Lab manual

Application of information and communication technology

Submitted to:-
Dr Amir Raza
Submitted by:-
Wadia hasnain

Roll no :-
E-45-24
Session:-
2024 – 2028

Department of communication and cyber security

Bahauddin zakariya university Multan
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Bahauddin Zakariya University,Multan.

Contents
Output Flow to Different Output Devices (Multiple Monitors/Projectors)18

Preparing a Desktop Computer24

Create a Bootable USB Flash drive in Windows/Linux using CMD28

INSTALLATION OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE40

Create a window installation media42

Working with Graphical User Interface (GUI) and Applications51

Basic File Management and System Commands56

Configuration of Virtual Machine64

Web, Connectivity, Security, Digital Marketing, and Social Media81

INSTALLATION Of SYSTEM SOFTWARE86

Microsoft Word (MS Word)89

Installation of Latex93
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Components of computer
[Hardware configuration]
Title
Demo Regarding Components of Computer System (Desktop Computer)-(Hardware
configuration -1)

Hardware
The physical parts of computer such as motherboard,CPU,RAM,hard drive and video
card, which we can touch.

CPU
CPU stands for Central Processing Unit, and it is the most important part of a computer
system in terms of computing power. It is also known as the central processor or main
processor. The CPU's main function is to execute instructions and manipulate data.

Here are some things to know about CPUs:

● Cores

A CPU has individual processing units called cores that can execute instructions
independently. CPUs with more cores can perform more tasks at once, which improves
performance for multi-threaded applications.

Key Components of a CPU:

1. ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit): Performs arithmetic operations (addition,

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subtraction, etc.) and logical operations (AND, OR, NOT).

2. Control Unit (CU): Directs the operation of the processor by interpreting

instructions from programs and triggering actions accordingly.

3. Registers: Small, fast storage locations that hold data temporarily for quick
access during operations.

4. Cache: A small, high-speed storage area that holds frequently accessed data to
improve performance.

5. Clock: Synchronizes the operations of the CPU. The clock speed, measured in
GHz (gigahertz), dictates how many instructions the CPU can process per second.

Types of CPUs:

● Single-core: A CPU with one processing unit (core). It's less common today but
was prevalent in older computers.

● Multi-core: Modern CPUs often have multiple cores (dual-core, quad-core, octa-
core, etc.), allowing for parallel processing, which improves performance in multi-
threaded applications.

Mainboard
The term "mainboard" generally refers to a motherboard, which is the primary circuit
board in a computer or electronic device. It connects and allows communication
between various hardware components like the CPU (Central Processing Unit), RAM
(Random Access Memory), storage devices, graphics card, and other peripherals.
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Mainboard/Motherboard Features:

1. CPU Socket: Where the processor is installed.

2. RAM Slots: For memory modules.

3. Expansion Slots: Typically PCIe slots for graphics cards, sound cards, network
cards, etc.

4. Storage Interfaces: SATA or NVMe connectors for hard drives and SSDs.

5. Power Connectors: For providing power to the system from the power supply
unit (PSU).

6. USB and Audio Ports: For external peripherals like keyboards, mice, speakers, etc.

7. BIOS/UEFI Chip: Firmware that initializes the hardware when the system starts.

Mainboards come in various form factors, like ATX, Micro-ATX, and Mini-ITX, each
offering different sizes, features, and expansion capabilities

What is a motherboard?

A motherboard is the main printed circuit board (PCBin a computer. The motherboard is
a computer's central communications backbone connectivity point, through which all
components and external peripherals connect.

Motherboards can be found in virtually all

computers, especially desktop and laptop PCs. The components that connect through
them include chipsets, central processing units (CPUand memory. The external
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peripherals include Wi-Fi, Ethernet and graphics cards with the graphics processing unit,
or GPU.

Motherboard manufacturers include Acer, ASRock, Asus, Gigabyte Technology, Intel and
Micro-Star International.

How do motherboards work?

The PCB of a large motherboard may include six to 14 layers of fiberglass, copper
connecting traces and copper planes for power and signal isolation. Other components
get added to a motherboard through expansion slots. These include processor
sockets; dual line memory module; Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI), PCI
Express (PCLE) and solid-state drive M2 slots; as well as power supply connections.

PCI Express slots on a motherboard

A heatsink and fan manage the heat components such as the CPU generate. Typically
motherboards offer additional connectivity through a southbridge chip such as PCI,
Serial Advanced Technology Attachment or sata, Thunderbolt, USB and other interfaces.

The CPU is generally connected to double data rate 3 (DDR3), DDR4, DDR5 or onboard
LPDDRx RAM and PCIe. This is done through point-to-point interconnects such as
HyperTransport, Intel's QuickPath Interconnect and Ultra Path Interconnect. Choosing a
motherboard often determines many features a computer will support

RAM (Random Access Memory)

is a type of volatile memory used in computers and

other devices. It is essential for temporarily storing data and instructions that the
processor (CPU) needs to access quickly

1. Purpose of RAM:

● Temporary Storage: RAM holds data that is actively being used or processed by
the CPU. It’s faster to access compared to other storage devices like hard drives
or SSDs.
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● Speed: The speed of RAM is one of the key factors in the performance of a
computer. Faster RAM can lead to better overall system performance, especially
in tasks that require high data throughput, like gaming or video editing.

3. Volatility:

● RAM is volatile memory, meaning that all stored data is lost when the power is
turned off. This is in contrast to non-volatile storage like hard drives or SSDs,
which retain data even when the power is lost.

4. Capacity:

● RAM is measured in gigabytes (GB) or terabytes (TB). A typical consumer

computer might have between 8 GB to 64 GB of RAM, while high-performance
machines or servers may use far more.

5. Impact on Performance:

● Insufficient RAM: When there is not enough RAM, the computer may slow down
as it resorts to swapping data to and from the slower hard drive or SSD.

● More RAM: Having more RAM allows for better multitasking, running larger
applications, and faster performance when using memory-intensive programs.

Placement of RAM

Random Access Memory (RAM) is placed in the RAM slots

on a computer's motherboard. The motherboard is the largest board in a computer's
chassis and connects all the computer's components. RAM slots are long and narrow,
and have clips on both ends. The number of RAM slots on a motherboard depends on
its size and design, but can be two, four, or more

Read-Only Memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile storage used in

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computers and other electronic devices. It retains data even when the power is turned
off. Unlike RAM (Random Access Memory), which is temporary and volatile, ROM is
permanent and used to store critical system instructions that are necessary for the
device to boot and operate.

Key Features of ROM:

1. Non-Volatile: ROM does not lose its content when the power is turned off. This
makes it ideal for storing essential firmware and boot instructions.

2. Pre-Programmed: Data is typically written to ROM during the manufacturing

process and cannot be modified or erased under normal operating conditions.
Some types of ROM, however, allow for limited reprogramming or updates.

3. Fast Access: ROM provides fast read access to the data stored within it, making
it suitable for booting systems and running firmware or embedded software.

Types of ROM:

1. PROM (Programmable ROM): A type of ROM that can be programmed once

after manufacture using a special device. Once written, it cannot be changed.

2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM): This type of ROM can be erased using
ultraviolet (UV) light and reprogrammed. It's useful when updates to the stored
program are required.

3. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM): EEPROM can be

electrically erased and reprogrammed in small sections, allowing for more
flexibility compared to EPROM.

4. Flash Memory: A modern type of EEPROM that allows for faster erasure and
rewriting of data in large blocks. It's commonly used in devices like USB drives,
SSDs, and mobile devices.

Uses of ROM:

● Firmware Storage: ROM stores the firmware, which is software that is

permanently programmed into the device to handle basic operations.
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● Booting Process: ROM contains the BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) or UEFI
(Unified Extensible Firmware Interface), which initiates the booting process of a
computer.

● Embedded Systems: ROM is widely used in embedded systems such as

washing machines, cars, medical devices, and printers to store the necessary
operating instructions.

Advantages:

● Stability: Since ROM retains data without power, it's a reliable storage medium
for critical data.

● Security: ROM is less susceptible to corruption or modification, making it ideal

for storing important firmware.

PCI Card

PCI cards are hardware components designed to interface

with a computer's Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) slots on the motherboard.
These cards are commonly used to expand a computer's capabilities, allowing users to
add new functionalities or improve performance.

Types of PCI Cards:

1. Graphics Cards (GPUs):

o Used for rendering images, videos, and animations.

o Essential for gaming, video editing, and 3D modeling.

2. Sound Cards:

o Enhance audio output and input quality.

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o Useful for musicians, audiophiles, and professionals in audio production.

3. Network Interface Cards (NICs):

o Provide Ethernet connectivity for internet and networking.

o Available in wired and wireless versions.

4. TV Tuner Cards:

o Allow computers to receive and decode television signals.

o Useful for watching or recording live TV on a PC.

5. RAID Controller Cards:

o Manage multiple hard drives in RAID configurations.

o Improve storage performance and reliability.

6. Capture Cards:

o Enable video capture from cameras or consoles.

o Popular among streamers and content creators.

7. Storage Controller Cards:

o Add support for additional SSDs or HDDs.

o Useful for systems needing high storage capacity.

8. Adapter Cards:

o Provide additional ports (USB, SATA, etc.).

o Expand system connectivity options.

9. AI and Machine Learning Cards:

o Specialized GPUs or accelerators for AI tasks.

o Improve performance in AI model training and inference.

Types of PCI Slots:

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1. PCI:

o Older standard with limited bandwidth.

o Mostly phased out in modern systems.

2. PCI-X:

o Extended version of PCI, primarily for servers.

o Offers higher bandwidth than standard PCI.

3. PCIe (PCI Express):

o Modern and widely used standard.

o Comes in different sizes: x1, x4, x8, x16.

o Offers significantly higher bandwidth and scalability.

Choosing a PCI Card:

● Compatibility: Ensure it fits your motherboard's slot (PCI, PCIe x1, x16, etc.).

● Purpose: Match the card's features to your needs (e.g., gaming, networking,
storage).

● Performance: Look for specs that meet your requirements (e.g., GPU VRAM, NIC
speed).

● Budget: Balance cost with features and quality.

1. Connection to the Motherboard

● PCI cards are inserted into PCI slots on the motherboard.

● The slots provide a direct connection to the motherboard's bus, allowing data
exchange between the card and other system components.

2. Power Supply

● The PCI slot provides power to the card, eliminating the need for an external
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power source in most cases.

● Higher-performance PCI cards, such as GPUs, may require additional power

connections.

3. Communication Protocol

● The PCI bus uses a shared data path to communicate with the CPU and other
components.

● Modern systems use PCIe (PCI Express), a faster and more efficient version of
PCI, which employs serial communication lanes for better performance.

4. Driver Installation

● The operating system requires appropriate drivers to recognize and utilize the
PCI card.

● Drivers are often included with the card or downloaded from the manufacturer’s
website.

5. Functionality

● Once installed and powered, the card performs its designated function:

o Graphics cards (GPUs): Render images for display.

o Network cards (NICs): Enable wired or wireless networking.

o Sound cards: Improve audio quality.

o Storage cards: Add SSDs or RAID controllers.

o Capture cards: Record or stream video.

6. Hot-Plugging (in Some Cases)

● While traditional PCI cards need the system to be powered down for installation,
some PCIe cards support hot-plugging, allowing installation or removal while the
system is running.
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computer's power supply unit (PSU)

is the primary source of power

for all the components in the computer:

● Converts AC to DC

The PSU converts the alternating current (AC) from the wall outlet into direct current
(DC) that powers the computer's internal components.

● Distributes power

The PSU distributes the power to the motherboard, hard drives, case electronics, and
other components.

● Regulates power

The PSU regulates the power to ensure that the system receives clean, steady
power. This prevents circuits from suffering electrical overloads and ensures optimal
performance.

● Protects components

The PSU can protect components during a PC crash and provide fail-safes for
misplaced currents.

● Supplies standby voltage

Some PSUs can supply a standby voltage so that the computer can be powered back on
after preparing for hibernation or shutdown.

The PSU is usually located where the power cord plugs into the computer and often has
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an I/O power switch on it.

The color coding for ATX power supplies is universal and is as follows:

● Black: Ground

● Red: +5V

● Orange: +3.3V

● Yellow: 12V

● White -5V

● Blue -12V

● Gray: Power on indicator

● Purple: +5V standby power output

● Green: PS_ON power on input

ATX stands for Advanced Technology Extended and is the most common motherboard
size for desktop computers. ATX power supplies are designed to provide power to the
motherboard, central processing unit (CPU), and peripherals.

ATX power supplies typically have three major output voltages: 12 Vdc, 5 Vdc, and 3.3
Vdc.

The voltage distribution of Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) cards depends on

the type of PCI card and the slot it's inserted into:

● 3.3V, 5V, or Universal

PCI cards can be keyed to support either 3.3V or 5V PCI buses, or both. The shape of the
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connector, or keying, indicates the type of PCI bus the card supports. 32-bit slots are
usually 5V, while 64-bit slots are usually 3.3V.

● Universal

Universal PCI cards can operate on either 3.3V or 5V and can be inserted into either type
of slot.

● PCI Express Mini Card

This card has two power sources: 3.3V and 1.5V. The 3.3V auxiliary voltage is available
during standby or suspend to support wake-event processing.

● PCI Express (PCIe) Add-in Card

The 12V-2x6 Auxiliary Power Connector can deliver up to 600 watts of 12V power to a
PCIe Add-in Card.

The PCI specifications allow for both 3.3V and 5V logic levels to communicate between
the PCI bus and the board. This is separate from the voltages supplied to the card for
powering purposes.

What is Monitor?
A display screen used to show visual output from a computer or other device. It could
be a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) or, more commonly now, an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
or LED (Light Emitting Diode) monitor.

MONITORS
● VGA (Video Graphics Array): Older connection type for video output.

● HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): Common modern standard for

both video and audio, offering high-quality visuals.
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● DisplayPort: Offers higher resolutions and refresh rates compared to HDMI,

often used for high-performance displays.

● DVI (Digital Visual Interface): Another older connection type, primarily for video.

● USB-C: Some newer monitors can connect via USB-C, which can also transmit
power and data.

WHAT is Printer: A device that converts digital documents or images from

a computer into physical copies, typically on paper. Printers can be inkjet, laser, or
thermal, and can serve various purposes like printing documents, photos, or large-
scale posters.

Printers:

● USB: Most printers use a USB cable (typically USB-A to USB-B) to connect
directly to the desktop.

● Wi-Fi: Many printers now offer wireless connections over a network, eliminating
the need for physical cables.

● Ethernet: Some printers connect to the desktop via a wired network (LAN)
connection, allowing multiple devices to share the printer.

WHAT is Scanner: A device used to convert physical documents, images, or

photographs into digital format, usually saved as a file on a computer. Scanners use
optical sensors to capture the content and create a digital version of it.

Scanners:

● USB: Similar to printers, scanners usually connect through a USB cable for data
transfer.

● Wi-Fi: Wireless scanners can connect over the network, allowing the desktop to
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access them from anywhere within the network range.

● Ethernet: Some high-end scanners also support network connections via

Ethernet for shared access.

WHAT is Projector: A device that projects images, videos, or slides onto a large
screen or surface. It can be used in various settings like classrooms, meetings, or home
entertainment, and can connect to computers, media players, or even smartphones.

Projectors:

● HDMI: Most modern projectors use HDMI for high-definition video and audio
output.

● VGA: Older projectors may use VGA, particularly for business or educational
settings.

● DisplayPort: For higher-end projectors that require higher resolutions and refresh
rates.

● USB-C: Some projectors can be connected via USB-C, particularly portable

models.

Sound Systems:

● 3.5mm Audio Jack: Standard headphone or line-out jack used for connecting
speakers or sound systems.

● USB: Some USB-powered speakers or sound systems can be connected to the

desktop through a USB port.

● Bluetooth: For wireless audio connections, Bluetooth can be used to pair sound
systems with a desktop.

● HDMI: Some high-end sound systems or home theater setups use HDMI to
transmit both video and audio, especially when connecting a desktop to an AV
receiver.
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Output Flow to Different Output Devices (Multiple

Monitors/Projectors)
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Objective:
The goal of this lab is to explore how to set up a system that outputs video signals to
multiple monitors or projectors simultaneously. This process is essential in
environments like presentations, digital signage, and multi-display configurations.

Materials Needed:

1. Computer System:

o Operating System: Windows, macOS, or Linux.

o Graphics Card(s) capable of supporting multiple outputs (e.g., NVIDIA,

AMD).

2. Monitors/Projectors:

o Multiple monitors or projectors.

o Appropriate cables (HDMI, VGA, DisplayPort, etc.).

3. Splitter or Matrox Video Box (if needed):

o Used to distribute the signal to multiple output devices if your system has
limited output ports.

4. Cables:

o HDMI, VGA, DisplayPort, or USB-C cables, depending on the display device.

5. Optional:

o External adapters (USB to HDMI or DisplayPort if additional output ports are

required).

Procedure:

1. Basic Setup:
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1. Identify Output Ports on the Computer:

o Check the available ports on your computer's graphics card (HDMI,

DisplayPort, VGA, USB-C).

o For desktops, multiple ports may already be available. Laptops may require
additional adapters.

2. Connect the Monitors/Projectors:

o Plug the appropriate cable (HDMI, VGA, etc.) from each monitor/projector
into the available output ports on the computer or the video splitter.

2. Configuring the Output Devices in the Operating System:

● Windows:

1. Right-click on the desktop and select Display Settings.

2. Scroll to the Multiple Displays section.

3. Click the Detect button if the monitors/projectors are not automatically

recognized.

4. Once detected, choose the desired display arrangement (extend,

duplicate, etc.).

5. Set the Resolution and Orientation for each display as needed.

6. Click Apply to confirm settings.

● macOS:

1. Go to System Preferences and select Displays.

2. Click the Arrangement tab to configure the display positions.

3. If the monitors/projectors are not detected, click the Detect Displays

button.

4. Drag the display icons to arrange them.

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5. You can also choose to mirror displays or extend the display using the
options here.

● Linux (Ubuntu Example):

1. Open Settings > Displays.

2. Click Detect Displays to identify the connected monitors/projectors.

3. Adjust the arrangement, resolution, and orientation of displays as

needed.

4. Choose whether you want to extend the display or mirror it.

3. Using a Video Splitter or Matrox Video Box (if required):

If your computer only has one output port or the number of ports available is insufficient
for multiple devices, you can use a splitter or external video distribution box:

1. Connect your computer's output port to the splitter.

2. Connect the splitter to the multiple monitors or projectors using the appropriate
cables.

3. Ensure that the splitter or distribution box is powered on and the video signal is
distributed correctly to all devices.

4. Testing the Setup:

1. Test by dragging windows across monitors/projectors to ensure they are

functioning correctly.

2. Verify that the resolution is consistent and that the display arrangement
matches the intended configuration.

Advanced Configurations:

1. Dual Monitors/Projectors with Extended Display:

● This setup allows you to use each display as an extension of your desktop,
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providing additional screen real estate.

2. Mirrored Display:

● This configuration duplicates the same content across multiple monitors/

projectors. It's often used for presentations or digital signage.

3. Video Wall Setup:

● For more advanced setups (such as a large video wall), special hardware (e.g.,
Matrox Multi-Display Video Wall Processors) is used to divide a single image into
multiple screens.

Troubleshooting Tips:

1. No Signal on Second Display:

o Ensure the cables are properly connected.

o Check if the monitor/projector is set to the correct input (HDMI, VGA, etc.).

o Ensure the display is powered on and functioning.

2. Resolution Issues:

o If the resolution appears wrong, try adjusting the resolution for each display
from the operating system settings.

o Check the capabilities of your monitor/projector to ensure they can support

the desired resolution.

3. Display Detection Problems:

o Ensure that all drivers (especially graphics card drivers) are up to date.

o Try using different cables or ports to isolate the issue.

Conclusion:
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By following these steps, you can successfully output video content to multiple
monitors or projectors, whether for an extended workspace, presentations, or other
applications. Advanced setups may require external video processors, but for most
configurations, standard operating system settings will suffice. Experiment with
different configurations to get the most out of your multiple displays!

Keyboard Attachment

A keyboard attachment refers to any external keyboard connected to a device, such as a

computer, tablet, or smartphone. The keyboard can either be wired (via USB or other
connectors) or wireless (using Bluetooth or other wireless technologies). Keyboard
attachments allow for a more comfortable and efficient method of input compared to
on-screen virtual keyboards.

Role of a Keyboard

A keyboard is a primary input device used for typing text, commands, and other
functions into a computer or device. It consists of keys that represent alphanumeric
characters (letters and numbers), punctuation, and special functions. Keyboards enable
users to interact with digital devices, create documents, write emails, program, and
perform other tasks that require text or symbol input.

Alphanumeric Keyboard

An alphanumeric keyboard is a type of keyboard that includes all the letters (A-Z) and
numbers (0-9) required for typing, as well as additional characters like punctuation
marks, symbols, and sometimes even special function keys. It is the most common type
of keyboard and is used for general-purpose tasks like typing, data entry, and coding.

Role and Usability of a Flash Disk (USB Drive) in a Lab Manual

A flash disk (also known as a USB drive, thumb drive, or memory stick) is a portable
storage device used to store and transfer data between computers and other devices. In
a lab setting, flash disks are commonly used for:

● Storing Data: Flash disks provide a convenient way to store data, including lab
results, research notes, and project files. Students and researchers can take their
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data home or share it with colleagues.

● Transferring Files: Flash disks are ideal for transferring files between different
systems or devices, particularly when there is no internet access or if file-sharing
networks are not available.

● Backup and Data Safety: Flash disks are commonly used to back up important
lab work to prevent data loss in case of computer failure or other issues.

● Portable Applications: Some lab environments use flash disks to run portable
applications directly from the disk, saving time and reducing the need for
installations on the local machine.

Instructions for using flash disks might include:

1. Connecting the Flash Disk: Insert the USB drive into an available port on a
computer or lab equipment.

2. File Management: How to copy, save, and retrieve files from the USB drive,
ensuring that students maintain proper file organization and backup procedures.

3. Security Considerations: Precautions to protect the data on the flash disk,

including encryption, password protection, and safe removal procedures to avoid
corruption.

Flash disks are essential tools in modern lab work for efficient data handling and
management.

Preparing a Desktop Computer

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1. Introduction to Bootable Disks and ISO Files

A bootable disk is a storage device, like a USB flash drive, that contains the necessary
system files to install or repair an operating system (OS) on a computer.

● Why Use an ISO File for System Software?

o ISO File: An ISO file is a disk image that contains a complete replica of a
physical disc, such as a CD, DVD, or Blu-ray. It includes the operating
system and all installation files.

o Advantages:

● Easily downloadable from the internet.

● Can be used to create a bootable USB or CD/DVD for system

installation.

● Provides a safe and exact copy of the original installation media.

2. What is a Flash Drive and Why Is It Useful?

A flash drive (or USB drive) is a small, portable storage device that can be used to store
data, including system installation files.

● Flash Drive as a Bootable Disk:

o It is widely used to create a bootable disk because it's fast, portable, and
most computers support booting from USB.

o Flash drives are commonly used for installing or repairing operating

systems like Windows, Linux, or macOS.

3. How to Make a Flash Drive Bootable

To make a flash drive bootable, follow these steps:

● Step 1: Download an ISO File (e.g., Windows, Linux)

o Go to the official website of the operating system you want to install (e.g.,
Microsoft for Windows or Ubuntu for Linux).
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o Download the ISO file for the system software.

● Step 2: Use a Tool to Create a Bootable USB

o You need a tool to write the ISO image to the USB drive and make it
bootable.

o Some popular tools include:

● Rufus (Windows)

● UNetbootin (Linux)

● Disk Utility (macOS)

o Steps for Rufus (Windows):

● Plug your USB flash drive into the computer.

● Open Rufus (download it from the official website).

● Select the USB drive in the Device section.

● Under Boot selection, choose Disk or ISO image and select your
downloaded ISO file.

● Choose the partition scheme (explained below) and file system.

● Click Start to create the bootable USB.

● Step 3: Boot from the Flash Drive

o After the process is complete, restart your computer and boot from the USB
drive to begin installing the operating system.

4. MBR vs GPT: Understanding Partition Schemes

● MBR (Master Boot Record):

o Older partition style used by legacy BIOS-based systems.

o Supports up to 4 primary partitions and up to 2 TB of disk size.

o Limited to 32-bit systems.

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● GPT (GUID Partition Table):

o Modern partition style used by UEFI-based systems.

o Supports up to 128 partitions.

o No limit on disk size (supports disks larger than 2 TB).

o More reliable and flexible than MBR.

5. UEFI vs BIOS: Understanding System Firmware

● BIOS (Basic Input/Output System):

o Traditional firmware interface for starting a computer.

o Runs before the operating system loads and configures the hardware.

o Works with MBR partition scheme.

o Limited in terms of boot options and hardware support.

● UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface):

o Modern firmware interface, replacing BIOS.

o Provides faster boot times, better hardware support, and more features.

o Works with GPT partition scheme.

o Supports secure boot, which prevents unauthorized OS installations or

malware.

6. Steps for Installing an Operating System from a Bootable USB

1. Insert the Bootable USB:

o Insert the USB flash drive that contains the bootable OS into the computer.

2. Enter the BIOS/UEFI:

o Power on the computer and immediately press the key to enter BIOS/UEFI
settings (commonly F2, F12, Delete, or Esc).
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o If using UEFI, ensure that the UEFI boot mode is enabled.

3. Select Boot Device:

o In the BIOS/UEFI settings, navigate to the Boot Menu.

o Select the USB drive as the primary boot device.

4. Save and Exit:

o Save the changes and exit the BIOS/UEFI.

o The system should boot from the USB, and the operating system
installation will begin.

5. Install the Operating System:

o Follow the on-screen prompts to install the OS. You may need to select a
partition (MBR or GPT) and format it during the installation.
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Create a Bootable USB Flash drive in Windows/Linux

using CMD
Creating a bootable USB flash drive is an essential skill for anyone who needs to install
an operating system, recover a system, or run diagnostic tools. Whether you’re using
Windows or Linux, the Command Prompt (CMD) offers a powerful and straightforward
way to create a bootable USB using CMD in Windows or Linux. In this article, we’ll walk
you through the steps to create a bootable USB flash drive in Windows and Linux using
CMD, ensuring that you can easily set up a bootable drive for your needs.

However, the Creation of Bootable USB Software could be easily achieved

with Command Prompt or Terminal. A Bootable USB Windows can be made using a
command line only for systems that have Higher Versions of Windows (7/8/8.1/10).

Steps to Create a Bootable Windows/Linux USB Using CMD

There are a total of 12 steps to Create a Bootable USB Flash drive, follow these steps:-

Step 1: Run the COMMand promt in Administrator mode. There are two ways to do the
same: Search for CMD in the Start menu, right-click on the command prompt, and click

on Run as.
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● Open Task Manager, go to File -> Run new task, search for CMD and press enter.

Step 2: Connect the USB Device to the computer that is to be made bootable.

Step 3: Type the command diskpart a

2

nd then press Enter.

Step 4: Type the command list disk to display a list of all the available storage devices
on your system. Press Enter to continue.

Step 5: Select the disk that is your pen drive. To choose the disk, type the
command select disk X in this case, select disk 1 and press Enter.
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Step 6: To make a pendrive bootable, there is a need to format it to clean the existing
data. This can be done by the use of clean commands.

Step 7: Type the command create partition primary and press Enter. This will make the
disk primary and ready to be made bootable.
2

Step 8: To choose the partition created as primary, type the command select partition
1, and press Enter.

Step 9: Before making the disk bootable, you need to format it as NTFS if you are
using legacy BIOS. This can be done with the use of a command format
fs=ntfs quick and press Enter.

Note: If you are using Unified Extensible Firmware Interface or in simple words UEFI
BIOS then you must type in the following command instead. Most modern systems are
2

UEFI systems, you can check your system manufacturer’s website to know whether your
system is legacy BIOS or UEFI BIOS.

format fs=fat32 quick

Step 10: Type the command active and press Enter. This will mark the primary bootable
partition as Active.

Step 11: Type the command exit to exit DISKPART and press Enter. Now close the
command prompt window.
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Step 12: Now copy all the data from the OS(Windows/Linux/etc.) installation disk to
your USB drive that is just been made bootable.

Conclusion

Knowing how to create a bootable USB flash drive using CMD in either Windows or
Linux is a valuable skill, especially when you need to install or repair an operating
system. By following the methods outlined in this guide, you can efficiently create a
bootable USB using CMD in Windows or Linux, allowing you to quickly and easily set up
your system or troubleshoot issues. This method is not only reliable but also gives you
greater control over the process compared to using third-party tools.

The two primary partitioning schemes used for initializing and organizing storage drives
are MBR (Master Boot Record) and GPT (GUID Partition Table). Here's a breakdown of
each and how they work:

MBR (Master Boot Record)

How It Works

1. Partitioning Structure:
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o MBR uses a fixed-size table at the very beginning of the drive to store
partition information.

o It supports up to 4 primary partitions. Alternatively, you can have 3 primary

partitions and 1 extended partition (which can contain multiple logical
partitions).

2. Bootloader:

o MBR stores the bootloader in the first sector of the drive (called the boot
sector). This is responsible for loading the operating system.

3. Partition Size Limit:

o Each partition can only address up to 2 TB because of the 32-bit addressing

system.

Advantages

● Simple and widely supported by legacy systems.

● Works well for smaller drives (under 2 TB).

Disadvantages

● Limited to 4 primary partitions.

● Cannot manage drives larger than 2 TB.

● Less robust against corruption; a corrupted MBR can render the entire drive
unusable.

GPT (GUID Partition Table)

How It Works

1. Partitioning Structure:

o GPT stores partition information in multiple places on the disk, improving

reliability.
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o It supports an almost unlimited number of partitions (most systems limit it

to 128).

2. Bootloader:

o Unlike MBR, GPT does not use a single boot sector. Instead, it has a
protective MBR and a primary GPT header at the start of the disk, as well
as a backup GPT header at the end of the disk.

o The headers contain CRC32 checksums to detect and recover from

corruption.

3. Partition Size Limit:

o GPT uses 64-bit addressing, allowing it to support drives larger than 9.4
zettabytes.

Advantages

● Can handle large drives (> 2 TB).

● Supports many partitions (128 or more).

● Redundancy and error detection (backup GPT header and CRC checksums).

Disadvantages

● Requires UEFI firmware for booting (not supported by older BIOS systems).

● Slightly more complex structure compared to MBR.

MBR vs GPT: Key Differences

Feature MBR GPT

Max Drive
2 TB ~9.4 ZB
Size

Max 4 primary (or 3 + 1 128+ primary

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UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware

Partitions extended) Interface)

Redundancy None Backup GPT headers + checksums

Compatibilit
Works on older systems Requires UEFI for booting
y

Choosing Between MBR and GPT

1. Use MBR if:

o Your system uses Legacy BIOS.

o The drive is under 2 TB.

o Compatibility with older systems is necessary.

2. Use GPT if:

o The drive is larger than 2 TB.

o You're using modern systems with UEFI firmware.

o You need more than 4 partitions or increased reliability.

UEFI (Unified Extensible Firmware Interface) and BIOS (Basic Input/Output System) are
two types of firmware interfaces that initialize hardware during the boot process and
provide runtime services for operating systems. Here’s a breakdown of their differences,
features, and functionality:

1. BIOS:

How It Works:

● BIOS is the traditional firmware interface used in older systems.

● It initializes hardware components like the CPU, memory, and storage.

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● After initialization, it locates the bootloader of the operating system stored on a

bootable device.

● BIOS operates in 16-bit real mode, which limits its capabilities (e.g., only 1 MB of
memory addressable during boot).

Features:

● Legacy System: Designed for older hardware and software.

● MBR Booting: Works with the Master Boot Record (MBR), which supports boot
drives up to 2 TB.

● Text-Based Interface: Basic interface for configuration.

● Sequential Boot: Limited flexibility in boot device prioritization.

Limitations:

● Limited storage support (up to 2 TB per bootable device).

● Slower boot times due to sequential hardware initialization.

● Lacks modern security features like Secure Boot.

2. UEFI:

How It Works:

● UEFI is a more modern firmware interface designed to replace BIOS.

● It initializes hardware more efficiently, supports modern hardware, and provides

a more flexible boot process.

● Operates in 32-bit or 64-bit mode, allowing access to more memory and

advanced features during boot.

● UEFI loads a bootloader or OS directly from an EFI System Partition (ESP), a

small partition formatted with FAT32.
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Features:

● GPT Booting: Uses the GUID Partition Table (GPT), supporting drives larger than
2 TB.

● Graphical User Interface: Provides a more user-friendly interface, often mouse-

enabled.

● Fast Boot: Parallel hardware initialization reduces boot time.

● Secure Boot: Verifies the integrity of bootloaders and OS files to prevent

malware.

● Advanced Diagnostics: Can include tools for system recovery, diagnostics, and
management.

Advantages:

● Better performance and scalability with modern hardware.

● Enhanced security through features like Secure Boot.

● Support for larger drives and partitions.

Key Differences:

Aspect BIOS UEFI

16-bit real 32/64-bit protected

Mode
mode mode

MBR (max 2 GPT (supports > 2

Boot Disk Type
TB) TB)

Graphical/Mouse-
Interface Text-based
enabled

Boot Speed Slower Faster

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Advanced (Secure
Security Basic Boot)

Partition Larger and more

Limited
Support flexible

INSTALLATION OF SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Generally, we use operating systems to perform day-to-day tasks. So what would you do
if your OS was corrupted or lost? You will try to recover or at last, you end up reinstalling
the OS.
2

To install the OS you need bootable media & you need boot media creation tools for the
creation of bootable media.

A Bootable media is storage (can be a Pendrive, CD/DVD, etc) that holds the OS
installation files. Boot Creation Tools is a tool that converts normal media to bootable
media.

● It makes bootable media by adding the necessary OS installation files

from .img/.iso file to normal storage/media.

● Ex: Nero, Rufus, Windows media Creation tools, etc.

Now we will see different methods which do not need any boot media creation tools for
preparing a boot media.

First Method:

1. Use this when you have an OS corrupted PC and you want to install a new OS.

2. Take the OS file (mostly it will be in .ISO or .IMG format) and keep it in some
folder on your android phone.

3. Then mount the OS File on an android phone using a file manager.

4. After mounting, in file manager, you will see OS files present in the .ISO/.IMG file
needed for installation.

5. Just copy all the OS files to the root level of the destination place ( on the same
android phone).

● It means the files should be in top level directories of the bootable media.

● Ex: If the .ISO/.IMG file is in internal storage and after the ISO mounts, copy
the OS files to the SDCARD root directory.

6. Unmount the ISO file after copying.

7. Plug the android phone into the OS Corrupted PC.

8. Change the phone’s USB settings to mass storage mode so that the SDCARD
will become virtually isolated from the android phone.
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● By making these PC BIOS, we will be able to detect SDCARD as a bootable

media.

9. Restart the PC, select the bootable media in BIOS, and press enter.

10. Now, the PC will boot from bootable media to perform OS installation.

11. Once the OS is installed, move the files present in the parent directory to the
subdirectory of the SDCARD.

● Doing so, the PC BIOS will detect SDCARD as storage but not as a bootable
media.

● BIOS cannot search for OS installation files in subdirectories.

This method brings effective usage of smartphone external storage for creating
bootable media and avoids using third-party media creation tools( such as Nero, Rufus,
Windows media Creation tools, etc) to create bootable media.

Create a window installation media

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If you order any window, whether it is Windows 10 or the latest one, Windows 11, you
will receive a window installation disc along with your brand-new PC. If you don’t receive
a DVD disc of window installation, you can still install an Operating system (OS) on
your PC. Let’s look at how to create window installation media in depth.

Requirement:

● Minimum 8 GB of Pen Drive.

● A computer with an internet connection.

You need to download Windows of your choice, whether it is 10 or 11. You can
download it from the Or take a look at After you have successfully downloaded
the .exe file, please follow the steps below:

Steps to Create Installation Media

● Plugin a flash drive

● Download a tool

● Run it, and click on accept

● Select installation media ( DVD/ISO, USB Drive) from another PC and click next

● Select your language, windows edition and PC architecture and click NEXT
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● Now, you need to select the USB Pen drive and click NEXT

Backup your files (optional)

It’s an optional step to do, like in case you are updating your current operating system to
the latest. You are required to take backup. You can back up your files to Google Drive,
DropBox, One Drive, USB Flash Drive and other external hard drives. Otherwise, You can
leave it as it is.

For a new installation, you don’t need to do anything with this option.

Insert Window installation media into the Computer

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Now, It’s time to insert a media installation (USB or DVD) into your computer. Make sure
all the Windows files have been copied to your flash drive.

Boot the computer

As you are ready click on the windows icon and choose the option “Shut down or sign
out” and then “Restart” As your pc reboots, you need to press F10, F11, F12, or ESC in
order to enter the boot menu. Note: These keys might be different in your computer
because every computer is manufactured differently.

I guess this might help you.

If you own an old computer, you can press F1, F2, F3, or ESC to enter the BIOS (Basic
Input Output System).

Select the USB Drive

Select the BIOS Features option

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In Boot Options Priorities, Select the Boot Option #1. Click it and select the flash drive
option.

Install Now

After you select the right USB option for window installation. You will see a screen
appearing “Install now”. Click on “Install now” and continue to the next step.

Enter your Windows product key and click next

You must have the Windows product key. But it’s okay if you don’t have one right now,
you can skip this step while choosing the option “I don’t have a product key“. But, at the
2

end of the installation, it will ask you for the product key. You can find your product key
in your email if you have bought it from Microsoft officially. or if you have bought it in
DVD format, You can find the key in its envelope. Well, if you don’t have bought it till
now you need to buy it for a seamless experience.

Select the edition of the window you want to install

Windows operating system comes in two-bit options 32-bit and 64-bit. x86 denotes 32-
bit and x64 denotes 64-bit.

Difference between 32-bit and 64-bit

● “The 32-bit OS can store and handle less data than the 64-bit OS. it addresses a
maximum of 4,294,967,296 bytes (4 GB) of RAM. The 64-bit OS, on the other
hand, can handle more data than the 32-bit OS.”

● x86 or 32-bit operating system supports only 32-bit software programme.

2

● x64 or 64-bit operating system supports both 32-bit and 64-bit software
programme.

So, as per your need. You can choose which version is most suitable for you. If you still
don’t know which version of the operating system to install, then you can go for
“Windows 10 Home” mostly used OS for personal computers. So, after you have
decided, which version of OS to install, now click “NEXT”.

Accept License Term “I accept the license terms”

Before proceeding further, you are required to accept the license terms and then click
next to continue the installation.

Choose: Custom install Windows only or Upgrade:

2

Upgrade: This option is useful if you are installing the latest OS to your existing
supporting versions of the operating system.

Custom Installation: This option is useful if you are installing OS to your brand new or
existing computer, which doesn’t have an OS.

Select a drive or partition

Choose the correct partition where you are going to install your operating system and
2

then click on “Delete”.

Select a drive with unallocated space and click “Next”

Choose the drive with unallocated space and click “Next” to continue the installation of
windows. This might take little time to copy data to your hard drive, as it’s done you can
move on to the next step.

Remove the USB flash drive and restart your computer.

As you can see, you have successfully installed the operating system on your PC. Now,
You can remove the USB flash drive and restart your computer.

Let’s now talk about how to set up windows.

2

Setting Up Windows

For setting up windows, you required only a few steps as mentioned below:

● Verify your region and keyboard input

● Connect to your Wireless network.

● Select for Personal Use or Organizational Use and click next

Sign in to Windows

● Click “Accept” to Set up Cortana

● Click “Yes” and follow the instructions to set up the Windows timeline

● Choose your privacy settings and click “Accept“

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Working with Graphical User Interface (GUI) and

Applications
Objective:
To understand the working of Graphical User Interface (GUI) applications, folder/
subfolder creation, account management, installation of default application software,
firewall configuration, and internet connectivity.

1. Introduction to Graphical User Interface (GUI)

A Graphical User Interface (GUI) allows users to interact with electronic devices using
graphical icons and visual indicators. It is designed to be user-friendly and intuitive,
making it easier to access, control, and navigate through applications and operating
systems.

Key Components of GUI:

● Icons: Small pictures that represent files, folders, or applications.

● Windows: Rectangular areas that display information or allow interaction with

content.

● Menus: Provide options for performing specific tasks (e.g., File, Edit, View).

● Buttons: Allow users to perform actions by clicking.

● Textboxes: Let users input data.

2. Folder and Subfolder Creation

Objective:

Learn how to create folders and subfolders for better file organization.
2

Steps:

1. Creating a Folder:

o Right-click on the desktop or inside any directory.

o Select New > Folder.

o Name the folder according to your preference (e.g., "Work", "Projects").

2. Creating a Subfolder:

o Double-click to open the folder where the subfolder will be created.

o Right-click inside the folder and select New > Folder.

o Name the subfolder (e.g., "Reports").

Application:

Folders and subfolders help organize files logically, making them easier to access and
manage.

3. Managing User Accounts

Objective:

Understand the role of user accounts and how to manage them.

Steps to Create a User Account in Windows:

1. Open Settings by pressing Windows + I.

2. Go to Accounts > Family & Other Users.

3. Click Add Account.

4. Follow the prompts to set up a local or Microsoft account.

5. Assign roles like Administrator or Standard User.

Application:
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Managing user accounts helps to set access control, allowing multiple users to share a
device while protecting their privacy.

4. Default Installation of Application Software

Objective:

Learn about default application software in Windows and their roles.

1. Notepad:

o A simple text editor used for creating and editing plain text files.

o To open: Press Windows + R, type notepad, and press Enter.

2. WordPad:

o A word processor with more features than Notepad, such as formatting text,
adding bullet points, etc.

o To open: Press Windows + R, type wordpad, and press Enter.

3. Web Browser:

o A program that allows users to access websites on the internet.

o Common web browsers: Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox.

o To open: Click on the browser icon or type the browser name in the search
bar.

Application:

These applications provide basic functionality for document editing, text formatting,
and web browsing.

Installing and Configuring a Firewall in Windows

2

Objective:
Learn how to install and configure a firewall to protect your computer from unauthorized
access.

Steps:

1. Installing Windows Firewall:

o Windows comes with a built-in firewall. To enable or check its status:

● Open Control Panel > System and Security > Windows Defender
Firewall.

● Ensure the firewall is On for both public and private networks.

2. Configuring Firewall Rules:

o To allow or block specific applications:

● In the Windows Firewall window, click Advanced Settings.

● Select Inbound Rules or Outbound Rules to configure application

permissions.

Application:

A firewall acts as a barrier between your computer and external threats by monitoring
and controlling incoming and outgoing network traffic.

6. Working with Internet Connectivity

Objective:

Understand internet connectivity, IP address assignment, and the role of the internet in
network communications.

1. Setting Up Internet Connection:

o Wired Connection (Ethernet):

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● Connect the Ethernet cable to the computer and modem/router.

● The computer will automatically detect the network and establish

an internet connection.

o Wireless Connection (Wi-Fi):

● Open Settings > Network & Internet > Wi-Fi.

● Choose the Wi-Fi network and enter the password.

2. IP Address Assignment:

o Computers on a network are assigned an IP address, which identifies them

in communication.

o To check the IP address:

● Open Command Prompt (type cmd in the search bar).

● Type ipconfig and press Enter. The IPv4 address is the assigned IP.

Application:

Proper internet connectivity and IP address configuration are essential for smooth
communication between devices on a network.

7. Conclusion

This lab provided practical experience with the Graphical User Interface (GUI),
application software, firewall configuration, and internet connectivity. Understanding
how to navigate, organize, and secure your system will help in efficient computing and
network management.
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Basic File Management and System Commands

Objective:
The purpose of this lab is to familiarize students with basic file and folder creation, as
well as essential system commands that are used to run and troubleshoot a system.

Requirements:

● A computer with a Linux or Unix-based operating system (Ubuntu, macOS, or

similar)

● Access to the terminal (command line interface)

Part 1: Creating Files and Folders

1.1 Creating Directories (Folders)

● Command: mkdir
The mkdir command is used to create directories (folders) in the system.

Syntax:

bash

Copy code

mkdir [directory_name]

Example:

bash

Copy code

mkdir my_folder
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This will create a directory called my_folder in the current location.

1.2 Creating Files

● Command: touch
The touch command is used to create an empty file.

Syntax:

bash

Copy code

touch [filename]

Example:

bash

Copy code

touch my_file.txt

This will create an empty file named my_file.txt in the current directory.

Alternatively, you can create files using text editors like nano or vim:

bash

Copy code

nano my_file.txt

This opens the file in the nano editor. You can write content inside and save it by
pressing Ctrl + O and exit with Ctrl + X.

1.3 Listing Files and Directories

● Command: ls
The ls command is used to list files and directories in the current working
directory.

Syntax:
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bash

Copy code

ls

Example:

bash

Copy code

ls

This will list the files and directories in the current directory.

To list files with detailed information (permissions, size, etc.), use:

bash

Copy code

ls -l

1.4 Navigating Directories

● Command: cd
The cd (change directory) command is used to move between directories.

Syntax:

bash

Copy code

cd [directory_name]

Example:

bash

Copy code

cd my_folder
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This will change the current directory to my_folder.

Use cd .. to go up one level in the directory structure:

bash

Copy code

cd ..

Part 2: Running and Troubleshooting Basic System Commands

2.1 Viewing the Current Directory

● Command: pwd
The pwd (print working directory) command displays the full path of the current
directory.

Syntax:

bash

Copy code

pwd

Example:

bash

Copy code

pwd

This will show the path of your current directory, such as /home/user/my_folder.

2.2 Viewing File Contents

● Command: cat
The cat command is used to display the contents of a file.

Syntax:
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bash

Copy code

cat [filename]

Example:

bash

Copy code

cat my_file.txt

This will display the contents of my_file.txt.

● Command: less
For large files, the less command is used to view file content page by page.

Syntax:

bash

Copy code

less [filename]

Example:

bash

Copy code

less my_file.txt

2.3 Checking System Information

● Command: uname
The uname command provides basic information about the system.

Syntax:

bash
2

Copy code

uname -a

Example:

bash

Copy code

uname -a

This will display the operating system name, version, and kernel information.

2.4 Checking Available Disk Space

● Command: df
The df command displays information about disk space usage.

Syntax:

bash

Copy code

df -h

Example:

bash

Copy code

df -h

This will display disk usage in a human-readable format (e.g., in GB or MB).

2.5 Troubleshooting System Errors

If a command doesn’t work, there are a few steps you can follow to troubleshoot:

1. Check for Typos: Ensure the command is typed correctly.

2. Use man for Help: If you're unsure about the syntax, use the man (manual)
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command to get detailed information on any command.

bash

Copy code

man [command]

Example:

bash

Copy code

man ls

This will show the manual for the ls command.

3. Check Permissions: If a command fails due to permissions, ensure you have the
right access. Use chmod to change file permissions.

bash

Copy code

chmod +x my_script.sh

This makes the file my_script.sh executable.

4. Check Running Processes: If your system seems slow or is acting up, check the
running processes with the top or ps command.

bash

Copy code

top

2.6 Exiting the System

● Command: exit
The exit command is used to log out of the terminal session or close the terminal.

Syntax:
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bash

Copy code

exit

Example:

bash

Copy code

exit

This will close the terminal window or log you out of your session.

Part 3: Summary of Useful Commands

Comma
Description
nd

mkdir
Create a new directory
[dir]

touch
Create a new file
[file]

ls List files and directories

Change the current

cd [dir]
directory

Show the current directory

pwd
path

Display the contents of a

cat [file]
file
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View large files page by

less [file] page

top View running processes

Log out or close the

exit
terminal

Conclusion:

In this lab, you learned how to create files and directories, navigate the file system, and
run basic system commands. These are fundamental skills for interacting with a
computer system, especially when working in a terminal or command-line environment.

Configuration of Virtual Machine

Dual Booting a Windows Laptop with Kali Linux, Though increases the speed and
efficiency of the OS, but we can not switch between Windows and Kali Linux instantly.
To do so, we will have to install Kali Linux in Virtual Box or any other hypervisor. So,
what is a hypervisor? Refer to this article . So now, whenever we want to switch between
both operating systems, we will have to just change the active Window from the Virtual
box to any other window and vice versa. Also, sometimes we came across situations
like when we want to start learning Linux and command line stuff but using Linux as a
main Operating System without having a basic idea of it is not a good option and here
either dual-booting solves the problem or the virtual machine does the same.

The virtual box will provide some part of the hardware from the existing hardware in
your PC to the Kali Linux at the time when you use it so that Kali Linux can operate.

Prerequisites

● 20GB free disk space on other OS

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● Kali Linux File which can be downloaded from

● Virtual Box on the System. Refer to the article –

● Minimum of 5-10 GB free space in your hard disk

● A minimum of 8 GB RAM is recommended

Procedure:

1. Open Virtual Box and then press the new button.

2. Write the name of the virtual machine and select it to Debian based 64bit Linux
architecture.

3. Allot the size of RAM memory you want to allocate to the Virtual Machine of Kali
Linux. (2048 MB is recommended for normal usage)
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4. Select the option to create a virtual hard disk now and then click on the create button.

5. Now, Select the Hard Disk File type for Virtual Hard Disk. ( VDI is recommended for
daily purposes)

6. Now select the type of Physical Hard Disk Storage. (Dynamically Allocated is
2

recommended for general purposes)

7. Select the size of your virtual hard disk and also the location where you want to save
your machine and its files.

8. As soon as the processing is completed click on the Virtual machine name on the left
panel and click on the start button from the top.

9. Now click on the Browse icon located just above the cancel button and select your
downloaded Kali Linux ISO file and then click on the start button.
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10. This will boot our virtual machine from the chosen Kali Linux ISO file. Select the
Graphical Install button and hit enter.

11.The next option is to select a language, So select your desired language and hit enter.
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12. The next step is to select a country, territory, or area, So select your respective one.

13. The next step is to configure your keymap. Confirm the keymap you want to use and
click Next.
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14. In the next step it is asking for a hostname, Enter the same and press the continue
button.

15. The next step is to enter the domain name of your choice you may leave it blank if
you don’t have any.
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16. Enter a strong password for your Kali Linux OS and click continue.

17. The next step is to select a time zone of your choice which you want to use as a
default time zone for the Kali Linux machine.

18. Now click on the “Manual” option and press continue to confirm.
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19. Now select the Free Space and create a new partition with that and click continue.
Also, it is recommended for new users to not use a separate partition for root, home, and
swap areas.

20. Now click on create a new partition.

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21. Now enter the partition size to be created.

22. Now select the partition type as “Logical”.

23. Now if you are new to Linux then use the following settings for the partition or you
may also adjust them as per your need. And then click on “Done setting up the partition“
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24. Now just click on finish partitioning and write changes to disk.

25. Now select the “no” option in order to continue.

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26. Now in order to write changes to the disk select the “yes” option and then click on
continue.

27. Now, wait for a few minutes for the Kali system to be installed into your Virtual
Machine.
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28. The next option is to select whether to install the GRUB boot loader to the master
boot record or not. Click on yes to add the same.

29. Choose your respective hard disk to boot into, from the list of devices.
2

30. This will start installing the Kali Linux OS and will take a few minutes to completely
install the same and will reboot after the successful completion of the installation.

31. Once the complete process is finished successfully, It will automatically restart the
virtual machine and will boot the Kali Linux OS.

32. In order to close the Virtual Machine, Simply Shutdown the Kali Linux OS, this action
will automatically terminate the Virtual Machine.

basic UNIX commands that are similar to those used in the

Windows Command.
1. Navigating Directories

● Windows Command Prompt:

o cd <directory>: Change directory.

o dir: List files in the current directory.

● UNIX Equivalent:
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o cd <directory>: Change directory (same syntax as Windows).

o ls: List files in the current directory.

o ls -l: List files with detailed information (permissions, owner, size, etc.).

2. File Management

● Windows Command Prompt:

o copy <source> <destination>: Copy files.

o del <file>: Delete a file.

o rename <old_name> <new_name>: Rename a file.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o cp <source> <destination>: Copy files.

o rm <file>: Remove a file.

o mv <old_name> <new_name>: Rename or move a file.

3. Viewing File Contents

● Windows Command Prompt:

o type <file>: Display file contents.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o cat <file>: Display file contents.

o less <file>: View file contents page by page.

o head <file>: Display the first few lines of a file.

o tail <file>: Display the last few lines of a file.

4. Creating and Editing Files

● Windows Command Prompt:

o echo <text> > <file>: Create a file with text.

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o notepad <file>: Open file in Notepad.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o echo <text> > <file>: Create a file with text.

o nano <file>: Open file in the nano text editor.

o vim <file>: Open file in the vim text editor.

5. Viewing System Information

● Windows Command Prompt:

o systeminfo: Display system information.

o tasklist: List running processes.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o uname -a: Display system information (kernel name, version, etc.).

o top: Display running processes in real-time.

o ps: List running processes (more detailed with ps aux).

6. Permissions

● Windows Command Prompt:

o icacls <file>: View or modify file permissions.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o chmod <permissions> <file>: Change file permissions (e.g., chmod 755 file).

o chown <user>:<group> <file>: Change file owner and group.

7. Searching for Files and Text

● Windows Command Prompt:

o dir /s <filename>: Search for a file in subdirectories.

o findstr <text>: Search for text in files.

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● UNIX Equivalent:

o find <directory> -name <filename>: Search for a file in directories.

o grep <text> <file>: Search for text in files.

o grep -r <text> <directory>: Search for text recursively in a directory.

8. Working with Compressed Files

● Windows Command Prompt:

o tar (for Unix-like systems) or third-party tools like 7z.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o tar -cvf <archive.tar> <file>: Create a compressed archive.

o tar -xvf <archive.tar>: Extract files from an archive.

o gzip <file>: Compress a file.

o gunzip <file.gz>: Decompress a file.

9. Network Commands

● Windows Command Prompt:

o ping <host>: Test network connectivity.

o ipconfig: Display IP configuration.

● UNIX Equivalent:

o ping <host>: Test network connectivity.

o ifconfig: Display network interfaces and IP addresses.

10. Disk Usage

● Windows Command Prompt:

o chkdsk: Check the disk for errors.

● UNIX Equivalent:
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o df: Display disk space usage.

o du <directory>: Display disk usage for a directory.

Web, Connectivity, Security, Digital Marketing, and

Social Media

1. Connectivity of Devices with Laptop

Objective: Learn how devices connect to a laptop via infrared, Bluetooth, wired, and
wireless connections.

Steps:

● Infrared: Enable infrared on your laptop and the device. Pair both devices and
test sending files or data.

● Bluetooth: Activate Bluetooth on both devices. Pair them, and transfer files.

● Wired: Use a USB cable to connect a device to the laptop. Transfer files or test
device recognition.

● Wireless: Connect to Wi-Fi. Ensure both devices are on the same network. Test
file sharing or internet browsing.

2. Understanding the Internet

Objective: Understand how the Internet works and how to query search engines.

Steps:
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● What is the Internet? The Internet is a global network that connects millions of
computers for communication and data sharing.

● Search Engine Query: Use search engines like Google. Type keywords or a
question in the search bar and explore the results.

● Practice Search: Search for different types of queries (informational,

commercial, navigational).

3. Web Surfing: Avoiding Threats

Objective: Learn how to browse the web safely and recognize harmful sites.

Steps:

● Use HTTPS: Always look for a secure connection (https://) when visiting
websites.

● Avoid Clicking on Suspicious Links: Never click on pop-up ads or unknown links.

● Browser Extensions: Install an anti-malware extension like "AdBlock" or

"Malwarebytes."

● Recognize Harmful Sites: Be cautious of sites asking for unnecessary personal

information.

4. Digital Marketing & E-Commerce

Objective: Understand the basics of digital marketing and using cloud platforms like
Google Drive.

Steps:

● Digital Marketing: Learn about SEO, social media marketing, and email
campaigns. Set up Google Ads and track conversions.

● E-Commerce Basics: Set up an online store using platforms like Shopify or Etsy.
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Learn how to add products and manage orders.

● Google Drive: Upload, share, and organize files in Google Drive.

● Cloud Storage: Demonstrate uploading and downloading files using cloud

platforms like Dropbox and Google Drive.

5. Social Media Safety

Objective: Understand social media privacy and security measures.

Steps:

● Account Security: Set strong passwords and enable two-factor authentication.

● Privacy Settings: Adjust privacy settings on platforms like Facebook, Instagram,

and Twitter to control who can see your posts.

● Avoid Scams: Be wary of unsolicited messages, friend requests, or offers that

seem too good to be true.

6. Email Accounts & Sending Emails

Objective: Learn how to create email accounts, send emails, and use CC/BCC effectively.

Steps:

● Create an Email Account: Set up Gmail or Outlook accounts.

● Sending Emails: Learn how to send emails, attach files, and use CC (carbon
copy) and BCC (blind carbon copy).

● Handling Spam: Understand how to identify and deal with spam emails. Mark
unwanted emails as spam and unsubscribe from unwanted newsletters.

7. Security Measures for Email and Passwords

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Objective: Learn how to secure email accounts and passwords.

Steps:

● Password Security: Use a password manager to store and generate strong,

unique passwords.

● Two-Factor Authentication (2FA): Set up 2FA for email and other accounts.

● Avoid Phishing: Be cautious of emails that ask for personal information or login
details.

8. Email Server and Client Connectivity

Objective: Understand how an email server connects with an email client.

Steps:

● Email Client Setup: Set up an email client like Microsoft Outlook or Thunderbird.

● Server Settings: Configure the incoming (IMAP/POP) and outgoing (SMTP)

server settings.

● Send and Receive Emails: Test email sending and receiving by configuring email
clients with proper server information.

9. Basic HTML

Objective: Learn the basics of HTML, including headings, text, and tables.

Steps:

● Headings: Create headings using <h1> to <h6> tags.

● Text: Format text using <p> for paragraphs, <strong> for bold, and <em> for
italics.

● Tables: Create tables using <table>, <tr>, <th>, and <td> tags.
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Example:

html

Copy code

<html>

<head><title>Sample Page</title></head>

<body>

<h1>Welcome to My Website</h1>

<p>This is a simple page with basic HTML structure.</p>

<table border="1">

<tr>

<th>Name</th>

<th>Age</th>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>John Doe</td>

<td>30</td>

</tr>

<tr>

<td>Jane Doe</td>

<td>25</td>

</tr>

</table>

</body>
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</html>

INSTALLATION Of SYSTEM SOFTWARE

To download system software securely, follow these best practices:

1. Use Official Sources

● Always download system software from the official website of the

manufacturer (e.g., Microsoft, Apple, or Linux distros).

● Avoid third-party websites, as they may contain malware or outdated software.

2. Check for HTTPS and Secure Connection

● Ensure the website uses HTTPS in its URL. This ensures the connection is
encrypted and secure.

3. Verify Software Authenticity

● Many software providers offer checksums (e.g., SHA256) or digital signatures.

After downloading, verify that the checksum of the downloaded file matches the
provided one.

● For example, after downloading a file, run the command to check the checksum:

o On Windows: Use CertUtil -hashfile <file> SHA256

o On macOS/Linux: Use shasum -a 256 <file>

4. Update Antivirus Software

● Make sure your antivirus software is up to date and scan the file for any
potential threats before installation.

5. Enable Firewalls and Security Features

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● Enable firewalls and security features (e.g., Windows Defender, macOS

Gatekeeper) during software installation.

6. Enable Automatic Updates

● Ensure that your system is set to automatically update to keep it protected from
the latest vulnerabilities.

7. Use Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)

● For accounts where you download system software (e.g., from your device
manufacturer’s website), enable 2FA to add an extra layer of protection.

8. Backup Your System

● Before installing any major software update, back up your important data to
prevent data loss if something goes wrong.

Downloading of system software

Generally, we use operating systems to perform day-to-day tasks. So what would you do
if your OS was corrupted or lost? You will try to recover or at last, you end up reinstalling
the OS.

To install the OS you need bootable media & you need boot media creation tools for the
creation of bootable media.

A Bootable media is storage (can be a Pendrive, CD/DVD, etc) that holds the OS
installation files. Boot Creation Tools is a tool that converts normal media to bootable
media.

● It makes bootable media by adding the necessary OS installation files

from .img/.iso file to normal storage/media.

● Ex: Nero, Rufus, Windows media Creation tools, etc.

Now we will see different methods which do not need any boot media creation tools for
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preparing a boot media.

First Method:

1. Use this when you have an OS corrupted PC and you want to install a new OS.

2. Take the OS file (mostly it will be in .ISO or .IMG format) and keep it in some
folder on your android phone.

3. Then mount the OS File on an android phone using a file manager.

4. After mounting, in file manager, you will see OS files present in the .ISO/.IMG file
needed for installation.

5. Just copy all the OS files to the root level of the destination place ( on the same
android phone).

● It means the files should be in top level directories of the bootable media.

● Ex: If the .ISO/.IMG file is in internal storage and after the ISO mounts, copy
the OS files to the SDCARD root directory.

6. Unmount the ISO file after copying.

7. Plug the android phone into the OS Corrupted PC.

8. Change the phone’s USB settings to mass storage mode so that the SDCARD
will become virtually isolated from the android phone.

● By making these PC BIOS, we will be able to detect SDCARD as a bootable

media.

9. Restart the PC, select the bootable media in BIOS, and press enter.

10. Now, the PC will boot from bootable media to perform OS installation.

11. Once the OS is installed, move the files present in the parent directory to the
subdirectory of the SDCARD.

● Doing so, the PC BIOS will detect SDCARD as storage but not as a bootable
media.
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● BIOS cannot search for OS installation files in subdirectories.

This method brings effective usage of smartphone external storage for creating
bootable media and avoids using third-party media creation tools( such as Nero, Rufus,
Windows media Creation tools, etc) to create bootable media.

Microsoft Word (MS Word)

is a powerful word processing software developed by Microsoft. It is part of the
Microsoft Office suite and is widely used for creating, editing, formatting, and sharing
documents.
Here’s a breakdown of its features and how to use them:

1. User Interface
● Ribbon Interface: The toolbar at the top that categorizes features into tabs (e.g.,
Home, Insert, Design).
● Quick Access Toolbar: Located above the ribbon, it allows easy access to
commonly used commands (e.g., Save, Undo, Redo).
● Document Area: The workspace where you type and edit your content.

2. Basic Document Creation

● New Document: Open MS Word and click "New" to create a blank document or
use a template.
● Save/Save As: Save your work frequently using the "Save" option. Use "Save As"
to save a copy with a different name or format (e.g., PDF).
● Opening Documents: Use the "Open" option to access existing documents.

3. Text Formatting
● Font: Change font style, size, and color from the "Home" tab.
● Paragraph Alignment: Adjust text alignment (left, center, right, justify).
● Bullets and Numbering: Organize content into lists using bullets or numbers.
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● Styles: Use predefined styles for headings and paragraphs to ensure

consistency.

4. Page Layout
● Margins and Orientation: Adjust margins and switch between portrait and
landscape orientation.
● Headers and Footers: Add headers/footers for page numbers, titles, or dates.
● Page Breaks: Insert breaks to organize content across pages.

5. Insert Features
● Tables: Insert tables to structure data.
● Images: Add images from your computer or online sources.
● Shapes and Charts: Use shapes and charts for visual representation.
● Hyperlinks: Link to websites or other documents.
● SmartArt: Create diagrams and flowcharts.

6. Editing Tools
● Spell Check and Grammar: Automatically detect and correct errors.
● Find and Replace: Search for specific words/phrases and replace them.
● Track Changes: Monitor edits made by multiple users.
● Comments: Add notes for collaborators.

7. Advanced Features
● References: Add footnotes, citations, and a bibliography.
● Table of Contents: Automatically generate a table of contents.
● Mail Merge: Create personalized letters, labels, or emails.
● Macros: Automate repetitive tasks.

8. Collaboration
● Sharing: Share documents via OneDrive or email.
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● Co-authoring: Work on the same document simultaneously with others.

● Restrict Editing: Set permissions to control who can edit

User Interface
● Ribbon: The toolbar at the top categorized into tabs (e.g., Home, Insert, Data).
● Worksheet Area: The grid of rows (numbered) and columns (lettered) where you
input data.
● Formula Bar: Displays the contents or formula of the active cell.
● Sheet Tabs: Located at the bottom, allowing navigation between different
worksheets.
● Quick Access Toolbar: Frequently used commands (e.g., Save, Undo, Redo).

2. Basic Features
● Workbook: A file containing one or more worksheets.
● Cells: Each rectangle in the grid. Identified by its column and row (e.g., A1).
● Ranges: A group of cells (e.g., A1:A10).
● Data Entry: Input text, numbers, or formulas directly into cells.

3. Data Formatting
● Font and Alignment: Adjust text size, style, color, and cell alignment.
● Cell Formatting: Format cells for specific data types (e.g., number, currency,
date).
● Borders and Shading: Customize cell appearance.
● Conditional Formatting: Automatically format cells based on specific criteria
(e.g., highlight cells with values above 100).

4. Data Manipulation
● Sorting: Arrange data in ascending or descending order.
● Filtering: Show only data that meets specific criteria.
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● Find and Replace: Locate and replace text or values.

● Data Validation: Restrict cell inputs to predefined criteria (e.g., whole numbers
between 1-100).

5. Formulas and Functions

● Basic Formulas: Perform arithmetic operations (e.g., =A1+B1, =A1*B1).
● Built-in Functions:
o Mathematical: SUM, AVERAGE, ROUND
o Logical: IF, AND, OR
o Lookup: VLOOKUP, HLOOKUP, INDEX, MATCH
o Text: CONCATENATE, LEFT, RIGHT, LEN
o Date/Time: NOW, TODAY, DATEDIF
● Relative and Absolute References: Use $ to fix cell references in formulas (e.g.,
$A$1).
6. Charts and Graphs
● Chart Types: Column, Line, Pie, Bar, Area, Scatter, etc.
● Customization: Modify chart titles, labels, colors, and legends.
● Pivot Charts: Dynamic charts linked to PivotTables for advanced data analysis.

7. Data Analysis Tools

● PivotTables: Summarize, analyze, and organize large datasets.
● What-If Analysis:
o Goal Seek: Find input values to achieve a desired result.
o Scenario Manager: Compare different scenarios.
o Data Tables: Analyze outcomes based on variable changes.
● Data Consolidation: Combine data from multiple ranges or worksheets.

8. Collaboration and Sharing

● Comments and Notes: Add annotations for collaborators.
● Sharing: Save to OneDrive or SharePoint for real-time collaboration.
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● Protect Workbook/Sheet: Restrict editing access or protect specific cells.

9. Advanced Features
● Macros: Record and automate repetitive tasks using Visual Basic for
Applications (VBA).
● Power Query: Import, clean, and transform data from various sources.
● Power Pivot: Create complex data models and perform advanced calculations.
● Data Visualization: Use sparklines, conditional formatting, and charts.

Installation of Latex
For LaTeX, you need to download MiKTeX and Texmaker. MiKTeX is a Latex distribution,
a vast collection of files, and is essential for Latex. Texmaker is called a specialized
editor and helps in the Latex workflow. Installing the editor is optional but it makes the
Latex easier. The process will take some time. Below are the steps for the download and
installation of Latex:
● Search for MiKTeX in any browser.
● As the page opens, click on MiKTeX.org and select the 'Download' option given
at the top.
● Now, click on the 'All downloads' option. You will see the window appear like the
image shown below:
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● Select the 'Net Installer' and choose the 64 or 32-bit according to your system
configuration and click on the download option. The download will start.
● After that, close the browser. The MiKTeX download is a two-step process in this.
● In first step, with the help of Net Installer, we download the files, and in the
second step, we install these downloaded files.
● Now, open this file and accept the conditions.
● Select the option 'Download MiKTeX.' Click on Next and then select 'Complete
MiKTeX' and again click next.
● Then select the FTP as a download source. Click on the browse option, and
under downloads category, make a new folder by any name and click 'OK' and
then click on next. You can also select any other folder as per your requirements.
● Click on the 'Start' option, and the downloading process will start, which will
take a while. Wait for the process to download. The downloading dialogue box
will look like the image shown below:
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After this, again, go to the MiKTeX and then select 'Install MiKTeX.' It will still take some
time, and now, the process is complete.
If there is an error, then close the window and restart the downloading process by
selecting another server from the list.
● If you select the option 'Basic Installer', then after the download, you can start
the process. The download will complete within very less time. After the
download is completed, open the software.
● Now you have to download the Texmaker. For this, search for it in the browser or
any other search engine. Click on it and install the software. It will appear on the
desktop after the installation.

MIKTEX Overview
After the process is completed, the MiKTeX will appear as 'MiKTeX console.' When you
open this file, it will look like the image given below:
Backward Skip 10sPlay VideoForward Skip 10s
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MiKTeX console is our main maintenance interface for all activities related to MiKTeX.
Under the "Updates" section, you can update all the already installed packages.
Under "Packages," you can manage the individual packages. But make sure to click on
'Update DB' first, before you add or remove any single package. You can also click on
the '-'and '+' sign to add or remove any package. The Update DB stands for
Update Database. The term 'package repository' is often used in this context as the
synonym for Update DB. This 'Update DB' synchronizes your local database on your
computer, which is outdated to an up-to-date database on the internet. This option is
shown below in the image:

In the above image, the column 'Packaged on' indicates the date when the packet was
added to the internet. The column 'Installed on' shows the date when the packet was
added to your local destination.
In the above image, click on the cmd window shown on the left. A Command prompt
window will appear. This step is used only to verify the installation. Type 'latex' and you
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will see the output as shown below:

END!