Lesson 2: Enlightenment Thinkers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488
Explore ONLINE! The Big Idea A revolution in intellectual activity changed Europeans’
VIDEOS, including... view of government and society.
• Isaac Newton: The Gravity of Genius Lesson 3: The Enlightenment Spreads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
• Lessons of the Revolution The Big Idea Enlightenment ideas spread through the Western
world and profoundly influenced the arts and government.
Lesson 4: The American Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Document-Based Investigations The Big Idea Enlightenment ideas helped spur the American
colonies to shed British rule and create a new nation.
Graphic Organizers
Interactive Games
Image with Hotspots: Enlightenment
Thinking in Art
Image with Text Slider:
Enlightenment Ideas

478 Module 12
Timeline of Events 1500–1800 Explore ONLINE!

Europe and North America Events World Events

1500

1543 Copernicus publishes

heliocentric theory.

1556 Golden Age of Mughal

Empire begins in India.
(portrait of Mughal princess)

1587 Safavid leader Shah Abbas comes to

the throne in Persia.

1603 Tokugawa Ieyasu becomes ruler

in Japan.
1609 Galileo observes heavens through
a telescope similar to this one.

1644 Manchus invade

China and establish Qing
Dynasty. (Qing ruler Lohan)

1687 Newton publishes treatise on law of gravity.

1690 Locke publishes treatise on government.
1699 Great Turkish War ends with
Ottoman Empire giving up territory in
Eastern Europe.

1722 Chinese emperor Kangxi dies

after 61-year reign.

1776 With Liberty Bell

symbolizing their freedom,
American colonies declare
independence.

1776 Tukolor Kingdom arises in the

1783 Treaty of Paris is signed, ending former Songhai region of West Africa.
the American Revolution.
1789 Revolution erupts in France.
1800

Enlightenmentand Revolution 479

 Lesson 1

The Scientific Revolution

Setting the Stage

The Big Idea The period between 1300 and 1600 was a time of great
In the mid-1500s, scientists change in Europe. The Renaissance, a rebirth of learning
began to question accepted and the arts, inspired a spirit of curiosity in many
beliefs and make new theories fields. Scholars began to question ideas that had been
based on experimentation. accepted for hundreds of years. Meanwhile, the religious
Why It Matters Now movement known as the Reformation prompted
Such questioning led to the followers to challenge accepted ways of thinking about
development of the scientific God and salvation. While the Reformation was taking
method still in use today. place, another revolution in European thought had
Key Terms and People begun, one that would permanently change how people
geocentric theory
viewed the physical world.
Scientific Revolution
heliocentric theory The Roots of Modern Science
Galileo Galilei Before 1500, scholars generally decided what was true or false
scientific method
by referring to an ancient Greek or Roman author or to the
Isaac Newton
deism
Bible. Few European scholars challenged the scientific ideas
of the ancient thinkers or the church by carefully observing
nature for themselves.
The Medieval View During the Middle Ages, most scholars
believed that the earth was an immovable object located at
the center of the universe. According to that belief, the moon,
the sun, and the planets all moved in perfectly circular paths
around the earth. Common sense seemed to support this view.
After all, the sun appeared to be moving around the earth as it
rose in the morning and set in the evening.
This earth-centered view of the universe was called the
geocentric theory. The idea came from Aristotle, a Greek phi-
losopher from the fourth century BC. The Greek astronomer
Ptolemy (TOL•a•mee) expanded the theory in the second cen-
tury AD. In addition, Christianity taught that God had deliber-
ately placed the earth at the center of the universe. Earth was
thus a special place on which the great drama of life unfolded.

480 Module 12
 A New Way of Thinking Beginning in the mid-1500s, a few scholars
published works that challenged the ideas of the ancient thinkers and the
church. As these scholars replaced old assumptions with new theories,
they launched a change in European thought that historians call
the Scientific Revolution. The Scientific Revolution was a new way of
thinking about the natural world. That way was based upon careful obser-
vation and a willingness to question accepted beliefs.
A combination of discoveries and circumstances led to the Scientific
Revolution and helped spread its impact. During the Crusades, Europe-
ans came in contact with the Muslim world. They learned about many
advancements in mathematics and science developed by Muslim scholars,
such as Arabic numerals, algebra, astronomical charts, and human anat-
omy. Then, during the Renaissance, European explorers traveled to Africa,
Asia, and the Americas. They encountered peoples and animals previously
unknown in Europe. These discoveries opened Europeans to the possibil-
ity that there were new truths to be found. The invention of the printing
press during this period helped spread challenging ideas—both old and
new—more widely among Europe’s thinkers.
The age of European exploration also fueled a great deal of scientific
research, especially in astronomy and mathematics. Navigators needed
Reading Check
Analyze Effects better instruments and geographic measurements, for example, to deter-
What impact did mine their location in the open sea. As scientists began to look more
travel by Europeans closely at the world around them, they made observations that did not
have on the launching
of the Scientific match the ancient beliefs. They found they had reached the limit of the
Revolution? classical world’s knowledge. Yet, they still needed to know more.

A Revolutionary Model of the Universe

An early challenge to accepted scientific thinking came in the field of
astronomy. It started when a small group of scholars began to question the
geocentric theory.
The Heliocentric Theory Although backed by authority and common
sense, the geocentric theory did not accurately explain the movements
of the sun, moon, and planets. This prob-
lem troubled a Polish cleric and astronomer
named Nicolaus Copernicus (nik•uh•LAY•uhs
koh•PUR•nuh•kuhs). In the early 1500s,
Copernicus became interested in an old
Greek idea that the sun stood at the center of
the universe.
After studying planetary movements for
more than 25 years, Copernicus reasoned
that the stars, the earth, and the other
planets revolved around the sun.
Venus the stars Copernicus’s heliocentric, or sun-centered,
Earth Jupiter
Saturn Mars Sun Mercury theory still did not completely explain why
This model shows how Copernicus saw the planets the planets orbited the way they did. He
revolving around the sun. also knew that most scholars and clergy

Enlightenment and Revolution 481

 would reject his theory because it contradicted their religious views.
Copernicus did not publish his findings until 1543, the last year of his life.
He received a copy of his book, On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Bodies, on
his deathbed.
Even though it was revolutionary, Copernicus’s book caused little stir at
first. Over the next century and a half, other scientists built on the foun-
dations Copernicus had laid. A Danish astronomer, Tycho Brahe
(TEE•koh-brah), carefully recorded the movements of the planets for many
years, noting their positions in the sky over time. Brahe produced moun-
tains of accurate data based on his observations. However, it was left to his
followers to make mathematical sense of them.
After Brahe’s death in 1601, his assistant, a brilliant mathematician
named Johannes Kepler (yo•HAHN•uhs-KEP•ler), continued his work. After
studying Brahe’s data, Kepler concluded that certain mathematical laws
govern planetary motion. One of these laws showed that the planets must
revolve around the sun in elliptical orbits instead of circles, as Copernicus
had thought. Kepler’s laws showed that Copernicus’s basic ideas were true,
however. They demonstrated mathematically that the planets revolve
around the sun.
Galileo’s Discoveries Italian scientist Galileo Galilei built on the new the-
ories about astronomy. As a young man, Galileo learned that a Dutch lens
maker had built an instrument that could enlarge far-off objects. Galileo
built his own telescope in 1609 and used it to study the heavens.
Then, in 1610, he published a small book called Starry Messenger, which
described his astonishing observations. Galileo announced that Jupi-
ter had four moons and that the sun had dark spots. He also noted that
the earth’s moon had a rough, uneven surface. This shattered Aristotle’s
theory that the moon and stars were made of a pure, perfect substance.
Galileo’s observations, as well as his laws of motion, also clearly supported
the theories of Copernicus.
Conflict with the Church Galileo’s findings frightened both Catholic and
Protestant leaders because they went against church teaching and author-
ity. If people believed the church could be wrong about this, they might
question other church teachings as well.
In 1616, the Catholic Church warned Galileo not to defend the ideas
of Copernicus. Although Galileo remained publicly silent, he continued
his studies. Then, in 1632, he published Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief
World Systems. This book presented the ideas of both Copernicus and Ptol-
emy, but it clearly showed that Galileo supported the Copernican theory.
The pope angrily summoned Galileo to Rome to stand trial before the
Inquisition, a court held to suppress ideas and beliefs that conflicted with
Catholic teachings.
Galileo stood before the court in 1633. Under the threat of torture, he
knelt before the cardinals and read aloud a signed confession. In it, he
agreed that the ideas of Copernicus were false.

482 Module 12
DOCUMENT!BASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Galileo’s Confession
When he was called before a papal court, Galileo had to make a difficult decision.
Should he continue to support the heliocentric theory and anger the Church or
confess to wrongdoing and stop publishing his work? He chose the latter.

“With sincere heart and unpretended

faith I abjure, curse, and detest
the aforesaid errors and heresies
[of Copernicus] and also every
other error . . . contrary to the
Holy Church, and I swear that in
the future I will never again say or
assert . . . anything that might cause
a similar suspicion toward me.”
—Galileo Galilei,
quoted in The
Discoverers

Analyze Historical Sources

In what two ways does Galileo seek to appease the Church in his confession?

Reading Check Galileo was never again a free man. He lived under house arrest and died
Find Main Ideas in 1642 at his villa near Florence. However, his books and ideas still spread
How did Kepler’s
findings support the all over Europe. (In 1992, the Catholic Church officially acknowledged that
heliocentric theory? Galileo had been right.)

The Scientific Method

The revolution in scientific thinking that Copernicus, Kepler, and
Galileo began eventually developed into a new approach to science called
the scientific method. The scientific method is a logical procedure for
gathering and testing ideas. It begins with a problem or question aris-
ing from an observation. Scientists next form a hypothesis, or unproved
assumption. The hypothesis is then tested in an experiment or on the
basis of data. In the final step, scientists analyze and interpret their data
to reach a new conclusion. That conclusion either confirms or disproves
the hypothesis.
The scientific method emphasizes two different types of thinking—
deductive and inductive reasoning. Using deductive reasoning, scientists
start with a theory and test the theory with experiments and observa-
tions. This is sometimes called “going from the top down.” When they look
for patterns in data from experiments and observation and come up with
conclusions, they are using inductive reasoning. This sometimes called
“going from the bottom up.”

Enlightenment and Revolution 483

Major Steps in the Scientific Revolution

1609
1566 Kepler publishes 1610
Marie de Coste Blanche first two laws Galileo publishes
publishes The Nature of of planetary Starry Messenger.
the Sun and Earth.
1570 motion.

1620
1543 1590 1620
Copernicus publishes Janssen invents Bacon’s book Novum Organum
heliocentric theory. microscope. (New Instrument) encourages
experimental method.
Vesalius publishes human
anatomy textbook.

Nicolaus Copernicus
began the Scientific
Revolution with his
Bacon and Descartes The scientific method did not develop overnight.
heliocentric theory.
The work of two important thinkers of the 1600s, Francis Bacon and
René Descartes, helped to advance the new approach.
Francis Bacon, an English statesman and writer, had a passionate inter-
est in science. He believed that by better understanding the world, sci-
entists would generate practical knowledge that would improve people’s
lives. In his writings, Bacon attacked medieval scholars for relying too
heavily on the conclusions of Aristotle and other ancient thinkers. Instead
of reasoning from abstract theories, he urged scientists to experiment
and then draw conclusions. This approach is called empiricism, or the
experimental method.
In France, René Descartes also took a keen interest in science. He devel-
oped analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry. This pro-
vided an important new tool for scientific research.
Like Bacon, Descartes believed that scientists needed to reject old
assumptions and teachings. As a mathematician, however, he approached
gaining knowledge differently from Bacon. Rather than using experimen-
tation, Descartes relied on mathematics and logic. He believed that every-
thing should be doubted until proved by reason. The only thing he knew
for certain was that he existed—because, as he wrote, “I think, therefore
I am.” From this starting point, he followed a train of strict reasoning to
arrive at other basic truths.
The methodologies followed by modern sciences are based on the ideas
Reading Check of Bacon and Descartes. Scientists from the 1700s to the present have
Contrast How did determined that observation and experimentation, together with general
Descartes’s approach
to science differ laws that can be expressed mathematically, can lead people to a better
from Bacon’s? understanding of the natural world.

484 Module 12
 1637
Descartes’s 1662
book Discourse Boyle discovers mathematical relationship
between the pressure and volume of gases, 1714
on Method
known as Boyle’s law. Fahrenheit
sets forth his
invents
1628 scientific method
mercury
Harvey reveals of reasoning 1674
thermometer.
how human from the basis of Leeuwenhoek observes
heart functions. doubt. 1670 bacteria through microscope.

1643 1666 1720

1633 Torricelli France establishes
1687
Galileo faces Inquisition invents Academy of Sciences.
Newton
for support of barometer. publishes law
Copernicus’s theory.
1660 of gravity.
England establishes Royal Society
to support scientific study.

Newton Explains the Law of Gravity

By the mid-1600s, the accomplishments of Copernicus, Kepler, and Galileo
had shattered the old views of astronomy and physics. Later, the great Eng-
lish scientist Isaac Newton helped to bring together their breakthroughs
under a single theory of motion.
Newton studied mathematics and physics at Cambridge University.
By the time he was 26, Newton was certain that all physical objects were
affected equally by the same forces. Newton’s great discovery was that
the same force ruled motion of the planets and all matter on earth and in
space. The key idea that linked motion in the heavens with motion on the
earth was the law of universal gravitation. According to this law, every
object in the universe attracts every other object. The degree of attraction
depends on the mass of the objects and the distance between them.
Isaac Newton’s law of In 1687, Newton published his ideas in a work entitled The Mathemati-
gravity explained how cal Principles of Natural Philosophy (sometimes known by its Latin title,
the same physical Principia Mathematica). It was one of the most important scientific books
laws govern motion
both on earth and in ever written. The universe he described was like a giant clock. Its parts
the heavens. all worked together perfectly in ways that could be expressed mathemati-
cally. Newton believed that God was the creator of this orderly universe,
the clockmaker who had set everything in motion. Many other scientists
Reading Check and philosophers during the Scientific Revolution, including Descartes,
Clarify Why was the
law of gravitation agreed with Newton’s view of the role of God in the universe. This type of
important? thinking was called deism, from the Latin word for God.

Changing Idea: Scientific Method

Old Science New Science

Scholars generally relied on ancient In time, scholars began to use observation,

authorities, church teachings, common experimentation, and scientific reasoning
sense, and reasoning to explain the physical to gather knowledge and draw conclusions
world. about the physical world.

Enlightenment and Revolution 485

 The Scientific Revolution Spreads
As astronomers explored the secrets of the universe, other scientists
began to study the secrets of nature on earth. Careful observation and
the use of the scientific method eventually became important in many
different fields.
Scientific Instruments Scientists developed new tools and instruments
to make the precise observations that the scientific method demanded.
The first microscope was invented in 1590 by a Dutch maker of eyeglasses,
Zacharias Janssen (YAHN•suhn). In the 1670s, a Dutch drapery merchant
and amateur scientist named Anton van Leeuwenhoek (LAY•vuhn•huk)
used a microscope to observe bacteria swimming in tooth scrapings. He
also examined red blood cells for the first time.
In 1643, one of Galileo’s students, Evangelista Torricelli
(tawr•uh• CHEHL•ee), developed the first mercury barometer, a tool for
measuring atmospheric pressure and predicting weather. In 1714, the
German physicist Gabriel Fahrenheit (FAR•uhn•hyt) made the first
thermometer to use mercury in glass. Fahrenheit’s thermometer showed
water freezing at 32°. A Swedish astronomer, Anders Celsius (SEHL•see•uhs),
created another scale for the mercury thermometer in 1742. Celsius’s scale
showed freezing at 0°.
Medicine and the Human Body During the Middle Ages, European doc-
tors had accepted as fact the writings of an ancient Greek physician named
Galen. However, Galen had never dissected the body of a human being.
Instead, he had studied the anatomy of pigs and other animals. Galen
assumed that human anatomy was much the same. In the 1500s, a Flem-
ish physician named Andreas Vesalius proved Galen’s assumptions wrong.
Vesalius dissected human corpses and published his observations. His
book, On the Structure of the Human Body (1543), was filled with detailed
drawings of human organs, bones, and muscles.

The famous Dutch artist

Rembrandt painted Anatomy
Lesson of Dr. Nicolaes Tulp in 1632
from an actual anatomy lesson.
The corpse was that of a criminal.

486 Module 12
 In the late 1700s, British physician Edward Jenner introduced a vac-
Vocabulary cine to prevent smallpox. Inoculation using live smallpox germs had been
inoculation the practiced in Asia for centuries. While beneficial, this technique could
act of injecting a
germ into a person’s also be dangerous. Jenner discovered that inoculation with germs from
body so as to create a cattle disease called cowpox gave permanent protection from smallpox
an immunity to the for humans. Because cowpox was a much milder disease, the risks for this
disease
form of inoculation were much lower. Jenner used cowpox to produce the
world’s first vaccination.
Discoveries in Chemistry Robert Boyle pioneered the use of the scientific
method in chemistry. Boyle had studied classical ideas about chemistry
and medieval ideas including alchemy. Alchemists believed that base
metals such as lead and copper could be transformed into silver and gold.
Using both observations and experimentation, Boyle attempted to apply
the principles and methods of chemistry to the study of the natural world
and to medicine. He is considered the founder of modern chemistry. In
a book called The Sceptical Chymist (1661), Boyle challenged Aristotle’s
idea that the physical world consisted of four elements—earth, air, fire,
and water. Instead, Boyle proposed that matter was made up of smaller
primary particles that joined together in different ways. Boyle’s most
famous contribution to chemistry is Boyle’s law. This law explains how the
volume, temperature, and pressure of a gas affect each other.
The notions of reason and order, which spurred so many breakthroughs
in science, soon moved into other fields of life. Philosophers and schol-
ars across Europe began to rethink long-held beliefs about the human
Reading Check condition, most notably the rights and liberties of ordinary citizens.
Make Inferences These thinkers helped to usher in a movement that challenged the age-old
Why were Galen’s
descriptions of human relationship between a government and its people and eventually changed
anatomy inaccurate? forever the political landscape in numerous societies.

Lesson 1 Assessment
1. Organize Information Which event or circumstance 4. Contrast How did the scientific method differ from
do you consider to be the most significant? Why? the approach generally followed by Medieval scholars?
5. Draw Conclusions “If I have seen farther than others,”
said Newton, “it is because I have stood on the shoul-
ders of giants.” Could this statement be said of most
Causes of the scientific accomplishments? Explain.
Scientific Revolution
6. Analyze Motives Why might institutions of authority
tend to reject new ideas developed by scientists and
other thinkers?
7. Form and Support Opinions Do you agree with Gali-
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in leo’s actions during his Inquisition? Explain.
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.
3. Analyze Issues Why did the Catholic Church oppose
the spreading of the heliocentric theory by scientists?

Enlightenment and Revolution 487

 Lesson 2

Enlightenment Thinkers

Setting the Stage

The Big Idea In the wake of the Scientific Revolution and the new
A revolution in intellectual activ- ways of thinking it prompted, scholars and philosophers
ity changed Europeans’ view of began to reevaluate old notions about other aspects
government and society. of society. They sought new insight into the underlying
Why It Matters Now beliefs regarding government, religion, economics, and
The various freedoms enjoyed education. Their efforts spurred the Enlightenment, a
in many countries today are a new intellectual movement that stressed reason and
result of Enlightenment thinking. thought and the power of individuals to solve problems.
Key Terms and People Known also as the Age of Reason, the movement
reached its height in the mid-1700s and brought great
Enlightenment
social contract change to many aspects of Western civilization.
John Locke
philosophe Two Views on Government
rationalism The Enlightenment started from some key ideas put forth by
Voltaire
two English political thinkers of the 1600s, Thomas Hobbes
Montesquieu
Rousseau
and John Locke. Both men experienced the political turmoil of
England early in that century. However, they came to very dif-
ferent conclusions about government and human nature.
Hobbes’s Social Contract
Thomas Hobbes expressed his
views in a work called Leviathan
(1651). The horrors of the English
Civil War convinced him that all
humans were naturally selfish
and wicked. Without governments
to keep order, Hobbes said, there
would be “war!.!.!.!of every man
against every man” and life would
be “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, Thomas Hobbes
and short.”
Hobbes argued that to escape such a bleak life, people had
to hand over their rights to a strong ruler. In exchange, they
gained law and order. Hobbes called this agreement by which
people created a government the social contract. Because
people acted in their own self-interest, Hobbes said, the
ruler needed total power to keep citizens under control. The
best government was one that had the awesome power

488 Module 12
 of a leviathan (sea monster). In Hobbes’s view, such a government was an
absolute monarchy, which could impose order and demand obedience.
Locke’s Natural Rights The philosopher John Locke held a different,
more positive view of human nature. He believed that people could learn
from experience and improve themselves. As reasonable beings, they had
the natural ability to govern their own affairs and to look after the wel-
fare of society. Locke criticized absolute monarchy and favored the idea of
self-government.
According to Locke, all people are born free and equal, with three natu-
ral or human rights—life, liberty, and property. The purpose of govern-
ment, said Locke, is to protect these rights. If a government fails to do so,
citizens have a right to overthrow it. Locke’s theory had a deep influence
on modern political thinking. His belief that a government’s power comes
from the consent of the people is the foundation of modern democracy.
Locke’s ideas of popular sovereignty, or government by popular consent,
and the right to rebel against unjust rulers helped inspire struggles for
liberty in Europe and the Americas.

Changing Idea: The Right to Govern

Old Idea New Idea

A monarch’s rule is justified by divine right. A government’s power comes from the
consent of the governed.

Locke’s writings also led to new theories of education in Europe. Chil-

dren are born with open minds, Locke wrote, and through education they
Reading Check can be taught society’s important values. This type of thinking led some
Contrast How does European rulers to issue edicts requiring young children to attend schools.
Locke’s view of human
nature differ from that Still, educational opportunities remained limited for girls or for those
of Hobbes? whose families did not belong to state churches.

The Philosophes Advocate Reason

The Enlightenment reached its height in France in the mid-1700s. Paris
became the meeting place for people who wanted to discuss politics and
share ideas. The social critics of this period in France were known as
philosophes (FIHL•uh•sahfs), the French word for “philosophers. The phi-
losophes believed that people could apply reason to all aspects of life, just
as Isaac Newton had applied reason to science. Five concepts formed the
core of their beliefs:
1. Reason Enlightenment thinkers, building on ideas set forth earlier
by Descartes, believed truth could be discovered through reason or
logical thinking. This concept is sometimes called rationalism.
2. Nature The philosophes believed that what was natural was also
good and reasonable. Enlightenment thinkers such as Locke focused
on the rights that people have in their natural state as human beings
in order to live in dignity. These rights cannot be taken away by any
society or government.

Enlightenment and Revolution 489

 3. Happiness The philosophes rejected the medieval notion that people
should find joy in the hereafter and urged people to seek well-being
on earth.
4. Progress The philosophes stressed that society and humankind
could improve.
5. Liberty The philosophes called for the liberties that the English
people had won in their Glorious Revolution and Bill of Rights.
Voltaire Combats Intolerance Probably the most brilliant and influential
of the philosophes was François Marie Arouet. Using the pen name
Voltaire, he published more than 70 books of political essays, philosophy,
and drama.
Vocabulary Voltaire often used satire against his opponents. He made frequent tar-
satire the use of gets of the clergy, the aristocracy, and the government. His sharp tongue
irony, sarcasm, or wit
to attack folly, vice, made him enemies at the French court, and twice he was sent to prison.
or stupidity After his second jail term, Voltaire was exiled to England for more than
two years.
Although he made powerful enemies, Voltaire never stopped fighting for
tolerance, reason, freedom of religious belief, and freedom of speech. He
William Hogarth’s used his quill pen as if it were a deadly weapon in a thinker’s war against
painting Canvassing for humanity’s worst enemies—intolerance, prejudice, and superstition.
Votes offers a satirical
He summed up his staunch defense of liberty in one of his most famous
view of a corrupt British
politician and his aides quotes: “I do not agree with a word you say but will defend to the death
bribing voters ahead of your right to say it.”
an election.

490 Module 12
 BIOGRAPHY

Voltaire (1694–1778)
Voltaire befriended several
European monarchs and nobles.
Among them was Prussian
king Frederick II. The two men
seemed like ideal companions.
Both were witty and preferred
to dress in shabby, rumpled
clothes.
Their relationship eventually
soured, however. Voltaire
disliked editing Frederick’s
mediocre poetry, while
Frederick suspected Voltaire
of shady business dealings.
Voltaire eventually described
the Prussian king as “a nasty
monkey, perfidious friend, [and]
wretched poet.” Frederick in
turn called Voltaire a “miser,
dirty rogue, [and] coward.”

While Voltaire and other writers during this period made satiric attacks
with their pens, English artist William Hogarth used a paintbrush to
make fun of social and political evils. In his painting Canvassing for Votes,
he comments on political corruption. While the candidate flirts with the
ladies on the balcony, his supporters offer a man money for his vote.
Montesquieu and the Separation of Powers Another influential French
writer, the Baron de Montesquieu (MAHN•tuh•skyoo), devoted himself
to the study of political liberty. Montesquieu believed that Britain was
the best-governed and most politically balanced country of his own day.
The British king and his ministers held executive power. They carried
out the laws of the state. The members of Parliament held legislative
power. They made the laws. The judges of the English courts held judicial
power. They interpreted the laws to see how each applied to a specific
case. Montesquieu called this division of power among different branches
separation of powers.
Montesquieu oversimplified the British system. It did not actually sepa-
rate powers this way. His idea, however, became a part of his most famous
book, On the Spirit of Laws (174 ). In his book, ontes uieu proposed that
separation of powers would keep any individual or group from gaining
total control of the government. “Power,” he wrote, “should be a check to
power.” This idea later would be called checks and balances.

Enlightenment and Revolution 491

 Montesquieu’s book was admired by political leaders in the British colo-
nies of North America. His ideas about separation of powers and checks
and balances became the basis for the United States Constitution.
Rousseau: Champion of Freedom A third great philosophe, Jean-Jacques
Rousseau (roo•SOH), was passionately committed to individual freedom.
The son of a poor Swiss watchmaker, Rousseau won recognition as a writer
of essays. A strange, brilliant, and controversial figure, Rousseau strongly
disagreed with other Enlightenment thinkers on many matters. Most
philosophes believed that reason, science, and art would improve life for
all people. Rousseau, however, argued that civilization corrupted people’s
natural goodness. “Man is born free, and everywhere he is in chains,”
he wrote.

DOCUMENT!BASED INVESTIGATION Historical Source

Two Views on Laws

in a Democracy “I!.!.!.!therefore give the name ‘Republic’ to every state
that is governed by laws, no matter what the form of its
Both Rousseau and Montesquieu administration may be: for only in such a case does the
believed firmly that fair and just public interest govern, and the res publica [republic] rank
laws—not monarchs or unrestrained as a reality.!.!.!.!Laws are, properly speaking, only the
mobs—should govern society. In
conditions of civil association. The people, being subject
these quotes, Rousseau reflects on
laws as part of the contract holding
to the laws, ought to be their author: the conditions of
a democratic society together while the society ought to be regulated!.!.!.!by those who come
Montesquieu sees laws as providing a together to form it.”
necessary limitation of freedom. —Jean-Jacques Rousseau,
The Social Contract

“It is true that in democracies the people seem to act as

they please; but political liberty does not consist in an
unlimited freedom.!.!.!.!We must have continually present
to our minds the difference between independence and
liberty. Liberty is a right of doing whatever the laws
permit, and if a citizen could do what they [the laws] forbid
Analyze Historical Sources he would be no longer possessed of liberty, because all his
How do Rousseau and Montesquieu fellow-citizens would have the same power.”
differ in their view of the role of laws in a
—Baron de Montesquieu,
democracy? The Spirit of Laws

492 Module 12
Major Ideas of the Enlightenment
Idea Thinker Impact

Natural and human Locke Fundamental to U.S. Declaration of Independence

rights—life, liberty, property

Separation of powers Montesquieu France, United States, and Latin American nations use separation of
powers in new constitutions

Freedom of thought and Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of
expression Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce or eliminate censorship

Civil rights, including Beccaria Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights; torture outlawed or reduced in nations of
abolishment of torture Europe and the Americas

Religious freedom Voltaire Guaranteed in U.S. Bill of Rights and French Declaration of the Rights of
Man and Citizen; European monarchs reduce persecution

Interpret Charts
1. Analyze Issues What important documents reflect the influence of Enlightenment ideas?
2. Evaluate Concepts Which are the two most important Enlightenment ideas? Support your answer with reasons.

Rousseau believed that the only good

government was one that was freely
formed by the people and guided by
the “general will” of society—a direct
democracy. Under such a government,
people agree to give up some of their
freedom in favor of the common good. In
1762, he explained his political philosophy
in a book called The Social Contract.
Rousseau’s view of the social contract
differed greatly from that of Hobbes.
For Hobbes, the social contract was an
agreement between a society and its
government. For Rousseau, it was an
Jean Jacques Rousseau
agreement among free individuals to
create a society and a government.
Like Locke, Rousseau argued that legitimate government came from
the consent of the governed. However, Rousseau believed in a much
broader democracy than Locke had promoted. He argued that all people
were equal and that titles of nobility should be abolished. Rousseau’s
ideas inspired many of the leaders of the French Revolution who
overthrew the monarchy in 1789.

Enlightenment and Revolution 493

 Beccaria Promotes Criminal Justice While Locke and Rousseau focused
on natural or human rights, an Italian philosophe named Cesare Bone-
sana Beccaria (bayk•uh•REE•ah) wrote about people’s civil rights, the rights
they deserved as citi ens of a city or country. Turning his attention to the
ustice system, he reasoned that laws existed to preserve social order, not
to avenge crimes. Beccaria regularly critici ed common abuses of ustice.
They included torturing of witnesses and suspects, irregular proceedings
in trials, and punishments that were arbitrary or cruel. e argued that a
person accused of a crime should receive a speedy trial and that torture
should never be used. oreover, he said, the degree of punishment should
be based on the seriousness of the crime. e also believed that capital pun-
Reading Check
ishment should be abolished.
Form Generalizations Beccaria based his ideas about ustice and civil rights on the principle
What did all of the that governments should seek the greatest good for the greatest number of
philosophes see as the
purpose and value of people. is ideas influenced criminal law reformers in Europe and
reason? North America.

Lesson 2 Assessment
1. Organize Information Which impact of the Enlighten- 3. Analyze Issues Why did John Locke oppose the
ment do you consider most important and why? Use idea of an absolute monarch running a country’s
an outline to help organize your thoughts. government?
4. Draw Conclusions What did social critics such as the
Enlightenment in Europe
philosophes hope to accomplish through their writ-
I. Two Views on
Government ings and art?
A. 5. Synthesize Explain how the following statement
B.
II. The Philosophes
reflects Enlightenment ideas: “Power should be a check
Advocate Reason to power.”
A. 6. Analyze E!ects Why was Voltaire’s use of satire
B.
effective?
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in 7. Draw Conclusions Do you think the philosophes were
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance. optimistic about the future of humankind? Explain.

494 Module 12
 Lesson 3

The Enlightenment Spreads

Setting the Stage

The Big Idea The philosophes’ views about society often got them
Enlightenment ideas spread in trouble. In France, it was illegal to criticize either the
through the Western world and Catholic Church or the government. Many philosophes
profoundly influenced the arts landed in jail or were exiled. Voltaire, for example,
and government.
experienced both punishments. Nevertheless, the
Why It Matters Now Enlightenment spread throughout Europe with the
An “enlightened” problem- help of books, magazines, and word of mouth. In time,
solving approach to government Enlightenment ideas influenced everything from the
and society prevails in modern artistic world to the royal courts across the continent.
civilization today.

Key Terms and People A World of Ideas

salons In the 1700s, Paris was the cultural and intellectual capital
baroque of Europe. Young people from around Europe—and also from
neoclassical the Americas—came to study, philosophize, and enjoy the
Mary Wollstonecraft
culture of the bustling city. The brightest minds of the age
enlightened despot
gathered there. From their circles radiated the ideas of the
Catherine the Great
Enlightenment.
The buzz of Enlightenment ideas was most intense in the
mansions of several wealthy women of Paris. In their large
drawing rooms, these hostesses held regular social gatherings
called salons. At these events, philosophers, writers, artists,
scientists, and other intellects met to discuss ideas.
Diderot’s Encyclopedia The most influential of the salon
hostesses in Voltaire’s time was Marie-Thérèse Geoffrin
( huh•frehn). She helped finance the pro ect of a leading phi-
losophe named Denis Diderot (DEE•duh•roh). Diderot created
a large set of books to which many leading scholars of Europe
contributed articles and essays. He called it Encyclopedia and
began publishing the first volumes in 1751.
The Enlightenment views expressed in the articles soon
angered both the French government and the Catholic Church.
Their censors banned the work. They said it undermined royal
authority, encouraged a spirit of revolt, and fostered “moral
corruption, irreligion, and unbelief.” Nonetheless, Diderot con-
tinued publishing his Encyclopedia.

Enlightenment and Revolution 495

 The salons and the Encyclopedia helped spread Enlightenment ideas
Reading Check
Draw Conclusions to educated people all over Europe. Enlightenment ideas also eventually
Why did the Catholic spread through newspapers, pamphlets, and even political songs. Enlight-
Church seek to enment ideas about government and equality attracted the attention of a
censor the writings
of Enlightenment growing literate middle class, which could afford to buy many books and
thinkers? support the work of artists.

Now and Then

Online Encyclopedias
These days, when people around the world want
to explore new ideas and learn information about
a wide range of subects, they often click onto
online encyclopedias. Some online encyclopedias
are free, and some charge a monthly fee to access
their entries. Wikipedia is the largest and most
popular online encyclopedia. Wikipedia.com
first went live on January 15, 2001. Its founder
established a set of rules and invited people from
around the world to submit entries on subjects
on which they had expertise. A large number of
volunteer editors were charged with reviewing
content to make sure that writers provided sources
for information, tried to be accurate, and were entries in the English-language version of
unbiased. The site’s software keeps a log of any Wikipedia submitted or edited by more than 10
change made to any entry. In this way, Wikipedia million contributors. Wikipedia is available in
tries to assure that no one tampers with entries, more than 250 other languages as well, including
introduces errors, or vandalizes entries with a American Indian languages. While many students
malicious intent. use Wikipedia to find information for their reports
in school, most teachers question whether
Just as the popularity of Diderot’s Encyclopedia
Wikipedia entries are totally accurate and require
spread throughout Europe, Wikipedia has become
students to confirm the information in more
a worldwide source of information. As of
reliable sources, such as Britannica.com.
August 2015, there were more than 3 million

New Artistic Styles

The Enlightenment ideals of order and reason were reflected in the arts—
music, literature, painting, and architecture.
Neoclassical Style Emerges European art of the 1600s and early 1700s
had been dominated by the style called baroque, which was characterized
by a grand, ornate design. Baroque styles could be seen in elaborate palaces
such as Versailles in France and in numerous paintings.
Under the influence of the Enlightenment, styles began to change.
Artists and architects worked in a simple and elegant style that borrowed
ideas and themes from classical Greece and Rome. The main artistic style
of the late 1700s is therefore called neoclassical (“new classical ). Science
played an important role in this trend: neoclassical artists were inspired by
archaeological discoveries about the classical world.

496 Module 12
 These two buildings reflect the changes in architectural styles taking place during the
Enlightenment. (Top) The Cathedral of Santa Agatha in Catania, Sicily, was designed in baroque
style, with elaborate arches, marble statues, and angled panels. (Bottom) The neoclassical palace of
Poland’s last king, located in Warsaw, features classical columns and flat, blank walls.

Changes in Music and Literature Music styles also changed to reflect

Enlightenment ideals. The music scene in Europe had been dominated by
such composers as Johann Sebastian Bach of Germany and George Fried-
rich Handel of England. These artists wrote dramatic organ and choral
music. During the Enlightenment, a new, lighter, and more elegant style
of music known as classical emerged. Three composers in Vienna, Austria,
rank among the greatest figures of the classical period in music. They
were Franz Joseph Haydn, Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, and Ludwig van
Beethoven.
Writers in the 18th century also developed new styles and forms of
literature. A number of European authors began writing novels, which are
lengthy works of prose fiction. Their works had carefully crafted plots,
used suspense, and explored characters’ thoughts and feelings. These
books were popular with a wide middle-class audience who liked the enter-
taining stories written in everyday language. Writers, including many
women, turned out a flood of popular novels in the 1700s.
Samuel Richardson’s Pamela is often considered the first true English
Reading Check novel. It tells the story of a young servant girl who refuses the advances of
Contrast How her master. Another English masterpiece, Tom Jones, by Henry Fielding,
did baroque
and neoclassical tells the story of an orphan who travels all over England to win the hand
architecture differ? of his lady.

Enlightenment and Revolution 497

 Women and the Enlightenment
During the Enlightenment period, European women generally had few
legal or property rights. Although the philosophes challenged many
assumptions about government and society, they often took a traditional
view toward women. Rousseau, for example, developed many progressive
ideas about education. However, he believed that a girl’s education should
mainly teach her how to be a helpful wife and mother. Other male social
critics scolded women for reading novels because they thought it encour-
aged idleness and wickedness. Enlightenment writers even used scientific
discoveries about female anatomy to support the view that women were
only suited for domestic roles. Still, some male writers argued for more
education for women and for women’s equality in marriage.
Women writers also tried to improve the status of women. In 1694, the
English writer Mary Astell published A Serious Proposal to the Ladies. Her
book addressed the lack of educational opportunities for women. In later
writings, she used Enlightenment arguments about government to criti-
ci e the une ual relationship between men and women in marriage. She
wrote, “If absolute sovereignty be not necessary in a state, how comes it to
be so in a family? . . . If all men are born free, how is it that all women are
born slaves?”
During the 1700s, other women picked up these themes. Among the
most persuasive was Mary Wollstonecraft, who published an essay called
A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in 1792. In the essay, she disagreed
with Rousseau that women’s education should be secondary to men’s.
Rather, she argued that women, like men, need education to become
virtuous and useful. Wollstonecraft also urged women to enter the
male-dominated fields of medicine and politics.
Women made important contributions to the Enlightenment in other
Reading Check
Draw Conclusions
ways, such as the salons you read about earlier in this lesson.
Why do you think the One woman fortunate enough to receive an education in the sciences
issue of education was Emilie du Ch telet (shah•tlay). Du Ch telet was an aristocrat trained
was important to
both Astell and as a mathematician and physicist. By translating Newton’s work from
Wollstonecraft? Latin into French, she helped stimulate interest in science in France.

Enlightenment and Monarchy

From the salons, artists’ studios, and concert halls of Europe, the Enlight-
enment spirit also swept through Europe’s royal courts. Many philosophes,
including Voltaire, believed that the best form of government was a mon-
archy in which the ruler respected the people’s rights. The philosophes
tried to convince monarchs to rule ustly. Some monarchs embraced the
new ideas and made reforms that reflected the Enlightenment spirit. They
became known as enlightened despots. Despot!means “absolute ruler.”

498 Module 12
 BIOGRAPHY

Mary Wollstonecraft
(1759–1797)
A strong advocate of education for women,
Wollstonecraft herself received little formal
schooling. She and her two sisters taught
themselves by studying books at home.
With her sisters, she briefly ran a school.
These experiences shaped much of her
thoughts about education.
Wollstonecraft eventually took a job with
a London publisher. There, she met many
leading radicals of the day. One of them
was her future husband, the writer William
Godwin. Wollstonecraft died at age 38,
after giving birth to their daughter, Mary.
This child, whose married name was Mary
Wollstonecraft Shelley, went on to write the
classic novel Frankenstein.

The enlightened despots supported the philosophes’ ideas. But they

also had no intention of giving up any power. The changes they made were
motivated by two desires: they wanted to make their countries stronger
and their own rule more effective. The foremost of Europe’s enlightened
despots were Frederick II of Prussia, Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II of
Austria, and Catherine the Great of Russia.
Frederick the Great Frederick II, the king of Prussia from 1740 to 1786,
committed himself to reforming Prussia. He granted many religious
freedoms, reduced censorship, and improved education. For example, he
issued an edict requiring children in Prussia to attend primary schools. He
also reformed the justice system and abolished the use of torture. In addi-
tion, he improved his army by giving promotions based on merit and hard
work rather than on the basis of class. However, Frederick’s changes only
Vocabulary went so far. For example, he believed that serfdom was wrong, but he did
serfdom a system in nothing to end it since he needed the support of wealthy landowners. As a
which peasants were
forced to live and
result, he never tried to change the existing social order.
work on a landowner’s Perhaps Frederick’s most important contribution was his attitude
estate toward being king. He called himself “the first servant of the state.” From
the beginning of his reign, he made it clear that his goal was to serve and
strengthen his country. This attitude was clearly one that appealed to the
philosophes.

Enlightenment and Revolution 499

 Joseph II The most radical royal reformer
was Joseph II of Austria. The son and suc-
cessor of Maria Theresa, Joseph II ruled the
Holy Roman Empire with his mother start-
ing in 1765 and ruled Austria alone from
1780 to 1790. He introduced legal reforms
and freedom of the press and expanded
education opportunities within Austria. He
also supported freedom of worship, even for
Protestants, Orthodox Christians, and Jews.
In his most radical reform, Joseph abolished
serfdom and ordered that peasants be paid
for their labor with cash. Not surprisingly,
the nobles resisted this change. Like many
of Joseph’s reforms, it was undone after he
died.
Catherine the Great The ruler most admired
by the philosophes was Catherine II of Rus-
sia, known as Catherine the Great. She
ruled from 1762 to 1796. The well-educated
empress read the works of philosophes, and
she exchanged many letters with Voltaire.
Joseph II She ruled with absolute authority but also
sought to reform Russia.
In 1767, Catherine formed a commission to review Russia’s laws. She
presented it with a brilliant proposal for reforms based on the ideas of
Montesquieu and Beccaria. Among other changes, she recommended
allowing religious toleration and abolishing torture and capital punish-
ment. Her commission, however, accomplished none of these lofty goals.
Catherine eventually put in place limited reforms, but she did little to
improve the life of the Russian peasants. Her views about enlightened
ideas changed after a massive uprising of serfs in 1773. With great bru-
tality, Catherine’s army crushed the rebellion. Catherine had previously
favored an end to serfdom. However, the revolt convinced her that she
needed the nobles’ support to keep her throne. Therefore, she gave the
nobles absolute power over the serfs. As a result, Russian serfs lost their
last traces of freedom.
Catherine Expands Russia Peter the Great, who ruled Russia in the early
1700s, had fought for years to win a port on the Baltic Sea. ikewise, Cath-
erine sought access to the Black Sea. In two wars with the Ottoman Turks,
her armies finally won control of the northern shore of the Black Sea. Rus-
sia also gained the right to send ships through Ottoman-controlled straits
leading from the Black Sea to the editerranean Sea.
Catherine also expanded her empire westward into Poland. In Poland,
the king was relatively weak, and independent nobles held the most power.

500 Module 12
 The three neighboring kingdoms—Russia, Prussia, and Austria—each
tried to assert their influence over the country. In 1772, these land-
hungry neighbors each took a piece in what is called the First Partition of
Poland. In further partitions in 1793 and 1795, they grabbed up the rest of
Poland’s territory. With these partitions, Poland disappeared as an inde-
pendent country for more than a century.
By the end of her remarkable reign, Catherine had vastly enlarged the
Reading Check
Synthesize How Russian empire. She also made significant improvements to Russia’s gov-
accurately does the ernment administration and economy. But as she developed Russia into an
term “enlightened international power, she lost sight of the ideals she held at the beginning
despot” describe
Catherine the Great? of her reign. Instead of promoting justice in Russian society, she became
Explain. known as a tyrant.

Changing Idea: Relationship Between Ruler and State

Old Idea New Idea

The state and its citizens exist to serve the The monarch exists to serve the state and
monarch. As Louis XIV reportedly said, “I am support citizens’ welfare. As Frederick the
the state.” Great said, a ruler is only “the first servant of
the state.”

BIOGRAPHY

Catherine the Great

(1729–1796)
The daughter of a minor German
prince, Catherine was 15 when she was
handed over to marry the Grand Duke
Peter, heir to the Russian throne.
Peter was mentally unstable. Catherine
viewed her husband’s weakness as her
chance for power. She made important
friends among Russia’s army officers
and became known as the most
intelligent and best-informed person
at court. In 1762, only months after
her husband became czar, Catherine
had him arrested and confined. Soon
afterward, Peter conveniently died,
probably by murder.

Enlightenment and Revolution 501

 Legacy of the Enlightenment
Over a span of a few decades, Enlightenment writers challenged long-held
ideas about society. They examined such principles as the divine right of
monarchs, the union of church and state, and the existence of unequal
social classes. They held these beliefs up to the light of reason and found
them in need of reform.
The philosophes mainly lived in the world of ideas. They formed and
popularized new theories. Although they encouraged reform, they were
not active revolutionaries. However, their theories eventually inspired the
This painting shows
people examining American and French revolutions and other revolutionary movements in
a miniature the 1800s. Enlightenment thinking produced three other long-term effects
planetarium, which that helped shape Western civilization.
presented new ideas
about the structure of It is difficult to tell how deeply these ideas spread into European societ-
the solar system. ies. Educational reforms expanded the reading public during this period,
and books and periodicals became more easily available. Ideas also spread
informally through salons and literary clubs. Yet many working-class peo-
ple, especially in rural areas, still could not read. Although we don’t know
what information spread by word of mouth, it is likely that most poorer
Europeans had little exposure to the Enlightenment.
Belief in Progress The first effect was a belief in progress. Pioneers such
as Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton had discovered the key for unlock-
ing the mysteries of nature in the 1500s and 1600s. With the door thus
opened, the growth of scientific knowledge seemed to quicken in the
1700s. Scientists made key new discoveries in chemistry, physics, biology,
and mechanics. The successes of the Scientific Revolution gave rise to a
belief in social progress. Leading thinkers of the age were confident that
humans, using reason, could find ways to solve society’s problems.
Many philosophes and reformers urged an end to the practice of slav-
ery and argued for greater social equality, as well as a more democratic
style of government. The idea of universal human rights was central to
these social reform movements. However, some Enlightenment thinkers,
including Voltaire, viewed Africans and other nonwhite peoples as infe-
rior. Eighteenth-century ideas about racial differences helped support the
expansion of colonialism and the global slave trade.
A More Secular Outlook A second outcome was the rise of a more secu-
lar, or nonreligious, outlook. During the Enlightenment, people began to
question openly their religious beliefs and the teachings of the church.
One by one, scientists discovered that the mysteries of the universe could
be explained mathematically or through scientific processes. A new type
of human-centered philosophy emerged, teaching that individuals could
control their own lives through reason and self-determination rather than
relying on an all-knowing deity. Although the church often considered this
secular philosophy a threat, there were religious thinkers who embraced
reason and scientific inquiry. Newton himself was a deeply religious man,
and he sought to reveal God’s majesty through his work. However, his
findings often caused people to change the way they thought about God.

502 Module 12
 Newton, Locke, and other major thinkers of the time were called deists.
They believed that people should determine their religious beliefs mainly
through reason instead of scripture. Some deists, such as Voltaire, harshly
criticized the beliefs and practices of organized Christianity. They wanted
to rid religious faith of superstition and fear and to promote tolerance of
all religions.
Importance of the Individual Faith in science and in progress produced
a third outcome, the rise of individualism. As people began to turn away
from the church and royalty for guidance, they looked to themselves
instead.
The philosophes encouraged people to use their own ability to reason
in order to judge what was right or wrong. They also emphasized the
importance of the individual in society. Government, they argued, was
formed by individuals to promote their welfare. The British thinker Adam
Smith extended the emphasis on the individual to economic thinking. He
believed that individuals acting in their own self-interest created eco-
nomic progress. Smith advocated the end of a system popular in Europe
in the 1600s and 1700s known as mercantilism. In this system, countries
believed they could increase their wealth by encouraging exports and dis-
couraging imports. Smith called for freer trade practices and argued that
countries could get wealthy and could keep more people employed by being
both exporters and importers within a free market system.
Reading Check
During the Enlightenment, the greatest minds of Europe developed new
Draw Conclusions ideas about reforming society. Some European kings and queens tried to
Why did the ideas apply these ideas to create progress in their countries. This influence also
of the Enlightenment spread across the Atlantic. Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, colonial lead-
not have much impact
on the lives of poorer ers in America decided to do the unthinkable: break away from their ruling
Europeans? country and found an independent republic.

Lesson 3 Assessment
1. Organize Information What are two generalizations 3. Compare What characteristics did classical music and
you could make about the spread of Enlightenment neoclassical architecture have in common?
ideas? 4. Make Inferences Why was the term “enlightened
despot” appropriate to describe rulers such as Joseph
art and
monarchy II and Catherine the Great?
literature
5. Draw Conclusions What advantages did salons have
over earlier forms of communication in spreading
Spread of ideas?
Enlightenment Ideas
6. Analyze Issues Why might some women have been
critical of the Enlightenment?
circulation 7. Make Inferences How did the Encyclopedia project
of ideas reflect the age of Enlightenment?

2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in

the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.

Enlightenment and Revolution 503

 Lesson 4

The American Revolution

Setting the Stage

The Big Idea Philosophes such as Voltaire considered England’s
Enlightenment ideas helped government the most progressive in Europe. The Glori-
spur the American colonies to ous Revolution of 1688 had given England a constitu-
shed British rule and create a tional monarchy. In essence, this meant that various
new nation. laws limited the power of the English king. Despite the
Why It Matters Now view of the philosophes, however, a growing number of
The revolution created a repub- England’s colonists in North America accused England
lic, the United States of America, of tyrannical rule. Emboldened by Enlightenment ideas,
that became a model for many they would attempt to overthrow what was then the
nations of the world. mightiest power on earth and create their own nation.
Key Terms and People
Declaration of Independence Britain and Its American Colonies
Thomas Jefferson Throughout the 1600s and 1700s, British colonists had formed
checks and balances a large and thriving settlement along the eastern shore of
federal system
North America. When George III became king of Great Brit-
Bill of Rights
ain in 1760, his North American colonies were growing by
leaps and bounds. Their combined population soared from
about 250,000 in 1700 to 2,150,000 in 1770, a nearly ninefold
increase. Economically, the colonies thrived on trade with the
nations of Europe.
Along with increasing population and prosperity, a new
sense of identity was growing in the colonists’ minds. By the
mid-1700s, colonists had been living in America for nearly 150
years. Each of the 13 colonies had its own government, and
people were used to a great degree of independence. Colonists
saw themselves less as British and more as Virginians or Penn-
sylvanians. However, they were still British subjects and were
expected to obey British law.
In 1651, the British Parliament passed a trade law called
the Navigation Act. This and subsequent trade laws
prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products
to any country except Britain. In addition, colonists had to
pay high taxes on imported French and Dutch goods. Despite
the various trade restrictions, Britain’s policies benefited both
the colonies and the motherland. Britain bought American

504 Module 12
 raw materials for low prices and sold manufactured goods to the colonists
for a profit. Meanwhile, colonial merchants also made money when they
sold British-made goods to the colonists.
The connection between American raw materials and British manufac-
tured goods became even more important with the rise of industrializa-
tion in Britain in the 1700s. New inventions, such as spinning and weaving
Reading Check machines, made it possible for British textile manufacturers to greatly
Analyze Effects increase production of cloth. The availability of large supplies of American
In what ways did cotton, which the colonists were required to sell to Britain, helped to make
the American
colonies help Britain’s Britain a worldwide leader in cotton textiles. In addition, the American
economy? colonies were a major market for British cloth.

The Cloth Hall in Leeds, England, was a busy marketplace for British-made textiles.

Americans Win Independence

In 1754, war erupted on the North American continent between the Eng-
lish and the French. As you recall, the French had also colonized parts of
North America throughout the 1600s and 1700s. The conflict was known
as the French and Indian War. (The name stems from the fact that the
French enlisted numerous Native American tribes to fight on their side.)
The fighting lasted until 1763, when Britain and its colonists emerged
victorious—and seized nearly all French land in North America.
The victory, however, only led to growing tensions between Britain and
its colonists. In order to fight the war, Great Britain had run up a huge
debt. Because American colonists benefited from Britain’s victory, Britain
expected the colonists to help pay the costs of the war. In 1765, Parlia-
ment passed the Stamp Act. According to this law, colonists had to pay a
tax to have an official stamp put on wills, deeds, newspapers, and other
printed material.
American colonists were outraged. They had never paid taxes directly
to the British government before. Colonial lawyers argued that the stamp
tax violated colonists’ natural rights, and they accused the government of
“taxation without representation.” In Britain, citizens accepted taxes that
their representatives in Parliament had passed. The colonists, however,
had no representation in Parliament. Thus, they argued, they could not
be!taxed.

Enlightenment and Revolution 505

 Growing Hostility Leads to War Over the next decade, hostilities between
the two sides increased. Some colonial leaders favored independence from
Britain. In 1773, to protest an import tax on tea, a group of colonists
dumped a large load of British tea into Boston Harbor. George III, infuri-
ated by the Boston Tea Party, as it was called, ordered the British navy to
close the port of Boston.
Such harsh tactics by the British infuriated even moderate colonists. In
September 1774, representatives from every colony except Georgia gath-
ered in Philadelphia to form the First Continental Congress. This group
protested the treatment of Boston. When the king paid little attention
to their complaints, the colonies decided to form the Second Continental
Congress to debate their next move.
On April 19, 1775, British soldiers and colonial militiamen exchanged
gunfire on the village green in Lexington, Massachusetts. The fighting
spread to nearby Concord. The Second Continental Congress voted to raise
an army and organize for battle under the command of a Virginian named
George Washington. The American Revolution had begun.
The Influence of the Enlightenment Colonial leaders used Enlighten-
ment ideas to justify independence. The colonists had asked for the same
political rights as people in Britain, they said, but the king had stubbornly
refused. Therefore, the colonists were justified in rebelling against a tyrant
who had wrongly restricted the liberty of those who are governed, as dis-
cussed by Locke and Rousseau. In July 1776, the Second Continental Con-
gress issued the Declaration of Independence. This document, written
by political leader Thomas Jefferson, was firmly based on Locke’s ideas.
The Declaration reflected these ideas in its eloquent argument for natural
rights. “We hold these truths to be self-evident,” states the beginning of
the Declaration, “that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by
their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are life,
liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.”
Since Locke had asserted that people had the right to rebel against
an unjust ruler, the Declaration of Independence included a long list of
George III’s abuses. The document ended by declaring the colonies’ separa-
tion from Britain. The colonies, the Declaration said, “are absolved from all
allegiance to the British crown.”

BIOGRAPHY

Thomas Jefferson Jefferson was a man of many talents. He was an

(1743–1826) inventor as well as one of the great architects of
early America. He designed the Virginia capitol
The author of the Declaration of Independence, building in Richmond and many buildings for
Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, was a true figure of the University of Virginia. Of all his achievements,
the Enlightenment. As a writer and statesman, he Jefferson wanted to be most remembered for
supported free speech, religious freedom, and three: author of the Declaration of Independence,
other civil liberties. At the same time, he was also author of the Statute of Virginia for Religious
a slave owner. Freedom, and founder of the University of
Virginia.

506 Module 12
 Changing Idea: Colonial Attachment to Britain
Old Idea New Idea

American colonists considered After a long train of perceived

themselves to be subjects of the abuses by the king, the colonists
British king. asserted their right to declare
independence.

Success for the Colonists Britain was not about to let its colonies leave
without a fight. Shortly after the publication of the Declaration of Inde-
pendence, the two sides went to war. At first glance, the American colo-
nists seemed destined to go down to quick defeat. Washington’s ragtag,
poorly trained army faced the well-trained forces of the most powerful
Reading Check
Analyze Causes
country in the world. In the end, however, the colonists won their war for
Why did the independence.
American colonists Several reasons explain the colonists’ success. First, the Americans’
feel they were justified
in rebelling against motivation for fighting was much stronger than that of the British, as
England? their army was defending their homeland. Second, the overconfident
British generals made several
Explore ONLINE! mistakes. Third, time itself was on
North America, North 1783 America, 1783 the side of the colonists. The Brit-
ish could win battle after battle,
as they did, and still lose the war.
Fighting an overseas war, 3,000
40
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fight alone. Louis XVI of France
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OCEAN the American Revolution. However,
Boston
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Interpret Maps
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their!independence.
United States?
HMH— High
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countries
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had claims on the North American continent in 1783?
2nd proof 03/17/16

Enlightenment and Revolution 507

ANALYZE KEY CONCEPTS

Democracy
Ancient Greece and Rome were strong influences on the framers of the U.S. system
of government. Democracy as it is practiced today, however, is different from the
Greek and!Roman models.
The most famous democracy today is the United States. The type of government
the United States uses is called a federal republic. Federal means power is divided
between the!national and state governments. In a republic, the people vote for
their representatives. Two key components of democracy in the United States are
the Constitution and the ability to vote.

ENLIGHTENMENT IDEAS AND THE U.S. CONSTITUTION

Many of the ideas contained in the Constitution are built on the ideas of
Enlightenment thinkers.

Enlightenment Idea U.S. Constitution

Locke Preamble begins “We the people of the United States” to

A government’s power comes from the consent of the people establish legitimacy.
Creates representative government
Limits government powers

Montesquieu Federal system of government

Separation of powers Powers divided among three branches
System of checks and balances

Rousseau Public election of president and Congress

Direct democracy

Voltaire Bill of Rights provides for freedom of speech and religion.

Free speech, religious tolerance

Beccaria Bill of Rights protects rights of accused and prohibits cruel and
Accused have rights, no torture unusual punishment.

WHO VOTES?
Voting is an essential part of democracy. Universal suffrage means that all adult citizens
can vote. Universal suffrage is part of democracy in the United States today, but that was
not always the case. This chart shows how the United States gradually moved toward
giving all citizens the right to vote.

Critical Thinking
oters 1. Synthesize If many of the
Eligible V
concepts included in the U.S.
The 26th
The 15th Amendment Constitution are based upon
Amendment is ratified, European ideas, what key role
stated African- changing the
American men The 19th Citizenship and legal voting age did the framers of the U.S.
Only white, could vote; Amendment the vote were from 21 to 18. Constitution play?
male property however, many was ratified, extended to Today all citizens,
owners can were still giving women include Native 18 or older, 2. Predict Why is it important that
vote. prevented. the right to vote. Americans. can vote.
every citizen has, and exercises,
1789 1870 1920 1924 1971
his or her right to vote?

508 Module 12
 Americans Create a Republic
Shortly after declaring their independence, the 13 individual states recog-
nized the need for a national government. In establishing their govern-
ment, they planned to build upon two ancient Greek ideas: constitutionalism
(developing a written plan for running a state or country) and republicanism
(establishing a system in which government is based on the consent of the
people). In their new republic, the Americans wanted to make sure that the
states retained many powers and the national government did not become
too strong. They also feared establishing a democracy in which power was
put directly in the hands of the people, many of whom were uneducated.
As victory became certain, all 13 states ratified a constitution in 1781.
This plan of government was known as the Articles of Confederation. The
Articles established the United States as a republic, a government in which
citizens rule through elected representatives.
A Weak National Government To protect their authority, the 13 states
created a loose confederation in which they held most of the power. Thus,
the Articles of Confederation deliberately created a weak national govern-
ment. There were no executive or judicial branches. Instead, the Articles
established only one body of government, the Congress. Each state, regard-
less of size, had one vote in Congress. Congress could declare war, enter
into treaties, and coin money. It had no power, however, to collect taxes
or regulate trade. Passing new laws was difficult because laws needed the
approval of 9 of the 13 states.
These limits on the national government soon produced many problems.
Although the new national government needed money to operate, it could
only request contributions from the states. Angry Revolutionary War vet-
erans bitterly complained that Congress still owed them back pay for their
services. Meanwhile, several states issued their own money. Some states
even put tariffs on goods from neighboring states.

Global Patterns

Revolutionary Spirit
The American Revolution inspired a spirit of revolution in other countries.
Across the Atlantic, a growing number of people in France began demanding
reform in their own country. They saw the new government of the United
States as the fulfillment of Enlightenment ideals and longed for such
a government in France. The Declaration of Independence was widely
circulated and admired in France, and the triumph of the colonies over Britain
was cheered. In 1789, less than a decade after the American Revolution
ended, an armed struggle to topple the government began in France.
The events of the French Revolution then inspired enslaved people in
the French colony of Saint-Domingue in the Caribbean to begin a violent
revolution of their own in 1791 led by Toussaint L’Ouverture. This revolution
ended with the establishment of the Republic of Haiti in 1804.

Enlightenment and Revolution 509

 A New Constitution Colonial leaders eventually recognized the need for
a strong national government. In February 1787, Congress approved a
Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. The
Constitutional Convention held its first session on May 25, 1787. The 55
delegates were experienced statesmen who were familiar with the political
theories of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
Although the delegates shared basic ideas on government, they some-
times disagreed on how to put them into practice. For almost four months
the delegates argued over important questions. Who should be repre-
sented in Congress? How many representatives should each state have?
The delegates’ deliberations produced not only compromises but also new
approaches to governing. Using the political ideas of the Enlightenment,
the delegates created a new system of government.
The Federal System Like Montesquieu, the delegates distrusted a
powerful central government controlled by one person or group. They
therefore established three separate branches—legislative, executive, and
judicial. This setup provided a built-in system of checks and balances,
with each branch checking the actions of the other two. For example, the
president received the power to veto legislation passed by Congress. How-
ever, the Congress could override a presidential veto with the approval
of two-thirds of its members. The Supreme Court could check that laws
passed by Congress or actions taken by the president were constitutional.
Although the Constitution created a strong central government, it!did
not eliminate local governments. Instead, the Constitution set
up a federal system in which power was divided between
national and state governments.

Early copy of the U.S. Constitution

510 Module 12
 The Bill of Rights The convention delegates signed the new Constitution
on September 17, 1787. In order to become law, however, the Constitu-
tion required approval by conventions in at least 9 of the 13 states. These
conventions were marked by sharp debate. Supporters of the Constitution
were called Federalists. They argued in their famous work, the Federalist
Papers, that the new government would provide a better balance between
national and state powers. Their opponents, the Antifederalists, feared
that the Constitution gave the central government too much power. They
also stressed the need for a bill of rights to protect the rights of individual
citizens.
Finally, a compromise was reached. In order to!gain support, the Fed-
eralists promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution. This promise
cleared the way for approval. Congress formally added to the Constitution
the ten amendments known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments pro-
tected such basic rights as freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion.
Many of these rights had been advocated by Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke.
The Constitution and Bill of Rights marked a turning point in people’s
ideas about government. Both documents put Enlightenment ideas into
Reading Check practice. They expressed an optimistic view that reason and reform could
Analyze Issues prevail and that progress was inevitable. Such optimism swept across the
What were the
Atlantic. However, the monarchies and the privileged classes didn’t give
opposing views
regarding ratification up power and position easily. Within a few years, the struggle to attain the
of the Constitution? principles of the Enlightenment would lead to violent revolution in France.

Lesson 4 Assessment
1. Organize Information Use the organizer to record 3. Analyze Causes Why were the colonists so upset
problems and solutions found in the lesson. Which about passage of the Stamp Act?
of the solutions that you recorded represented a 4. Analyze E!ects How did John Locke’s notion of the
compromise? social contract influence the American colonists?
Problem Solution
5. Make Inferences Why might it be important to have a
Bill of Rights that guarantees basic rights of citizens?
1. 1.
6. Form and Support Opinions Do you think the Ameri-
2. 2. can Revolution would have happened if there had not
3. 3. been an Age of Enlightenment? Explain.
7. Analyze Motives Why do you think the colonists at
2. Key Terms and People For each key term or person in first created such a weak central government?
the lesson, write a sentence explaining its significance.

Enlightenment and Revolution 511

Module 12 Assessment
Key Terms and People
For each term or name below, briefly explain its connection to European and American
history between 1500 and 1800.
1. heliocentric theory 5. salon
2. Isaac Newton 6. enlightened despot
3. social contract 7. Declaration of Independence
4. philosophe 8. federal system

Main Ideas
Use your notes and the information in the module to answer the following questions.

The Scientific Revolution The Enlightenment Spreads

1. According to Ptolemy, what was the 7. What were three developments in the arts
earth’s position in the universe? How did during the Enlightenment?
Copernicus’s view differ? 8. What were two changes for women that
2. What are the four steps in the scientific Mary Wollstonecraft advocated?
method? 9. What types of reforms did the enlightened
3. What four new instruments came into use despots make?
during the Scientific Revolution? What was 10. How did the Enlightenment lead to a more
the purpose of each one? secular outlook?
Enlightenment Thinkers The American Revolution
4. How did the ideas of Hobbes and Locke 11. Why did the Articles of Confederation result
differ? in a weak national government?
5. What did Montesquieu admire about the 12. How did the writers of the U.S. Constitution
government of Britain? put into practice the idea of separation
6. What changes did Beccaria propose to of powers and a system of checks and
correct abuses in the justice system? balances?

512 Module 12
Module 12 Assessment, continued
Critical Thinking Engage with History
1. Evaluate Make a two-column chart. In Think about the many different or revolution-
the left column, list important new ideas ary ideas or ways of doing things you encoun-
that arose during the Scientific Revolu- tered in this module. Consider how such
tion and the Enlightenment. In the right breakthroughs impacted society then and now.
column, briefly explain why each idea was Discuss in a small group what you feel were the
revolutionary. most significant new ideas or scientific develop-
New Idea Why Revolutionary?
ments and explain how they still impact our lives
today.

Focus on Writing
2. Analyze Effects What role did technology Reexamine the material on the Scientific Revo-
play in the Scientific Revolution? lution. Then write a three-paragraph essay
3. Analyze Issues How did the U.S. Constitu- summarizing the difference in scientific under-
tion reflect the ideas of the Enlightenment? standing before and after the various scientific
Refer to specific Enlightenment thinkers to breakthroughs. Focus on
support your answer.
• the ultimate authorities on many matters
4. Clarify How did the statement by Prus- before the Scientific Revolution
sian ruler Frederick the Great that a ruler is
• how and why that changed after the
only “the first servant of the state” highlight
Scientific Revolution
Enlightenment ideas about government?
5. Predict Explain how the day-to-day Multimedia Activity
activities of scientists in Europe prob-
Use the Internet to explore a recent break-
ably changed following the Scientific
through in science or medicine. Look for
Revolution.
information that will help you explain why
6. Recognize Effects What impact did the the discovery is significant and how the new
Scientific Revolution have on the church in knowledge changes what scientists had thought
European countries in the 1600s and 1700s? about the topic.
7. Evaluate Courses of Action How did the
decision by American leaders to replace the In a well-organized paper, compare the signifi-
Articles of Confederation with the Consti- cance of the discovery you are writing about
tution make the United States a stronger with major scientific or medical discoveries of
country? the Scientific Revolution. Be sure to
8. Evaluate Did Catherine II of Russia deserve • apply a search strategy when using
to be known as “Catherine the Great”? directories and search engines to locate
9. Analyze Motives Why did European leaders web resources
imprison or exile satirists such as Voltaire? • judge the usefulness of each website
10. Make Inferences While many European rul- • correctly cite your web resources
ers sought to improve educational oppor- • revise and edit for correct use of language
tunities for their subjects, they offered little
change for women and girls. Why?

Enlightenment and Revolution 513

 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

the
Am!r"c#$
revolution

The American Revolution led to the formation of Declaration of Independence, announcing that the
the United States of America in 1776. Beginning in American colonies were free from British rule. In reality,
the 1760s, tensions grew between American colonists however, freedom would not come until after years of
and their British rulers when Britain started passing a fighting.
series of new laws and taxes for the colonies. With no Explore some of the people and events of the
representation in the British government, however, American Revolution online. You can find a wealth of
colonists had no say in these laws, which led to growing information, video clips, primary sources, activities, and
discontent. After fighting broke out in 1775, colonial more through your online textbook.
leaders met to decide what to do. They approved the

513 MC1 MULTIMEDIA CONNECTIONS

 Go online to view these and
other HISTORY® resources.

“I know not what course others

may take; but as for me, give
me liberty or give me death!”
—Patrick Henry

Seeds of Revolution
Watch the video to learn about colonial discontent
“Give Me Liberty or Give Me Death!” in the years before the Revolutionary War.
Read an excerpt from Patrick Henry’s famous speech,
which urged the colonists to fight against the British.

Independence!
Watch the video to learn about the origins of the
Declaration of Independence.

Victory!
Watch the video to learn how the American
colonists won the Revolutionary War.

THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 513 MC2

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