DEPARTMENT

OF
HISTOLOGY-
EMBRYOLOGY
HISTOLOGY II EndocrIne system
LECTURE
 Introduction
3

Hypothalamus
15
Pituitary gland
16

Thyroid gland
32

Parathyroid gland
40
Pineal gland
44
Adrenal gland
47

References
64

26.12.2023
 Introduction to Endocrine System

• The endocrine system is a major regulator of homeostasis that modulates many

biological functions playing an essential role in the interaction between millions of
complex mechanisms that make normal life possible. Thus, longitudinal growth and
development, reproduction, regulation of fluid and electrolyte balance, and control of
food intake and energy expenditure represent some of the crucial physiological
functions regulated by hormones.

• Endocrine secretions, together with the nervous system, coordinate water and ion
balance, metabolism, reproduction, and nutrient absorption. Consequently, most
tissues in the body are targets for one or more endocrine hormones.
ENDOCRINE
SYSTEM
 How Do We Define the Endocrine System?

When comparing the endocrine system with the nervous system or the immune system,
we should recognize that the endocrine system is distinguished by the following two
characteristics:

1. Single organs at defined places:

• Very few single organs are found in the endocrine system, rather some of them are
doubled and are present on both sides of the body. In contrast, in the immune system,
there are some single organs such as the spleen and thymus, many lymph nodes with
similar functions are distributed across the whole organism.
 How Do We Define the
Endocrine System?

2. Soluble mediators with distant effects

• This contrasts with the nervous system, where information is transferred across the
very narrow synaptic cleft. Nerve cells with their axons connect the distant organs
and body regions: that is, far-reaching cells and short ways for the mediators
(neurotransmitters) in the nervous system, narrowly defined organs, and far-
reaching mediators (hormones) in the endocrine system.
What Is a
Hormone?
 • Hormones, like neurotransmitters, are frequently
hydrophilic molecules such as proteins,
glycoproteins, peptides, or modified amino acids with
receptors on the surface of target cells.
• Alternatively, hydrophobic steroid and thyroid
hormones must circulate on transport proteins but
can diffuse through the cell membranes and activate
cytoplasmic receptors in target cells.
• Hormones can be divided into three main groups in
Hormone terms of their origin;
Classes A) Protein/Peptide Hormones:
• Insulin, glucagon, growth hormone [GH], adrenocorticotropic hormone
[ACTH], follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH], luteinizing hormone [LH],
antidiuretic hormone [ADH], oxytocin, interleukins, and various growth
factors

B) Steroids Hormones:
• Gonadal and adrenocortical steroids

C) Amino Acid Derivatives:

• Catecholamines (norepinephrine and epinephrine-phenylalanine/tyrosine
derivatives), prostaglandins, prostacyclins, leukotrienes, and thyroid
hormones
❑ Proteins and polypeptides hormones are synthesized in the rough endoplasmic reticulum. Proteins and polypeptide
hormones bind to cell membrane receptors on target tissues. Peptide hormones require second messengers for effects and
generally have rapid response times.

❑ Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol. Consequently, steroid hormones are generally poorly soluble in water and,
following secretion, are transported bound to plasma-binding proteins. Steroids diffuse across the plasma membrane and bind
to a cytoplasmic binding protein. The steroid–binding protein complex diffuses to the nucleus and activates a hormone
response element, which initiates DNA transcription and translation. Some steroids, like aldosterone and estrogen, can
produce acute effects independent of any nuclear effects. This allows such hormones to have both acute and chronic actions.

❑ Peptide and catecholamine hormones first bind to cell membrane receptors and consequently have a rapid onset of response.
Some second messenger systems affect transcription and translation, allowing peptide hormones to also have longer term
trophic activities.

❑ NOTE: Thyroid hormones bind cytoplasmic receptors and alter DNA transcription, similarly to steroid hormones.
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM (CONTROL & REGULATION)
• Endocrine system is controlled by three
mechanisms. It can be categorized as endocrine
control, paracrine control and autocrine control.
a) According to endocrine monitoring system, one
hormone is released from a cell into blood stream
and is transported to the effector cells to regulate
their functions (figure a).
b) In paracrine regulation system, the hormone is
discharged from one cell and acts on
adjacent/neighbor cells that express specific
receptors (figure b).
c) If the hormone responds to the receptors located
on the cell that produces it, this regulation is
referred to as autocrine control, in other words,
one cell affect itself either positively or
negatively by releasing a hormone (figure c).
 ENDOCRINE SYSTEM CONTROL & REGULATION
• Endocrine monitoring system is regulated by two different action systems called feedback mechanism. This
mechanism can be subdivided into two main groups; positive and negative feedback cycles.
• A positive feedback loop in the endocrine system is when release of a hormone initiates actions that lead to an
additional release of that hormone. Although, negative feedback loops provide precise control of endocrine
secretions. The controlled component of the negative feedback loop can be ion concentrations, physical
parameters (e.g., blood pressure), and hormone concentrations.
• Endocrine control often is integrated with neural function. Sympathetic nerves innervate some endocrine organs,
such as the adrenal medulla and pancreas. Nerves in the hypothalamus release factors controlling anterior
pituitary secretions. Nervous system function often complements endocrine actions.
 ❖ HYPOTHALAMUS

❖Pituitary gland

❖ Thyroid gland

❖Parathyroid gland

❖ Pineal gland
ENDOCRINE
ORGANS ❖ Adrenal gland
 1. HYPOTHALAMUS
The hypothalamus sits dorsal to the pituitary gland and regulates secretion of both
anterior and posterior pituitary hormones. Hypothalamic-releasing hormones regulate
secretion of five of the six anterior pituitary hormones.
1. Thyroid hormone–releasing hormone (thyroid-releasing hormone, TRH) controls
pituitary output of thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH).
2. Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) controls pituitary secretion of
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).
3. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) causes release of both pituitary
luteinizing hormone (LH) and pituitary follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH).
4. Growth hormone–releasing hormone (GHRH) regulates pituitary secretion of
growth hormone (GH).
5. Two hypothalamic hormones inhibit pituitary secretion. Prolactin inhibitory
hormone (dopamine) inhibits pituitary release of prolactin. Somatostatin has a
negative impact on releasing of somatotropin and TSH.
 The pituitary gland, or hypophysis (Gr. hypo, under + physis, growth)
lies below the brain in a small cavity on the sphenoid bone, the sella
turcica. The pituitary is formed in the embryo partly from the
developing brain and partially from the developing oral cavity
(Rathke’s pouch).

2. PITUITARY The neural component is the neurohypophyseal bud growing down

GLAND
from the floor of the future diencephalon as a stalk (or
infundibulum) that remains attached to the brain.

(HYPOPHYSIS)

The oral component arises as an outpocketing of ectoderm from the

roof of the primitive mouth and grows cranially, forming a structure
called the hypophyseal (Rathke) pouch.
• Because of its dual origin, the pituitary actually consists of
two glands—the posterior neurohypophysis and the
anterior adenohypophysis—united anatomically but with
different functions.

• The neurohypophysis retains many histologic features of

brain tissue and consists of a large part, the pars nervosa, 2. PITUITARY
GLAND
and the smaller infundibulum stalk attached to the
hypothalamus at the median eminence.
(HYPOPHYSIS)
The adenohypophysis, derived from the oral ectoderm, has
three parts:
a) a large pars distalis or anterior lobe;
b) the pars tuberalis, which wraps around the infundibulum;
c) the thin pars intermedia adjacent to the posterior pars
nervosa.
 The Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Tract & Blood Supply

• The pituitary gland’s neural connection to the brain and its

blood supply are both of key importance for its function.
Embryologically, anatomically, and functionally, the pituitary
gland is connected to the hypothalamus at the base of the
brain.
• In addition to the vascular portal system carrying small
regulatory peptides from the hypothalamus to the
adenohypophysis, a bundle of axons called the
hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract courses into the
neurohypophysis from two important hypothalamic nuclei.
• The peptide hormones ADH (antidiuretic hormone) and
oxytocin are synthesized by large neurons in the supraoptic
and the paraventricular nuclei, respectively. Both hormones
undergo axonal transport and accumulate temporarily in the
axons of the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract before their
release and uptake by capillaries branching from the inferior
arteries.
 The Hypothalamic-Hypophyseal Tract & Blood Supply

• The blood supply derives from two groups of vessels coming

off the internal carotid artery and drained by the hypophyseal
vein. The superior hypophyseal arteries supply the median
eminence and the infundibular stalk; the inferior
hypophyseal arteries provide blood mainly for the
neurohypophysis. The superior arteries divide into a primary
plexus of fenestrated capillaries that irrigate the stalk and
median eminence. These capillaries then rejoin to form
venules that branch again as a larger secondary capillary
plexus in the adenohypophysis.

• These vessels make up the hypothalamic-hypophyseal

portal system that has great importance because it carries
neuropeptides from the median eminence.
 Adenohypophysis (Anterior Pituitary)
• The three parts of the adenohypophysis are derived embryonically from the hypophyseal
pouch.

Pars tuberalis Neurohypophsis

✓Pars Distalis Pars nervosa

✓Pars Intermedia
Pars distalis

✓Pars Tuberalis
 Pars Distalis
Chromophobes • The pars distalis accounts for 75% of the
adenohypophysis and has a thin fibrous
capsule. The main components are cords of
well-stained endocrine cells interspersed with
fenestrated capillaries and supporting reticular
connective tissue. Common stains suggest two
Chromophils
broad groups of cells in the pars distalis with
different staining affinities: chromophils and
chromophobes.
• Chromophils are secretory cells in which
hormone is stored in cytoplasmic granules.
They are also called basophils and
acidophils, based on their affinities for basic
and acidic dyes, respectively.
 Pars Distalis
• Specific cells are usually named according
to their hormone’s target cells. Acidophils
secrete either growth hormone
(somatotropin) or prolactin (PRL) and are
called somatotrophs and lactotrophs (or
somatotropic cells and lactotropic cells),
respectively.

• The basophilic cells are the corticotrophs,

gonadotrophs, and thyrotrophs, with
target cells in the adrenal cortex, gonads,
and thyroid gland, respectively.
 Pars Distalis
• With two exceptions, each type of anterior pituitary cell makes
one kind of hormone. Gonadotrophs secrete two different
glycoproteins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing hormone (LH) (called interstitial cell-stimulating
hormone [ICSH]). The main protein synthesized in corticotrophs
is pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), which is cleaved
posttranslationally into the polypeptide hormones adrenocortical
trophic hormone (ACTH) and β-lipotropin(β-LPH).
• Hormones produced by the pars distalis have widespread
functional activities. They regulate almost all other endocrine
glands, ovarian function and sperm production, milk production,
and the metabolism of muscle, bone, and adipose tissue.
• Chromophobes stain weakly, with few or no secretory granules,
and also represent a heterogeneous group, including stem and
undifferentiated progenitor cells as well as any degranulated
cells present.
 Pars Tuberalis

• The pars tuberalis is a smaller funnel-shaped region surrounding the infundibulum of the
neurohypophysis. Most of the cells of the pars tuberalis are gonadotrophs.

Pars tuberalis Neurohypophsis

Pars nervosa

Pars distalis
 Pars Intermedia

• A narrow zone lying between the pars distalis and

the pars nervosa, the pars intermedia contains
basophils (corticotrophs), chromophobes, and
small, colloid-filled cysts derived from the lumen
of the embryonic hypophyseal pouch.

• Best-developed and active during fetal life,

corticotrophs of the pars intermedia express
POMC (pro-opiomelanocortin) but cleave it
differently from cells in the pars distalis,
producing mainly smaller peptide hormones,
including two forms of melanocyte-stimulating
hormone (MSH), γ-LPH, and β-endorphin. MSH
increases melanocyte activity, but the overall
functional significance of the pars intermedia
remains uncertain.
Control of Hormone Secretion in the
Anterior Pituitary

• The activities of the cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled primarily by peptide-related
hypothalamic hormones produced by small neurons (ventromedial nucleus, and arcuate
nucleus).

• Most of these hormones are releasing hormones that stimulate secretion by specific anterior
pituitary cells.

• Two of the hypothalamic factors, however, are inhibiting hormones, which block hormone
secretion in specific cells of the adenohypophysis. Another mechanism controlling activity of
anterior pituitary cells is negative feedback by hormones from the target organs on secretion of
the relevant hypothalamic factors and on hormone secretion by the relevant pituitary cells.
 Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary)

• The neurohypophysis consists of the pars nervosa and the

infundibular stalk and median eminence, unlike the
adenohypophysis, does not contain the cells that synthesize its two
hormones. It is composed of neural tissue, containing
unmyelinated axons of large secretory neurons with cell bodies in
the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus.
Also present are highly branched glial cells called pituicytes that
resemble astrocytes and are the most abundant cell type in the
posterior pituitary.
• The secretory neurons have all the characteristics of typical
neurons, including the ability to conduct an action potential, but
have larger-diameter axons and well-developed synthetic
components related to the production of the 9-amino acid peptide
hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH)—also called arginine
vasopressin—and oxytocin.
 Neurohypophysis
Blood vessel

Pituicytes

Unmiyelinated nerve fiber

• Transported axonally into the pars nervosa, these hormones accumulate in axonal dilations called
neurosecretory bodies or Herring bodies, visible in the light microscope as faintly eosinophilic structures. The
neurosecretory bodies contain membrane-enclosed granules with either oxytocin or ADH bound to 10-kDa
carrier proteins called neurophysin I and II, respectively.
• Nerve impulses along the axons trigger the release of the peptides from the neurosecretory bodies for uptake by
the fenestrated capillaries of the pars nervosa, and the hormones are then distributed to the general circulation.
 3. THYROID GLAND

• The thyroid gland, located anterior and inferior to the

larynx, consists of two lobes united by an isthmus.
• It synthesizes the thyroid hormones thyroxine (tetra-
iodothyronine or T4) and tri-iodothyronine (T3), which
help control the basal metabolic rate in cells throughout the
body, as well as the polypeptide hormone calcitonin.
• The parenchyma of the thyroid is composed of millions of
rounded epithelial thyroid follicles of variable diameter,
each with simple epithelium and a central lumen densely
filled with gelatinous acidophilic colloid.
• The thyroid is the only endocrine gland in which a large
quantity of secretory product is stored. Moreover, storage is
outside the cells, in the colloid of the follicle lumen, which
is also unusual. Thyroid colloid contains the large
glycoprotein thyroglobulin, the precursor for the active
thyroid hormones.
 • The thyroid gland is covered by a fibrous capsule from
which septa extend into the parenchyma, dividing it into
lobules and carrying blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatics.
Follicles are densely packed together, separated from one
another only by sparse reticular connective tissue, although
3. THYROID this stroma is very well vascularized with fenestrated
capillaries for transfer of released hormone to the blood.

GLAND • The follicular cells, or thyrocytes, range in shape from

squamous to low columnar, their size and other features
varying with their activity, which is controlled by thyroid-
stimulating hormone (TSH) from the anterior pituitary.
Active glands have more follicles of low columnar
epithelium; glands with mostly squamous follicular cells
are hypoactive.
Thyroid Follicles
 3. THYROID GLAND
• Thyrocytes have apical junctional complexes and rest
on a basal lamina. The cells exhibit organelles
indicating active protein synthesis and secretion, as
well as phagocytosis and digestion. The nucleus is
generally round and central.
• Another endocrine cell type, the parafollicular cell,
or C cell, is also found inside the basal lamina of the
follicular epithelium or as isolated clusters between Parafollicular cell or C
follicles. Derived from the neural crest, parafollicular cell
cells are usually somewhat larger than follicular cells
and stain less intensely. They have a smaller amount
of rough ER, large Golgi complexes, and numerous
small granules containing calcitonin.
• Secretion of calcitonin is triggered by elevated blood
Ca2+ levels, and it inhibits osteoclast activity, thereby
decreasing the levels of calcium in blood. Simple columnar epithelial cells
 Production of Thyroid Hormone & Its Control

• Production, storage, and release of thyroid hormones involve an unusual, multistage process in the
thyrocytes, with both an exocrine phase and an endocrine phase. The major activities of this process
include the following six steps:

1. The production of thyroglobulin, which is similar to that in other glycoprotein-exporting cells,

with synthesis in the rough ER and glycosylation in the Golgi apparatus. The glycoprotein is
released as an exocrine product from apical vesicles of thyrocytes into the follicular lumen.

2. The uptake of iodide from blood by Na/I symporters (NIS) in the thyrocytes’ basolateral cell
membranes, which allows for 30-fold concentration of dietary iodide in thyroid tissue relative to
plasma. Decreased levels of circulating iodide trigger synthesis of NIS, increasing iodide uptake
and compensating for the lower plasma concentration. An apical iodide/chloride transporter (also
called pendrin) pumps I– from thyrocytes into the colloid.
• 3. Iodination of tyrosyl residues in thyroglobulin with either one or two atoms
occurs in the colloid after oxidation of iodide to iodine by membrane-bound thyroid
peroxidase on the microvilli surfaces of thyrocytes.

• 4. Formation of T3 and T4 (also called thyroxine) occurs as two iodinated tyrosines,

still part of colloidal thyroglobulin, which are covalently conjugated in coupling
reactions.

• 5. Endocytosis of iodinated thyroglobulin by the thyrocytes involves both fluid-

phase pinocytosis and receptor-mediated endocytosis. The endocytic vesicles fuse
with lysosomes, and the thyroglobulin is thoroughly degraded by lysosomal
proteases, freeing active thyroid hormone as both T3 and T4.

• 6. Secretion of T4 and T3 at the basolateral domains of thyrocytes occurs in an

endocrine manner.
 4. PARATHYROID GLANDS

• The parathyroid glands are four small ovoid masses

and located on the back of the thyroid gland, usually
embedded in the larger gland’s capsule. The
microvasculature of each arises from the inferior
thyroid arteries. Each parathyroid gland is contained
within a thin capsule from which septa extend into
the gland. A sparse reticular stroma supports dense
elongated clusters of secretory cells.
 • The endocrine cells of the parathyroid glands, called principal (chief)
cells, are small polygonal cells with round nuclei and pale-staining,
slightly acidophilic cytoplasm. Irregularly shaped cytoplasmic granules
contain the polypeptide parathyroid hormone (PTH), an important
regulator of blood calcium levels.

4. PTH has three major targets:

PTH is secreted in response to low blood serum calcium (Ca2+) levels.
PARATHYROID a)
PTH stimulates osteoclast activity within the bone matrix. The
GLANDS resulting resorption of the calcified bone matrix and release of Ca2+
increase the concentration of circulating Ca2+. However, secretion of
calcitonin is triggered by elevated blood Ca2+ levels, and it inhibits
osteoclast activity. The effect of PTH on blood levels of Ca2+ is thus
opposite to that of calcitonin.
b) In the distal convoluted tubules of the renal cortex, PTH stimulates
Ca2+ reabsorption (and inhibits phosphate reabsorption in the proximal
tubules).
c) PTH also indirectly increases the Ca2+ absorption in the small intestine
by stimulating vitamin D activation.
• Much smaller populations of oxyphil cells, often
clustered, are sometimes also present in parathyroid
glands, more commonly in older individuals. These are
much larger than the principal cells and are
characterized by very acidophilic cytoplasm.
Accumulating with age, oxyphil cells are degenerated
derivatives of principal cells, with some still exhibiting
low levels of PTH synthesis.
 • The pineal gland, also known as the epiphysis cerebri,
5. PINEAL regulates the daily rhythms of bodily activities. A small,
pine cone-shaped organ, the pineal gland develops from

GLAND neuroectoderm and remains attached to the brain by a

short stalk. The pineal gland is covered by connective
tissue of the pia mater, from which septa containing small
blood vessels emerge and subdivide variously sized
lobules.

• Prominent and abundant secretory cells called

pinealocytes have slightly basophilic cytoplasm and
irregular euchromatic nuclei. Ultrastructurally
pinealocytes are seen to have secretory vesicles, many
mitochondria, and long cytoplasmic processes extending
to the vascularized septa, where they end in dilatations
near capillaries, indicating an endocrine function. These
cells produce melatonin, a low-molecular-weight
tryptophan derivative. It negatively influences melanin
production in melanocytes. Melatonin is an antagonist
hormone of melanin stimulating hormone (MSH).
 5. PINEAL GLAND
• Melatonin release from pinealocytes is promoted by
darkness and inhibited by daylight. The resulting diurnal
fluctuation in blood melatonin levels induces rhythmic
changes in the activity of the hypothalamus, pituitary
gland, and other endocrine tissues that characterize the
circadian (24 hours, day/night) rhythm of physiological
functions and behaviors.

• In humans and other mammals, the cycle of light and

darkness is detected within the retinas and transmitted
to the pineal gland via the retinohypothalamic tract,
the suprachiasmatic nucleus, and the tracts of
sympathetic fibers entering the pineal gland. The
pineal gland acts, therefore, as a neuroendocrine
transducer, converting sensory input regarding light
and darkness into variations in many hormonal
functions.
 5. PINEAL GLAND

• The pineal gland also has interstitial glial cells that are modified
astrocytes, staining positively for glial fibrillary acidic protein,
which represent about 5% of the cells. These have elongated
nuclei more heavily stained than those of pinealocytes and are
usually found in perivascular areas and between the groups of
pinealocytes.

• A characteristic feature of the pineal gland is the presence of

variously sized concretions of calcium and magnesium salts
called corpora arenacea, or brain sand, formed by mineralization
of extracellular protein deposits.
 • The adrenal (or suprarenal) glands are paired organs
lying near the superior poles of the kidneys, embedded in
the pararenal adipose tissue and fascia. They are flattened
structures with a half-moon shape.

• Adrenal glands are each covered by a dense connective

tissue capsule that sends thin trabeculae into the gland’s
parenchyma. The stroma consists mainly of reticular
6. ADRENAL fibers supporting the secretory cells and
microvasculature. Each gland has two concentric regions:
GLAND a yellowish adrenal cortex and a reddish-brown central
adrenal medulla.

• The adrenal cortex and medulla can be considered two

different organs with distinct embryonic origins,
functions, and morphologic characteristics that become
united during embryonic development like pituitary
gland. The cortex arises from mesoderm and the medulla
from the neural crest.
 6. Adrenal gland

A) Adrenal cortex B) Adrenal medulla

1. Zona glomerulosa or arcuata
2. Zona fasciculata
3. Zona reticularis
 a) Adrenal Cortex

• Cells of the adrenal cortex have characteristic features of

steroid-secreting cells: acidophilic cytoplasm rich in lipid
droplets, with central nuclei. The function of steroid-
producing cells involves close collaboration between SER
and mitochondria.

• Steroid hormones are not stored in granules like proteins

nor undergo exocytosis. As small lipid-soluble molecules,
steroids diffuse freely from cells through the plasma
membrane.

• The adrenal cortex has three concentric zones in which the

cords of epithelial steroid-producing cells are arranged
somewhat differently and which synthesize different classes
of steroid hormones.
 1. zona glomerulosa/arcuata

• The zona glomerulosa, immediately inside the capsule and comprising

about 15% of the cortex, consists of closely packed, rounded or arched
cords of columnar or pyramidal cells with many capillaries. The steroids
made by these cells are called mineralocorticoids because they affect
uptake of Na+, K+ and water by cells of renal tubules.

• The zona arcuata is the narrow area immediately beneath the capsule.
This part is so named due to the fact that, except in humans and
ruminants, the cellular cord alignment resembles an arch.

• The principal product is aldosterone, the major regulator of salt balance,

which acts to stimulate Na+ reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubules.
Aldosterone secretion is stimulated primarily by angiotensin II and also by
an increase in plasma K+ concentration, but only weakly by ACTH.
Ruminant Guinea pig

Zona Zona arcuata

Glomerulosa
 2. zona fasciculata

• The middle zona fasciculata, occupies 65%-80% of the cortex and consists of long
cords of large polyhedral cells, one or two cells thick, separated by fenestrated
sinusoidal capillaries. The cells are filled with lipid droplets and appear vacuolated in
routine histologic preparations.

• These cells secrete glucocorticoids, especially cortisol, which affect carbohydrate

metabolism by inducing gluconeogenesis in many cells and glycogen synthesis in the
liver. Cortisol also suppresses many immune functions and can trigger fat mobilization
and muscle proteolysis. Secretion is controlled by ACTH with negative feedback
proportional to the concentration of circulating glucocorticoids. Small amounts of
weak androgens are also produced here.
 3. zona reticularis
The innermost zona reticularis comprises about 10% of the cortex and
consists of smaller cells in a network of irregular cords interspersed with
wide capillaries. The cells are usually more heavily stained than those of the
other zones because they contain fewer lipid droplets and more lipofuscin
pigment.
Cells of the zona reticularis also produce cortisol but primarily secrete the
weak androgens, including dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) that is
converted to testosterone in both male and female. Secretion by these cells
is also stimulated by ACTH with regulatory feedback.
 • The adrenal medulla is composed of large, pale-staining
polyhedral cells arranged in cords or clumps and supported
by a reticular fiber network. A profuse supply of sinusoidal
capillaries intervenes between adjacent cords and a few
parasympathetic ganglion cells are present. Medullary
parenchymal cells, known as chromaffin cells, arise from
neural crest cells, as do the postganglionic neurons of
sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia. Chromaffin cells
B) can be considered modified sympathetic postganglionic
neurons, lacking axons and dendrites and specialized as
Adrenal secretory cells.

Medulla • Unlike cells of the adrenal cortex, chromaffin cells contain

many electron-dense granules for storage and secretion of
catecholamines, either epinephrine or norepinephrine. The
granules of epinephrine-secreting cells are less electron-dense
and generally smaller than those of norepinephrine-secreting
cells. Both catecholamines, together with Ca2+ and ATP, are
bound in granular storage complexes with proteins called
chromogranins.
 MEDULLA
CHROMAFFIN CELLS
Norepinephrine-secreting cells
Epinephrine-secreting cells

Sympathetic
Ganglion Cell
 b) Adrenal Medulla
• Norepinephrine-secreting cells are also found in paraganglia.
The conversion of norepinephrine to epinephrine (adrenalin)
occurs only in chromaffin cells of the adrenal medulla. About
80% of the catecholamine secreted from the adrenal gland is
epinephrine.

• Medullary chromaffin cells are innervated by preganglionic

sympathetic neurons, which trigger epinephrine and
norepinephrine release during stress and intense emotional
reactions.

• Epinephrine increases heart rate, dilates bronchioles, and

dilates arteries of cardiac and skeletal muscle.
Norepinephrine constricts vessels of the digestive system and
skin, increasing blood flow to the heart, muscles, and brain.
 THE PARAGANGLION

• Paraganglions are the group of cells that originates from the neural crest during embryonic
development. They gain the ability to perform a glandular feature.

• Paraganglial cells transform gland cells, losing their neural features and their extension
(axons and dendrites).

• These cells synthesize effective substances such as adrenaline, noradrenaline, and

acetylcholine.
 Since all paraganglia cells receive
innervation from the central
nervous system, they are kept under
control of the nervous system.
THE
PARAGANGLION
However, after a certain period of
life, they might regress or disappear.
 REFERENCES:

1) Kleine, B., & Rossmanith, W. G. (2016). Hormones and the endocrine system.

2) Greenstein, B., & Wood, D. F. (2011). The endocrine system at a glance. John Wiley & Sons.

3) Anthony, L. M. (2013). Junqueira’s basic histology: text and atlas.

4) Eurell, J. A., & Frappier, B. L. (Eds.). (2013). Dellmann's textbook of veterinary histology. John
Wiley & Sons.

5) Özer, A., Girgin, A., Alabay B., Liman, N., Özfiliz, N., Gülmez, N., Özcan, Z., Yörük, M., Erdost,
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Şti. Ankara
Thank you