LABORATORY SAFETY AND GUIDELINES

SAFE LAB PRACTICES

Adhering to good laboratory practices is essential to carrying out

research safely. While PPE can protect a researcher's body and
engineering controls can restrict exposure to hazards, it's crucial to
ensure that your actions don't put you or your colleagues in danger.

FOLLOWING ARE THE COMMON SAFETY TIPS AND GUIDES INSIDE THE LABORATOTY

1. NO FOOD AND DRINKS

Consuming food in the lab can pose many hazards.
 Eating or drinking in the lab can, first and foremost, increase your risk of exposure to
hazardous materials.
 Food or drink can leave a mess increasing the risks for contamination of your
experiments and potentially attracting pests.
 Eating or drinking in the lab can also be a distraction that can lead to a spill or more
serious incident.

2. WEAR YOUR PPE AND PROPER LAB ATTIRE

Lab coat, gloves, eye protection, and appropriate attire should be worn at all
times in the lab.
 Long pants and shoes completely covering the top of the foot
should be worn at all times when working in the lab.
 Lab coats will protect your clothes and your skin from splashes,
spills, or other exposures to chemical or biological agents, and
flames in some cases.
 Safety glasses or goggles will protect your eyes from physical of
chemical harm. Skin will heal after minor burns or lacerations but
 your eyes will not. Eyes are fragile and safety glasses take about
three seconds to put on, an eye injury can be permanent.
 Gloves protect your skin from hazardous materials your hands
may come into contact with. However exposure can occur when
removing gloves and disposing of them. Follow the steps in the
video below to properly remove any gloves used in the lab.

3. GOOD HYGIENE

 Wash hands after handling any hazardous materials, before and

after eating, and before leaving the lab.
 Keeping personal items separate from lab work. This will prevent
spread of hazardous reagents and cut off a potential exposure
route.
 Do not apply cosmetics while in the lab. Applying anything to
your face, especially around your mouth or eyes, pose a
significant risk of exposure.
 Dry and cracked skin can provide a route to exposure. Using
lotion to keep the skin on your hands healthy can help prevent
exposure.

4. PROPER STORAGE CONTAINERS

This applies to individual containers, storage cabinets, and waste.

 Storing organic solvents in plastic bottles can compromise the

container, just like acids in metal containers or HF in glass.
 Chemicals should be stored in containers made of materials that
will not react.
 Large volumes of flammable chemicals must be stored in fire
rated cabinets. Acids and caustics should ideally be stored in
separate cabinets lined with plastic to prevent any vapors from
reacting with the metal housing. Chemicals known to react
violently when mixed should be stored separately.
 As with chemical storage, waste should be stored in non-reactive
containers, or containers with non-reactive liners.

5. LABEL YOUR WORK SPACE

 All containers should be labeled with their contents. This is

crucial so those working near you and anyone visiting the lab will
know what hazards may be present. Ideally the hazards present
should be included on any label.
 Any research process with a particular hazard should also be
labeled with that hazard.
 6. DON’T WORK ALONE

During normal operations one should never work alone in a laboratory

setting.
 Additional eyes in a situation may notice hazards you can not
initially see.
 Having other researchers around will also provide faster support
in the event of an emergency.

7. STAY FOCUSED AND AWARE OF YOUR SORROUNDINGS

 A lab can be a very busy environment. Researchers are working

side by side on differing projects that can have different hazards.
It is important to be aware of your surroundings and the work that
is going on around you.
 Work with purpose. Labs can also be an environment filled with
distractions. When working with hazardous material it is
critical that you focus on what you are doing and try to eliminate
distractions.
 Avoid using headphones. Listening to music while doing
repetitive work can be relaxing but it eliminates one of your five
senses used in situational awareness. If you can not hear what is
going on around you it is possible to miss the sound of a glass
container breaking or a warning from a colleague. To better hear
 what is around you try listening to music at lower volume, or with
only one ear covered.

8. PARTICIPATE IN SAFETY EXERCISES

 Ensure all lab members are familiar with the lab's safety
equipment.
 Make sure everyone knows where the nearest fire pull station,
extinguisher, spill kit, first aid kit, and AED are.
 Know how to get out of your building and where to go after and
evacuation.
 Organize or attend an annual evacuation drill.

BATTERIES

WHAT IS A BATTERY?

A battery is what transforms chemical energy into electrical energy

by means of one or more electrical cells. Practically speaking, every
battery is a galvanic cell in which chemical energy is produced by
redox reactions between two electrodes.

Battery types

Batteries can be broadly divided into two major types.

  Primary Cell / Primary battery -

Primary batteries are single-use batteries because they cannot be recharged. A

common primary battery is the dry cell (Figure 17.5.117.5.1). The dry cell is a zinc-c
arbon battery. The zinc can serves as both a container and the negative electrode. The
positive electrode is a rod made of carbon that is surrounded by a paste of
manganese(IV) oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium chloride, carbon powder, and a small
amount of water.

 Secondary Cell / Secondary battery -

Secondary batteries are rechargeable. These are the types of batteries found in
devices such as smartphones, electronic tablets, and automobiles.

1. Household Batteries

These are the types of batteries which are more likely to be known to the common man.
They find uses in a wide range of household appliances (such as torches, clocks, and
cameras). These batteries can be further classified into two subcategories:

 Rechargeable batteries Nickel

Examples: Cadmium batteries, Lithium-Ion

 Non-rechargeable batteries
Examples: Silver oxide, Alkaline & carbon zinc

2. Industrial Batteries

These batteries are built to serve heavy-duty requirements. Some of their applications
include railroad, backup power and more for big companies. Some examples are:
Nickel Iron
Wet Nickel Cadmium (NiCd)

3. Vehicle Batteries

These are more user-friendly and a less complicated version of the industrial batteries.
They are specifically designed to power cars, motorcycles, boats & other vehicles. An
important example of a vehicle battery is the Lead-acid battery.
These are batteries in which there is just one path of redox reaction. These batteries run out of
life after a given amount of time due to the reactants being used. The chemicals in a primary
battery run out before they can be used again.

A main battery is a dry cell, which is a type of household battery frequently used to power
clocks, TV remotes, and other electronics. These cells use a carbon rod as the cathode and a
zinc container as the anode. The cathode is surrounded by a powdered combination of carbon
and manganese dioxide. A paste made of moist ammonium chloride and zinc chloride is placed
in the empty space between the container and the rod.

The redox reaction that takes place in these cells is:

At Anode

Zn(s) –> Zn2+ (aq) + 2e–

At Cathode

2e– + 2 NH4+ (aq) –> 2 NH3 (g) + H2 (g)

2 NH3 (g) +Zn2+ (aq) –> [Zn (NH3)2] 2+ (aq)

H2 (g) + 2 MnO2 (S) –> Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)

Thus, the overall cell equation is:

Zn(s) + 2 NH4+ (aq) + 2 MnO2 (S) –> [Zn(NH3)2] 2+ (aq) + Mn2O3 (S) + H2O (l)

Another example of the primary cell is the mercury cell, where a zinc-mercury amalgam is used
as an anode and carbon is used as a cathode. A paste of HgO is used as an electrolyte. These
cells are used only in devices that require a relatively low supply of electric current (such as
hearing aids and watches).
Secondary Cell

These are batteries that can be recharged after use by passing current through the electrodes in
the opposite direction, i.e. from the negative terminal to the positive terminal.

For instance, there is a maximum amount of times that a lead storage battery used in
inverters and cars may be recharged. A lead grid filled with lead dioxide makes up the cathode
of the lead storage battery, which is composed of a lead anode. An electrolyte consisting of 38%
sulfuric acid is utilized. The following is a list of the oxidation and reduction reactions that this
process involves.

At Anode

Pb –> Pb2++ 2 e–

Pb+ SO42– –>PbSO4(electrode) + 2 e–

At Cathode

2 e–+ PbO2+ 4 H+ –> Pb2++ 2 H2O

2 e–+ PbO2+ 4 H++ SO42- –> PbSO4(electrode) + 2 H2O

In order to recharge these batteries, the charge is transferred in the opposite direction and the
reaction is reversed, thus converting PbSO4 back to Pb and PbO2.

Another example of the secondary cell is the nickel-cadmium cell. These cells have high storage
capacities and their lifespan is relatively long (compared to other secondary cells). However,
they are difficult to manufacture and maintain.

CORROSION

What is Corrosion?
Corrosion is a natural process in which a refined metal is
converted to a more chemically stable form, such as oxide,
hydroxide, or sulphide. It is the gradual decomposition of materials
(usually metals) as a result of chemical and/or electrochemical
reactions with their surroundings.

Corrosion is the gradual deterioration of metals caused by the action of air, moisture, or
a chemical reaction (such as an acid) on their surface. Rusting of iron, or the forming of a brown
flaky material on iron objects when exposed to moist air, is the most common example of metal
corrosion.
 As metals are exposed to the elements, they react with the air or water in the atmosphere to
produce unwanted compounds. Corrosion is the term for this operation. The atmosphere attacks
the least active metals, such as gold, platinum, and palladium.
Fe (s) + O2 (g) + xH2O (l) → Fe2O3.xH2O (s)

TYPES OF CORROSION

A refined metal can naturally undergo corrosion to change into a more chemically stable
form, such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulphide. It describes the slow breakdown of materials
(mostly metals) as a result of interactions with their environment, either chemically or
electrochemically.

 Crevice Corrosion – Crevice corrosion is corrosion that occurs in confined spaces

where the working fluid’s access to the atmosphere is limited. Crevices are the common
name for these spaces. Another damaging form of localized corrosion is crevice
corrosion. It typically occurs in areas where free access to the external environment is
limited, such as under deposits. Contact of metals with metals or metals with non-
metals, such as gaskets, couplings, and joints, causes crevice corrosion.

 Galvanic Corrosion – Galvanic corrosion is most often seen in galvanized iron, which is
a zinc-coated sheet of iron or steel. The underlying steel is not attacked even though the
protective zinc coating is broken. Galvanic corrosion, also known as “dissimilar metal
corrosion” or “electrolysis,” occurs when two dissimilar materials are combined in a
corrosive electrolyte and cause corrosion harm. It happens when two or more dissimilar
metals come into electrical contact when submerged.
 Uniform Corrosion – Uniform corrosion is also described as corrosion that occurs at a
consistent rate across an exposed metal surface. The primary cause of uniform
corrosion of steel and other metals and alloys in the natural environment is oxygen.
Rusting, silver tarnishing, nickel fogging, and high-temperature oxidation are all
examples of uniform corrosion. For handling chemical media, the rate of uniform
corrosion is usually expressed in IPY (inches penetration per year) and/or (MDD)
milligrams per square decimetre per day.

 Pitting Corrosion – Pitting corrosion, also known as pitting, is a type of localized

corrosion that results in the formation of small holes in metal. One of the most popular
coating methods for pitting corrosion protection is zinc phosphate priming. Zinc
phosphate primers, for example, are specially developed to increase corrosion
resistance. Zinc spray metallizing is a highly effective anti-corrosion method.
How to Prevent Corrosion of Metals?
The only surefire approach to fix rust once it has been identified is to remove it. Light surface
corrosion can be removed by abrasion (the specifics of which depend on the metallurgy of the
corroded section), which is followed by a corrosion inhibitor (such zinc-chromate primer),
another primer, and paint.

Metals can be protected from corrosion by applying one of the following coatings to their
surfaces:

 By plastering the surface with oil, grease, paint, or varnish.

 By coating/depositing a thin film of some other non-corroding metal

Paints have the ability to stop corrosion by changing the anodic process; however, for this to
occur, the pigment needs to be metallic, simple, or soluble. Paint films are generally resistant to
ions because of their high electrolytic resistance, which allows them to easily take up a charge.

Coatings have the ability to slow down the absorption of oxygen and water from the
atmosphere onto the metal surface. It slows down corrosion as a result. The paint film can slow
the pace at which corrosion products diffuse from the metal surface via it. This also has the
effect of slowing down corrosion.

The iron alloy steel is coated with a less active metal, such as tin, for anodic protection. Tin
does not corrode, so as long as the tin coating is in place, the steel will be covered. Since the
steel becomes the anode of an electrochemical cell, this approach is known as anodic safety.

ELECTROPLATING
 WHAT IS ELECTROPLATING ?

Basically, electroplating is the hydrolysis-based

process of plating one metal onto another, usually
for ornamental or anti-corrosion reasons. In order
to create a thin, coherent metal coating on the
electrode, the technique uses an electric current to
dissolve dissolved metal cations. Electroplating is
frequently used to electrically oxidize anions on a
solid substrate, such as when silver chloride forms
on silver wire to create electrodes made of silver
chloride.

Electroplating is majorly applied to modify the surface features of an object (e.g corrosion
protection, lubricity, abrasion), but the process can also be used to build thickness or make
objects by electro forming.

The Anode and Cathode

In the process of electroplating, the anode, or positive electrode, and the cathode, or
negative electrode, are often connected by an external source of current. The electrode where
the electrochemical reduction reaction takes place is called the cathode. The electrochemical
oxidation reaction takes place at the anode.

Two anodes and one cathode are used in the electroplating process. The metal that has
been dissolved from the anode can be plated onto the cathode during electroplating. Direct
current is applied to the anode, which causes its metal atoms to oxidize and dissolve in the
electrolyte solution. The dissolved metal ions are reduced at the cathode, whereupon the metal
is applied to the product.

How does Electroplating Work?

 To understand the concept further, let’s take an example of a gold coating. In this instance, a
layer of gold is to be electrodeposited on metallic jewellery to enhance its appearance.

Usually, the gold plating is connected to the anode (+ve charged electrode) of the circuit and
the jewellery is kept at the cathode (-ve charged electrode). Both are kept immersed in a highly
developed electrolytic bat (solution). At this stage, a DC current is supplied to the anode that
oxidizes the gold atoms and dissolves them into the solution.

The dissolved ions of gold are reduced at the cathode and plated on the jewellery.

However, there are major factors that influence the last plating. These include:

 The voltage level of current.

 The temperature and chemical composition of the bath.
 The current length of time.
 The distance between the cathode and the anode.

WHICH METALS ARE USED IN THE ELECTROPLATING PROCESS?

Plating can occur with individual metals or in various combinations (alloys) that can provide
additional value to the electroplating process. Some of the most commonly used metals for
electroplating include:

 Copper: Copper is often used for its conductivity and heat resistance. It is also
commonly used to improve adhesion between layers of material.
 Zinc: Zinc is highly corrosion-resistant. Often, zinc is alloyed with other metals to
enhance this property. For example, when alloyed with nickel, zinc is particularly
resistant to atmospheric corrosion.
  Tin: This matte, bright metal is highly solderable and corrosion resistant as well
as environmentally friendly. It is also inexpensive compared to other metals.

 Nickel: Nickel offers excellent wear resistance, which can be improved through
heat treatment. Its alloys are also very valuable, offering elemental resistance,
hardness and conductivity. Electroless nickel plating is also valued for its
corrosion resistance, magnetism, low friction and hardness.

 Gold: This precious metal offers high corrosion, tarnish and wear resistance and
is coveted for its conductivity and aesthetic appeal.

 Silver: Silver is not as corrosion resistant as gold, but it is highly ductile and
malleable, has excellent resistance to contact wear and offers excellent
aesthetics. It is also an alternative to gold in applications where thermal and
electrical conductivity is needed.

 Palladium: This bright metal is often used instead of gold or platinum for its
hardness, corrosion resistance and beautiful finish. When alloyed with nickel, this
metal achieves excellent hardness and plating quality.

 Price, substrate composition and desired result are key factors when determining
the most appropriate electroplating material for your application.

There are several different plating techniques available, each of which can be used in various
applications. Some of these types of electroplating are described in more detail below:

 Barrel plating: Barrel plating is a method used to plate large groups of small
parts. In this process, parts are placed inside a barrel filled with an electrolyte
solution. The electroplating process proceeds while the barrel is rotated, agitating
the parts so that they receive consistently even finishes. Barrel plating is best
used on small, durable parts, but offers a cheap, efficient and flexible solution.

 Rack electroplating: Rack or wiring plating is a good option if you need to plate
large groups of parts. In this method, parts are placed on a wire rack, allowing
each part to come into physical contact with the electrical power source. Though
more expensive, this option is optimal for more delicate parts that cannot
undergo barrel plating. It is important to note that rack plating is more difficult for
parts that are sensitive to electricity or have an irregular shape.
  Electroless plating: Electroless plating, also known as autocatalytic plating, uses
a similar process as electrodeposition but does not directly apply electricity to the
part. Instead, the plating metal is dissolved and deposited using a chemical
reaction in place of an electrical one. While this option is useful for parts that are
incompatible with electrical currents, it is more costly and less productive than
other options.

While these methods accomplish electrodeposition in different ways, they all use the same
basic principles.

Uses of Electroplating

Talking about the uses of electroplating, apart from enhancing the appearance of the
substrate it is used in various other purposes as well. The major application is to optimize a
material’s resistance towards corrosion. The plated layer often serves as a sacrificial coating
which reveals that it dissolves before the base substance. Some of the other common
applications of electroplating involve:

 Improving wear resistance.

 Improving the thickness of the metal surface.
 Enhancing the electrical conductivity like plating a copper layer on an electrical
component.
 Minimizing Friction.
 Improving surface uniformity.