Module 1

1.1. Fundamental concepts

Engineering mechanics is the physical science which describes and predicts the condi
tions of rest or of motion of bodies under the action of
forces.It is a physical science be
cause it deals with the study of physical phenomena. The subject is
anddynamics. Statics deals with the action of forces on subdivided into statics
bodies which are at rest and remain
at rest. Dynamics deals with the motion of bodies under the
action of forces. It has two
distinct parts - kinematics and kinetics. Kinematics is the study of motion of bodies
reference to the forces which either cause the motion or are
without
generated as a
motion. Kinetics is the study of the relationship between motion and the result of the
forces which cause or accompany the motion. corresponding
Modern engineering practice demands a high level of analytical capability and the study
of engineering mechanics is to build a foundation of analytical capability for the solution of a
variety of engineering problems. In fact no other physical science plays a greater role in
engineering than does mechanics. In engineering mechanics we learn to construct and solve
mathematical models which describe the effects of forces and motion on a variety of struc
tures and mechanisms that are concern to engineers.

The fundamental concepts used in mechanics are space, time, mass and force. These
concepts cannot be truly defined, they should be accepted on the basis of our intuition and
experience and are used as a mnental frame of reference for our study of mechanics.
The concept of space is associated with motion of theposition of apoint. The position of
the point may be defined by three lengths measured from certain reference lines, in three
given directions. These lengths are known as the co-ordinates of the point.
The concept for ordering the flow of events is the time. It is the measure of succession
of events. The rotation of earth gives rise to an event that serves as a good measure of time,
the day. For engineering applications we need smaller units and thus, generally, we tie events
tothe second, which is an action repeatable 86400times a day.
The concept of mass is used to characterise and compare bodies on the basis of the
response to a mechanical disturbance. Two bodies of the same mass will be attracted by the
 Module- 1
change in transla-
resistanceto a
same
earth in the same manner. They will also offer the resistanceto change in motion of
tional motion. Thus mass is the quantitative measure ofthe
a body.
may be exerted by actual contact
Force represents the action of one body on another. It
magnetic force. Aforce is
force and
or at a distance as in the case of gravitational direction.
characterised by its point of application, magnitudeand may be
assumed to occupy a
hence
Aparticle is a body of negligible dimensions and irrelevanttothe description of its
Single point in space. When the dimensions of a bodyare particle. For example, even
motion or the action of forces on it, the body may betreated as a flight path.
an aeroplane can be treated as particle for the description of its
a
1.2. Laws of mechanics.
following basic lawS.
Ihe study of elementary mechanics is basedon the
1. Newton's first law.
2. Newton's second law.
3. Newton's third law.
4. Newton's law of gravitation.
5. The parallelogram law of forces.
These lavws are considered to be the foundation of mechanics.
1. Newton's first law.
Itstates that every body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight
line unless it is compelled by a force to change that state.
A body which is at rest willcontinue to be at rest or a
body which is
constant speed in a particular direction will continue moving with the same moving with a
direction, The state of rest or that of uniform motion will change only speed in the same
by a force. The property of the body which when it is acted upon
resists
uniform motion is known as inertia of the body. Thus theany effort to change its state of rest or of
concept of inertia and hence it is also known as law of Newton's first law brings out the
inertia.
2. Newton's second laxw.
It states that the rate of
change of momentum is equal to the
place in thedirection oftáe appiied
From this law we get he force. applied force and takes
Force, rate important relation, F=ma.
of change of
momentum.
= masS X change in velocity
time.
mass x acceleration.
F=m × a.
 Module- 1 I.3

3. Newton's third law.

It states that to every action there is an equal and
opposite reaction.
It should be noted that these two forces called action and
reaction act on two different
bodies in contact. If a body A exerts a force on body B., then the body B will also exert
force of the same magnitude in opposite sense.
4. Newton's law of gravitation.
Two particles are attracted towards each other along the line
force whose magnitude is proportional to the product of the ir connecting them with a
tional to the square of the distance between them.
masses and inversely propor
Fc mm2 F is the force of attraction, m, and m, are the
masses of particles and r is
the distance between the particles.

F= GMM2 where G is the universal constant called

constant of gravitation.
When a particle of mass m lies on the surface of the earth, the force exerted by the
earth is
the weight of the particle. Weight of the particle W =F= GMm mg where g =
GM
R? R?
is the accelaration due to gravity. M is the mass of the earth and R is the
radius of the earth. The value of g depends on the distance of particle from the centre
of
earth and latitude. For most of the engineering calculationsg is calculated at sea level
and at
alatitude of45°. Here g=9.80665 m/s², however, for calculations the value of
g=9.81l m/s?
can be used.
5. Parallelogram law
Slevinius (1548 - 1620)was the first to demonstrate that two forces could be combined
byrepresenting them by directed lines to some suitable scale and then forming a
with the two forces as adjacent sides. The law states that, If two forcs acting
parallelogram
simultaneously
at apoint are represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of a
parallelogram, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal
of theparallelogram which passes through the point of intersection of the two sides
the forces'". representing
 M
Module- 1
P
P C oa s

Psin t
b
P sin
Q

A Qcos
Fig.1.1
1.1. These forces P and Qare
Oas shownin Fig.
respectively.
Let two forces P and ) act at a point
vectors OA and OB
represented in magnitude and direction bythe parallelogram with OA and OB as
Let the angle between thetwo forces be a.
Drawthe
parallelogramlaw of forces, represents
adjacent sides. The diagonal OC, according tothethe forces Pand Q.
the magnitude and direction of the resultant Rof
the triangle OCD,
rromCraw CD perpendicular to OA produced. In
OC2 = OD² + DC?

= (P + Qcos a) + (Q sin a)
= P + Q'cosa + 2 PQ cos a + Qsin´a
= PP+Q cos?a + Q² sin'a +2PQ cos a
= PP+Q²[cos a t sin'a] +2PQ cos a.
R? = P2+ Q² + 2PQ cos
Therefore the resultant of P and Q,

R = JP + Q +2 PQ cos a
1.3. Rigid body.
When applying the principle of
tions are to be assumed. The mechanics to practical problems, anumber of ideal condi
body is one which does nt concept of rigid body is one of such ideal
deform when subjected to external
conditions. A rig1d
neverabsolutely rigid and hence deform under the forces. However bodies are
the deformation is negligbly
Small forces to which they are subjected. When
can be treated as rigid. The compared to the
concept of rigid body overall
chanics and hence many engineering dimensions of the body, the body
problems simplifiesa
are solved by problem engineering me
in
assuming that the body is rigid
 Module- 1 1.5

Principalsystem of units.
The four fundamental quantities of mechanics, mass. length, time and force are related
by the fundamental principle,
F= mxa

Force =massX
length
time?
The units of any three of the above fundamental quantities are
defined arbitrarily and
these three units are referred to as basic units. The unit of the
fourth quantity must be
chosen in accordance with the fundamental principle, F= m xa, and is referred to as
derived unit. The units of all other physical guantities are derived from the basic units and
the unitof thefourth quantity. The units selected in this way are said to
units.
form a system of

System International Units (SI Units).

In this system of unit, the basic units are the units of
length, mass, and time and are
respectively, metre (m), kilogram (kg)and second (s). The unit of force is a derived unit.
Force = mass x length/ (time)
m
Unit of force = unit of mass x unit of length/(unit of time) = kg
m
Thus the derived unit of force is kg .1kg m /s is defined as one
S newton (N) and
it is the force which gives an acceleration of Im/s² to a mass of lkg.
1N=1 kg m/s?
Like any other force, the weight of a body should be expressed in newton. The
weight of
a body of mass m kg is m xg, where g is the acceleration due to
gravity.
Weight of m kg of mass W= mg
Weight of 1kg of mass = 1kg.x 9.81m/s² =9.81 kg. m/s² =9.81N
1.4 Principle of transmissibility.
The principle of transmissibility states that the point of application of a force
can be
transmitted along its line of action without changingtheeffect of the force on any rigid body
to which it is applied.
 .6

Module- |

B
B/
B,
F

A
A

-Line of action of
force F (c)
(a) (b)
Fig.1.2

along AB as
Consider a rigid body under the action of a force F applied at A and acting
Shown in Fig. 1.2. Twoequal and opposite forces applied at Bwillnot change the condition
of the rigid body. Now the removal offorce at Aand the force at B which is opposite to the
force at Awill not change the condition of the rigid body. The condition of rigid body at Fig
1.2(c) is same as that at Fig. 1.2(a). This proves that trasmission of force F from itspoint
of applicationat Ato another point Bwhich is in the line of action of force Fdoes not change
the condition of the rigid body.
1.5 Coplanar force systems.
A
force is characterised by its magnitude, point of
eral forces act on a body, they are called a application and direction. When sev
force system or a system of forces. When all
these forces lie in the same plane, it is
called.a
force systems may be collinear, concurrent or coplanar system of forces. The coplanar
non-concurrent.
Forces whose lines of action lie on the same
and F,shown in Fig. 1.3 are collinear forces.
line are called collinear forces. Forces F, F,

Fig 1.3. F,
Collinear forces,
The forces whose lines of
action meet at a point are
forces, F, F, and F, shown in Fig 1.5
are called concurrent
concurrent forces. forces. The three
 Module- 1 1.7

F F

Fig. 1.5. Concurrent forces. Fig.1.6. Non- concurrrent forces

The system of forces shown in Fig. 1.6 are examples of non- concurrent forces.
The two forces shown in Fig. I.7 are called like parallel forces. The two forces shown in

Like parallel forces Unlike parallel forces

Fig.1.7 Fig.1.8

Fig. 1.8 are called unlike parallelforces.

Composition and resolution of forces.
The replacement of several forces by asingle force is called composition. The replacement
of a single force by several forces is called resolution. The several forces by which a single
force can be replaced are called components of the single force.
Consider a force Facting at apoint O
as shown in Fig 1.9. It is required to replace this
force Fby two forces F, and F, acting along OX and OY directions. These forces F. and F
X
y

are called the components of Falong OX andOY directions respectively. Let and ¢bethe
inclination of OX and OY axes with the given force F which is represented by the vector
OA.

From Adraw lines AC and AB parallel to OX and OY axes. Applying sine rule to the triangle
OAB,
OB OA AB
sin sin (180 - (0 + )) sin

F
sing sin (0 + ) sin 0
 Module- 1
Module- 1 1.9
A

Refer Fig.1.12. The angle between force F and Yaxis is 9.

Fsin ) i. F, =F cos and
F, = sin (0 + ) ( 0+
180-
F, =Fxcos (90 -0)
B X
=F sin 0.
Fsin
F. Fig.1.9
sin ( + ) components,
rectangular
=90°, the components arecalled
When +
90-0 A
Fsin ¢
F = Y 90-0
sin (0 + o) X

Fsin Fig. 1.11 Fig. 1.12

= F sin (90 - 0)
sin 90 Direction of component of a force.
F
The direction of component of a force is the direction of force itself, when the angle
=F cos 0 between the force and the direction is assumed to be zero.
y
F sin 0 Y
X
F, = sin ( + ) F

Fsin 0
= F sin (90 -)= Fcos ¢ Fig. 1.10
y sin 90 X

The rectangular component of aforce along agiven direction is the product of the magnitude Fig. 1.13
of the force and cosine of the angle between the force and the given direction. Sign convention for forces.
To calculate the rectangular component of a force, Forces acting in opposite directions should be given opposite sign. Generally upward
1. Identify the force whose component is required. force is taken as positive and downward force negative. Force towards right is taken as
2. Identify the direction along which the component is required. positive and force acting towards left is taken as negative.
3. Calculate the angle between the force and the direction, if not given. |- ve
4. Multiply the force by the cosine of the angle between the force and the + ve
direction.
Refer Fig, 1.11. The angle between force Fand Xaxis is 9.
Therefore rectangular - ve
component of the force F along the Xaxis is, F =F cosA
The angle between the force Fand Yaxis is (90- + ve

component of force F alongY axis is. 9).Therefore the rectangular Fig. 1.14
F, =F cos (90- 0)
=Fsin 0.
 1.10
Module- 1
Module-1
force systems
1.11

Resultant and equilibrant of coplanar concurrent obtained analytically by ON, + N,N= ON

can be
concurrent forces directions. The force equal in F, sin a, + AC sin a, = R sin 9
Resultant of anumber of coplanar perpendicular
resolving the forces along any two mutually equilibriant. Itisthe single force
is called F, sin a., + OB sin a, = R sin 0
sum ofprojetions of a number
resultant
magnitude and opposite in direction of the Th algeibric
required to keep the force systemin equilibrium. equal to the projection of their F, sin a., + F, sin a, = Rsin
of coplanar concurrent forces along any direction
will be ie., the sum of
is the extention of theorem of resolved OY = component of resultant of F, and F, along OY. components of F, and F, along
resultant along the same direction. This statement states that projection of the
parts to any nunmber of forces. The theorem of
resolved parts
two
Consider four forces F, F,, F, and F, as shown in fig. 0.35.
any axis is egual to the algebric sum of the components OT the
resultant of two forces on F, cos , + F, cos a, + F, cos a, + F, cos a, = R cos
forces along the same axis. E. = R. cos ---(1)

F, sin a, +F, sin a, + F, sin a, + F, sin a, =R sin

Y R
N F, = R. sin ---(2)

E Squaring and adding eqns. (1) and (2),

F
EF+ EF, =R? cos 0 + R sin'0
X
= R²(cos? + sin² )
Ng
R= E + ,
MË M2 M
Inclination of resultant with horizontal is given by, Fig. 1.16
Fig. 1.15
tan 0)
Consider twoforces F, and F, acting at 0. Let Rbe the resultant of F, and F,. It is required
to prove that,

tan X
F,cos , + F,cos a, = R cos
and F, sin a, + F, sin a, = R sin 0 Fig. 1.17
When F, is ve and F, is + ve
OM,+ M, M = OM
F,cos a, + OM, = OM
an-!
0= tan R
F, cos a., +F, cos a, = OM= Rcos 9
F,cos a., +F, cos a, =R cos . 1¬., sum of , = 180-0 OR
OX = component of resultant of F, and F, along OX. components of F, and F, along X
When F, and F, are - ve, Fig. I.18
 Resolving ResolvingSolution FiExample
nd 1.1. Module-1
When
Resultant =
200N the tan
SE. resultant F,
=-21.56 N F, the 43.98 =N the 9=
tan
R B.=360 - 8.=180
is +e
=EJ forces
= =
forces tve
150 150 8ON
of and
sin along cos along 1.Fi2g0. the
30 30 60 forces
+200 theY X-axis,
+
180 shown is
(EF, +
sin -axis cos 450 ve. -
30- 45 in
80 - 180N Fig UR
200 50N 1
sin 1.20.
60 cos
- 30 Fi1.g1.9
180 - oR
sin 80
cos
45
60 1.Fi2g1.

I.12

vector
force vector
force
The
The The vector
force
The Vector
The The method. Since Inclination Module- |
The The component
The The The

component
component component component
component component
component
the
F,
=-40 =-173.21i+100 j F, =129.90
+75j i F resultant tan =
=-80 =-200 =150 =333.88 =360 -0
, 26.120 = of 48.98 =N
resultant J43.98)²
(-21.56) +
of of of of 360-
26.12 = -)
of of j- of of
force force force force cos forceforce is 43.98 21.56
force force69.28 cos cos in with
60 F, F, 30 along F,YF, 30
F, F F, F, the
along along j i alongalong along
axis X +150 i alongalong fourth horizontal.,
-80 i+
200
YX sin Y X sin YX
axis axis axisis,
60 aixs (-80 sin axis axis axis quadrant,the
30 30 0
is, is, j is, (-200
iscos is is is =
(-80 j 200 j 150 150
(-180 I80 tan
60)sin cos60) sin sin cos
sin cos 30 30. 30. inclination
resultant.of
45) 45 30)

1.13
 Module-1
Module- 1 1. 15

The force vector,

Resultant, R = 2J +(EE}
F, =180cos 45 i -1 80 sin45 j
-127.28i-127.28 j J-251.23)' + (268.39
Resultant, R =367.63 N

X= +,+,+¼, Inclination or resultant with horizontal,

=(129,90 i+75j) +(-173.21 i +100 j) Y

t(-40 i -69.28 i)+(127.28 i127.28 j) tan =

E
=(129.90-173.21-40+127.28) i +(75+10069.28-127.28) i
R=43.98 i-21.56 j. 268.39
251.23
The component of resultant, R= 43.98 Nand R=-21.50 N.
Magnitude of resultant, = 1.068
Fig. 1.23
0= tan (1.068)
R=Ró +R,} = 46.890
=43.98 +(-21.56) Since the resultant is in the second quadrant, the inclination of the resultant,
= 48.98 N.
0, = 180-0= 180 46.89 = 133.110
Since R_ is +ve and R_ is -ve, the resultant is in the fourth quadrant. Inclination of Vector method.
resultant vwith Xaxis is given by
The force vector,
R R,
tan = 8= tan! tan-! 21.56= 26.12°.
R, R. 43.98 E = 300sin 30 i +300cos 30 j=150 i +259.81j
The force vector
Example 1.2
Find the resultant of the force system shown in Fig 1.22. E, =-200 cos 45 i -200 sin 45
Solution. 4300N =-141.42 i -141.42 j.
The force vector
Resolving the forces along Xaxis,
~E, =300 sin 30-300 cos 30- 200 sin 45 309 i--300 cos 30 i +300sin 30j= -259.s1i+150j.
The resultant
= -251. 23 N X

Resolving the forces along Y- axis, 300

E, =300 cos 30 + 300sin 30 -200 sin 45 -(150 i+259.81j) +(-141.42 i -141.42 j) +(-259,81 i +150 j)
2oON 300N = (150141.42 - 259.81) i +(259.81 -141.42 +150)i
- 268.39 N.
Fig.1.22 =-251.23 i + 268.39 i
Module- 1 1. 17
Module-1
Components ofresultant,
R=-251.23 and R= 268.39 Solution.

.. magnitude of resultant force Resolving the forces along Xaxis,

R=R,°+R? XF =15 + 20cos 30 + 25 cos 60 + 0 - 45 cos 60 =22.32 N

Resolving the forces along y axis,
=-251.23) +268.39 =367.63 N
Inclination of ZF =0+ 20 sin 30 + 25 sin 60 + 35 + 45 sin 60 = 105.62 N
Since Ris -ve and Ris +ve, the resultant is in the second quadrant.
resultant with -ve Xaxis, Resultant, R = E+ E
tan =
Ry V22.322 + 105.622
R,
= 107.95 N
Ky 268.39
=tan = tan = 46.89 Inclination of resultant with horizontal,
R, 251.23
0 = tan
-1 |F
Inclination of resultant with +ve Xaxis,
0, =180-0=180 46.89 = 133.11°. -1 105.62 6
Example 1.3 = tan X
22.32
Forces of 15 N, 20 N, 25 N, 35 N and 45 N act at an angular point of a regular hexagon Fig. 1.26
= 78.070
towards the other angular points as shown in Fig.1.24. Calculate the magnitude and directiot
of the resultant force. Inclination of resultant,0,= =78.070
Example 1.4
3SN 25N/ 35N
The direction of the 300 N forces may vary but the angle between the two forces is always
HSN
40°. Determine the value of a for which the resultant of the forces acting at A is directed
45N 20N 25N along the plane b-b as shown in Fig. 1.27.
20N
300N
15N 609
60° 30° 1SN 300N
Fig i.24 40°
Fig.1.25
S00N
30

Fig. 1.27
 point Example
of 1.5 zero,ponents of rest forceConditions
300
D, rope
A
1) both
equilibriant.
number
a
bynumber A
Sin
0sin
i*, erpentir Fr
(a
on isN ZF, of applying zero. is
a-20
th
rope,
e
suspended
long
9
m all
= F,the coplanar Resutant:
of If of
thforces
e
for =6.3 10
a a
= =
20}
-
sina- 40) -00
a
e

0 and R a equilibrium 26.31- = c2x 2sin

2 is
and
forces force
= tand resultant sin os20
0.833 sn plane e in
connected XF, (a
from
irom
m aiong concurrent(2equilibriant equal acting
(0.443)
20 - sin (40+ -
must F,)' 20). a+ o
a 2) force on of = 0.443 = «)-500 should be
Bpoi at 2. be
twT and 6.31°=26.310 cos(-20)
0.833 = sin
is + particle
is
coplanar
a along
necessary Cand A F,
zero.Thereforemutually (Zforces opposite are 40)-a- (a be
= not +40) sin
the
on
B, 0
F,), equal equal
2
30
zero. b-b,
two is is
concurrent
rope,
to perpendicular where given in to tosaid =0.833 = the
keep points magnitude the = 0
the zero, to 0.833 sum
3 resultant
by be
portion from mon equations }E, then inforce of
the and equilibrium
same Xand the components
CD A, and opposite force. systems.
parallel Whatlevel, fequilibrium of Y F, particle
load
directions. are ein Such when
to 8
m
the direction. acan of
connected
AB.
apart. sun force their
be all
are, For brought the

A Resultanl 1s resulau
R
to va or
to load
be th
Considering Resolving T c Resolving
Consider From FromSolution.Module-1
For
Tep-Tacs=0
in For the the
X or COs
FA 2 the 0 X the the sin ¢= Sin 0 9- triangle triangle
Ten F T C -300=0
= F,
equilibrium 8x
21
= 32 y² y'=32 x? -
= the
0
forces forces
= =61.040
=2.625 X
m x²=
equilibrium 542.l1 ==Tar = 43.430 = x² =BDE, ACE,
0 61.04
cos 0 3 X 4- 22-(4-
=
Sin
horizontally, 300 vertically,
of
3X4- 2.625 2
2.625
16-x²+22-(4-
N. 3
of = point x)
point 619.58 619.58 N
0.875 = 8 x)
C. A
2, x A
D sin
3m
61.04 0.6875
3m
300N
AC
y
300N

1.Fig.29 4m 8m
Fig.
1.31 300 N
1.Fi3g0.
4m 4m

W D 2m
W D
4-x
2m
B 19
1.
’
B
 1.21
Module- |
Module- | "pB or counter clockwise. The sense of
moment of a force is taken as clockwise when
the force
force in clockwise direction about the moment centre.
Tyg sin -T =0
542.1IN
rotates or tends to rotate the arm of when the force
taken as counter clockwise
Similarly the sense of moment of a force is
D
$42.11
direction about the moment
in counterclockwise
sin 43.43° rotates or tends to rotate the arm of force counterclockwise moment
sin d
W centre. If a clockwise
moment is taken as positive then the
= 788,$6 N Fig. 1.32 should be taken as negative.
application of force F, OB is the arm of force.
O is the moment centre, A is the point of O.
For SF =0 horizontal. Moment of the force F about an axis through
is the inclination of force F with
1pa COS -W = 0 perpendicular to the plane of the figure,
788.56 cos 43.43
W=T cOs = .
M, =F xOB = Fx OA sin
perpendicular to
W= $72.66 N
when the line of action of the force is
Moment of a force will be maximum force. Moment of a force
and point of application of the
L.6 Moment of a force the body the line joining the moment centre
moments of forces acting on acts at the moment centre itself
and (ii) when the line of
can be solved by taking tendencyto will be zero when, (i) the force
Many problems of statics force as regards to its
point. The effectiveness of a action of the force passes through the
moment centre.
about a convenient axis or point is called moment of the
force.lt is measured
bodv about an axis or a force.
produce rotation ofa force. Arm of force, also To calculate the moment of a
magnitude of the force and arm of the
by the product of the distance of the line of action of the force from the 1. Identifythe force.
calledmoment arm is the perpendicular 2. Identify the moment centre.
3. Identify the line of action of the force. of the line of action of the force from the
distance
4. Calculatle the perpendicular
moment centre.
perpendicular distance.
5. Multiply the force by the calculated
C.W.
A, point of application Moment of force F, about O is F, x OA,
of force
Arm- - of- fo-r-ce Moment of force F, about O is F, x OB,
C.C.W.
C.W.
- Moment of force F, about O is F, x OC,
F, x OD, C, C.W.
Moment of force F, about O is
line of action
of force F

Fig.1.33
moment centre. Moment centre is the point about which moment of a force is measured.
A
The line perpendicular to the plane containing th¹ force and passing through the
eentre is called axis of the momenl. Wnen the force is
momeni
expressed in newtons N) and tne
arm of force in metres then the moment of force will
be expressed
The moment ofa force has not only a magnitude but also a sense.in newton-metre
(Nm).
Depending upo the
Fig.l.34 Fa
relative position of the force andi moment centre, the moment of aforce F
will be either clockwise
 1.22
Module- | 1.23
Module- 1
7E=10kN
givenby Mo =YxF,
Vector method. pointA about apoint Ois 0.
Momentofaforce Facting: ata point
Awithrespectto xi+yj. The forea
t position1vectorofpoint
where Yissthe along X andYaxes, then Y= 5 m

unit vectors
T i and jare the
vector, F=F, i+F i.
Moment of forceF about O. 30
M, =FxF 4.33 m
Fig. I.35
Solution
(i) When = 0, the line of action is horizontal and hence the arm of force is 2.5 m.
M,= 10 x 2.5 = 25 kN m (c.c.w)

(i) When = 300, the line of action of force F passes through the moment centre.
Therefore M, = 10 × 0 = 0

(iii) When = 90, the line of action is vertical and hence the arm of force is 4.33 m.
Magnitude of moment Mo = XF, - yF, M, =10 x4.33 = 43.3 k Nm (c.w)
According to right hand screw rule, clockwise moment is negative and counter clock
wise moment is positive. The moment of force willbe maximum when it is perpendicular to OA.
Altematively, M, -xF M, =10 x5= 50 KNm.
Vector method.

The position vector of point A, Y=4.33i+2.5 .

X
The force vector F=-10 cos i -10 sin 0 i
1. When 0 = 0, F=-10i
=(yx0-0xF) i-(xx0 -0xE,ji +(xF, -yE,)k 2. When ) =30, F=-10 cos30 i -10 sin 30 i

M, =(x F, -y F,) k =-8.66 i -si

Example 1.6 3. When = 90°, Ë= -10j
Calculate the moment of the force F = 10kN acting at
point Aas When =0, M, =ixE
the angle, (i) 9= 0 shown in Fig 1.35.when
(ii) = 30

(ii) 0 = 90°
Also calculate the maximum moment of force F about
 1.24
Module- 1 Module-| 1.25

=(4.33i+2.5i)x(-10i)
=43.3(ixi)-25x i)
Referring Fig I.36

=0+25 k

= 25 k
M,, =25k Nm c.c.W.

When =30°
H
Mo = FxF B

4.33 2.5 ol
8.66 -S O A G E
Fig. 1.36
-(4.33 (-5)-2.5(-866)] k
=)
AE = AG + GE
When e = 90° = AG + BH

M, =YxF = AG + BD cos ,

= AG + ACcos ,
=(4.33 i +2.5 j) x(-10 j)
AD cos= AB cos ,+ ACcos .,
- 43.3(i xi) +(-25) Gx i)
= 43.3 k +0 Fcos =F, cos ,+F, cos 0,. (Theorem of resolved parts)
Moment of the force M=43.3 KNm. c.c.w. Multiplyingby OA.
Warignon's theorem Fx OA cos = F, x OA cos , + F, x OA cos ,
French mathematician Varignon (1654 - 1722) gave the
known as principle of moments. Varignon's theorem states following theorem which is also
that the moment ofa force about
Fxd =F, x d, +F, x d,
any axis is equal to the sum of Moment of F about O = moment of F, about O+ moment of F, about O.
moments of its components about that axis.
Consider a force F acting at a point A. F, and F, are the Since F, and F, are the components of the force E, and O is an arbitrary point, moment of
directions. The moment of Fabout an axis through an components of Falong any two a given force about any point = sum of moments of its components about the same point.
the arm of force F. d, and d, arbitrary point O is F xd. where d is
are the arm of forces of F, Example 1.7
moments of the components F, and F, about and F, respectively. Sum o1
O is Fd, + F, d,. It is to
d=F, x d, + F, x d,. be proved that F x Calculate the moment of the given force F = 10 KN about point O, as shown in Fig. 1.37.
Join Aand O. Draw a line
through Aand
the rectangular components of F,,,F,
and F perpendicular to OA, Let AG, AJ and AE be
respectively.
 Module- I 1.27
Module- |
F= 10 kN
M=(10 cos 60) xO+ (10sin 60) x5
= 43.30 kNm.
80 Vector method.

Position vector of point A,

5 m

¡=5 cos 20 i +5sin 20 j

20
Fig. 1.37
=4.7 i+1.71j.
Force vector,

F=-10 cos 80 i-10sin 80 j

R, = 10sin80
10kN
=-1.74 i-9.85 j.
Moment about O,

Mo =ixË
80° R,,
AH
= 10cos 80
k
5 m
4.7 1.71
-1.74 -9.85
20°
Fig. 1.38
=(4.7x(-9.85) -1.71 x(-1.74)]k
=(-46.3+2.98) k
10sin 60 F= 10kN
=-43.32 k
= 43.32kNm. C.w.
60° 10cos 60 Example 1.8
Calculate the moment of the force system shown in Fig 1.40 about O.
A
5 m
50 cos 60 = 31.78 N.
ZF = 30cos 30 + 60 cos 10 - 40 cos 45
020 2F, = 30sin 30 + 40 sin 45 50 sin 60 60 sin 10
Fig. 1.39
=-10, 44 N
M =(10sin 80)x (5 cos
20)-(10 cos 80 )x(5 sin 20) Resultant, R = E,) + (E F,)
= 43.30 kN m.

V(31.78) + (-10.44)*
Module- 1
40 N Module- 1
= 33.45 N 1.29
30 N
=(5x(-10.44)- 0x31.78) k
450 300 =-52.2k
5m
600 10° = 52.2 kN c.w.
9 = tan Example 1.9
60N
A uniform wheel 60 cm diameter weighing 1000 N rests against a rectangular obstacle 15
|10.44| cm height as shown in Fig. 1.41. Find the least force required, which when acting through
tan = 18.190 the centre of the wheel will just turn the wheel over the corner Aof the block. Also find the
|31.78| 50 N reaction of the block.
Fig.1.40
M, =R sin 0 x 5 Solution
P
=33.45 x (sin18.19) x5 |30

=33.45 x (sin18.19) x5
= 52.21 Nm 30 A
MA 15 cm
Vector method.
B
Fig.1.41
Position vector of pointA, F=5 i
Let the inclination of the forcePwith AC be a.. The inclination of line joining Aand Cwith
i-30cos 30 i+30sin 30 -25.98 i+15 vertical, =60°. Taking moments ofP and W about A,
E,=-40 cos 45 i +40sin 45 j=-28.28 i +28.28
W=1000 N
E, =-50 cos 60 i-50 sin 60j=-25 i-43.3
i, -60cos 10 i-60sin 10j =59.09 i-10.42
Resultant of these forces, P

R= +, +, +,
= (25.98
28.28-25 +59.09) i +(15+ 28.28 -43.3-10.42) i
=31.78i-10.44 ;
Moment about O, M, =0xR RA
Fig.142
For M = 0,
k (P sin c) x AC - W x (AC sin ) = 0
Psin a = W sin 60 = 1000 sin 60
31.78 -10.44 = 866 N.
 Module

866 1.31
Solution.
sin a
Since there is no
should be maximum. For this a should be 90° horizontal or inclined force,
For Pto be minimum, sina
P= 866 N 2 F =0

Resolving the forces along AC, 2F, - 10+ 20 - 20 - 10 =-

20 kN.
R, -- Pcos a - W cos 0 =0 Resultant R=EF +(2 F,)'
R, = 866 cos 90 +1000 cos 60
= 500 N Resultant R =(E F)' + (Z F)'
1.7 Principle of moments.
Varigon's theoremn relates-the moment of asingle force about any point and the sum of -0+(-20)
moments of its components about the same point. Generalized Varigon's theorem relates the =20 kN
sum of moments of a number of concurrent forces and the moment of the resultant of these
concurrent forces.
Inclination of resultant with horizontal
Principle of moments, which is an extension of Varigon's theorem to non-concurrent = tan tan-l 20
coplanar forces, states that the moment of the resultant of a system of non concurrent
coplanar forces acting on a body about any point is equal to the algebric sum of the moments
of all the forces forming the system about the same point. = tan o= 90°

Magnitude and direction ofresultant of a number of coplanar concurrent forces, can be Inclination of resultant with positive Xaxis, 0, =180 + 9=270°
Let the distance of line of action of
obtained by resolving the forces along two mutualy perpendicular directions and then finding this force from end A be x,
the resultant of the sum of components of the forces. This resultant will be acting at the
then , M =Rx x
point of intersection of the concurrent forces. Magnitude and direction of nonconcurrent
forces can also be obtained by resolving the forces along two perpendicular directions. To M = 10 x 0
20 x 4 + 20 x 10 + 10 x17
obtain the position of resultant force, we can equate the sum of moments of all the forces in
the plane, about any point in the plane, with the moment of their 80 + 200 + 170 =290 kNm C.W.
=

resultant about the same Moment of R about A should be clockwise, for this R must be
point. Ifthe sum of moments ofallthe forces about a point is towards right of A.
clockwise, then the position of Let it be at a distance x from A
resultant with respect to the point should be such that the moment of
point must also be clockwise.
resultant about that
Z MA = Rx
Example 1.10.
Determine the resultant of the system of forces shown in Fig. x =2M, R=20kN

10kN
1.43. R X= 14.5 m
20kN 20kN 10kN
290
4m = 14.5 nm
A 6m 20 Fig.l44
7m

Fig.l.43
 1.32
Module- 1 L.33

Module- I Example 1.11

Vector method. Three forces 200 N, 300 N and 400 N act along three sides of an equilateral triangle taken
in order. Find the magnitude and line of action of the resultant force.
Sum offorces Solution.
EË=-10j+ 20 j-20j-10j F = 200-300 cos 60 - 400 cos 60
=-20j.
= 200 - 150 200 = - 150 N
The force vectors,
and F,=-10j
¼-20j. i=-20j
200N
F, = 300 sin 60 400 sin 60
=-10j. A
Fig.145
= -86.6 N
=0
Position vector ofpoint A, i, Resultant R= J150) +(-86.6)
, =4 i
Position vector ofpointB, = 173.2 N
=10i
Position vector of point C, Inclination of resultant with horizontal

Position vector ofpoint D, i, = 17i

86.6
0 = tan - = tanl = 30
aboutA F 150
Sum ofmoments ofall the forces
+p xF,.
EM, =, x +, xE, + xF, Since both F, and F, are negative, the resultant in the third quadrant.
ix-10j
=0x(-10j)+4ix20j+10ix(-20j+17 , = 180 +0 = 180 +30 = 210º

-0+80 (ixj) - 200(ixj) -170 (ixj) Z M, =(-300 sin 60) x AB = - 259.81 x AB

=0+80k- 200 k-170k Let the line of action of resultant be at a distance x away from point A.
=-290 k
Applying principle ofmoments,
EM=FxEF 20 N
-290 =x ixF =15 AB 200]N
B
=(x )x(-20)
30°
=-20 x(+x ) R=173.2N
=-20 x k. Fig. 1.46

The distance of the point of application of resultant force from A, }M, = Rxx
- 290
X= =14.5 m
-20 ZM, 259.81 x AB =15 AB
R 173.2
 34
1.35
Module- 1
Module- |

four sides ofa square

Example 1.12
equalto P. 2 P. 3 Pand 4
Pare acting along ABCD taken Therefore, R x X = 5 Px a.

2.828 P × x =5 Px a
Four forces characteristics ofthe
resultant.
order. Find the X= 1.768 a
4 2P X
Solution. = sin 45
3P D AE
-2P
2F, = 2P-4P = X 1.768 a
-2 P AE =
E F = P - 3P = sin 45 sin 45

R = E F)' + ( F) = 2.5 a
Example 1.13
=/(2 P)² +(-2 P) a
12 kN, 16 kN and 10 kN are acting
Six forces of magnitude 10 kN, 12 kN, 15 kN,
= 2.828 P 45° E A B m. in order. Find the resultant force and its
along the sides of aregular hexagon of side 2
R=2.828P 4p Find also the position of the resultant with respect to the centre of the hexagon.
Inclination of resultant with horizontal direction.
Fig.l47
= tan
|2 Fy
N2kN

= tan = tan 1=45° R225o

=40
Inclination of the resultant ,=180 +0 - 2.828

10kN
= 180 + 45 2m

=2250 Fig.148 Fig.149

Sum of moments of the given forces
about A,
Solution.
cos 60
Z MA -2 Px a -3 P x a
ZF =10+12 cos 60-15 cos 60-12-16 cos 60+10
6.5 kN
= -5Pa
60 10 sin 60
ZF,= 0 + 12 sin 60 + 15 sin 60 +0- 16 sin
=5Pa c.c.w = 0.866 kN.
Since the sum of moments o1f the
resultant Rabout Ashouid al so begiven forces about A is counter
clockwise, the Resultant force R = ( F) +(E F,)
be to the left of point A. counter
Let tthe resultant beclockwise. For this the position of moment of
about Ais equal toR x X. at a distance x from A, resultant must
then moment of = /(6.5) + (0.866)
resultant =6.56 KN.
 Module |
Module- |
tonewithhoriztal
Inclination of resultant 1.37

X
129,90
= tan 19.80 m
6.56
OR Example 1.14
0.Soo )
Findthe resultant of the forces
Fig. l.50 shown in Fig 1.52.
Solution.
7.59 EE, 5cos 45 + 10 cos 45 +5 cos
45
Inclination ot resultant , = 1S0 - # 20 cos 45
= 180 7.59 = 14.14 KN
= |72,41°
EF, = 5 sin 45 - 10 sin 45-5 sin 45
of hexagon,
Sum of moments of all the fones shout the centre = -10 sin 45
+ 16 + 10) x 2sin 60
2 M = - (10 + 12+ 15 + 12 =-7.07 KN
=-75 x 2sin 60
R = (E F,) + (E F)
= 129.90 KNm c.c.w.

Let the distance of resultant force trom the centre be x. R = (14.14)° + (-7.07)* E
Then, moment of resultant about the centre = R x X. = 15.81 kN
Im Im

Inclination of resultant with horizontal, Fig.I.52

12kN
9= tan | F,

NAOT R

= tanl 7.07
12KN

14.14 R
10kN
2m
= 26.570 Fig.l.53
Fig.1.51 0, =3600 =360 -26.57
= 333.430

Sum of moments of all the forces about O,

Equating these two moments,
} Mo = (10 cos 45) x 2 + (5 cos 45) x 2 + (5 sin 45) x 2- (5 sin 45) x 1
Rxx = 129 .90
= 24.75 KNm
 Module- | 1.39
Module-| 24.75k Nm
Rx x=
X
Moment of resultant about O=
24.75 = 1.57m
tan , = :0, = 63.43
24.75
.. X
R
15.81 ZFE, =-100 cos 33.690 80 cos 450 + 60 cos 71.56 + 30 cos 63.430
with
Example 1.15 systemshownin
Fig1.54 respect tO pointo =-107.38 kN
tofthe force ZF.=- 100 sin 33.690 + 80 sin 450 + 60 sin 71.56° - 30 sin 63.430
Determine the resultant
Allsquares are unit squares.
=31.19 KN

Solution. R= F) + (Z F,)?
30cos ,
60cos , + -(-107.38) ?+(31.19)?
}F, =- 100 cos &, - 80 cos , +
sinð, -30 sin , = ||1.82 kN
100 sin 9, + 80 sin , + 60
N0¬ ZF,=- Since EF,H is negative and 2F, is positive, the resultant is in the second quadrant
Its inclination with the horizontal. Sum of moments of all the forces about O.
30 KN 1|M
-31.19|
9 = tan = tan
1 0
K 0N
100 kN |107.38|
= 16.200

= 180 - 0

= 180 - 16.20
= 163.800
60
kN
E M, = 30cos , 4 x 4 - 60sin , x 1 - 80 sin , x 4 + 100

Fig. 1.54 80 kN sin 0, x 4 - 100cos , x 3

60 KN
Fig.1.55 = 30 cos 63.43 x4-60 sin 71.56 x l- 80 sin 45 x 4+
100sin 33.69 x 4- 100 cos 33.69 x 3.
= - 257.25
tan 0, =;0, = 33.69
3 = 257.25 kNm C.C.W.

tan 6, =: 0, = 450 Moment of resultant about O = RXx

3
RXx = M,
tan , 7:0, =71.56°
 l.40
1.41
Module- 1

20 cos 60) x2
SM, = (40 sin 60) × 2 + (80 sin 60) x 8 + (20 sin 60) x 12 +(
Module-1
257.25 = 2.3 m
X =
111.82 = 851.38 Nm (clockwise).
Let x be the distance of line of action of resultant
from A.
in Fig.1.56.
Example 1.16
coplanar forces as shown ZM = RxX
ofa setof
Findthe resultant 851.38
80N X =
6.82 mn
R 124.90
40N
20N
60
E. Couple.
C 2m D 2m other are called parallel forces.
A 2m B 4m 60° The forces whose lines of action are parallel to each forces are
parallel forces. Two parallel
2m G Parallel forces may be like parallel forces or unlike
Fig.1.56 act in the same direction. Two parallel forces are said to be unlike
said to be like when they
when they act in opposite directions.
Solution

Resolving the forces horizontally,

- 20 cos 60
2 = 40 cos 60 - 80 cos 60
= 20 40 - 10

= -30 N (a) Like parallel forces. (b) Unlike parallel forces

Fig.1.57
Resolving the forces vertically, Hence these forces
The resultant of two unlike parallel forces of same magnitude is zero.
magnitude,
E = - 40 sin 60 - 80 sin 60 - 20 sin 60. cannot be replaced by another single force. Such two forces having the same
couple.The plane in which the
=-121,24 N parallel line of action, and opposite sense are said to forn a
couple. The distance between the line of action of forces
forces act is called the plane of the
Resultant force R=(EF, + (EF,} is called arm of couple.

- -30) +(121.24)
=124.90N
Inclination of resultant with horizontal,

9 = tan tan
- 121.24 (a) Clockwise couple (b) Counter clockwise couple
30
= 76.100

Since both Fy and Z Fy are Fig.1.58

negative, the resultant is in the third The moment of a couple is always equal to the product of the magnitude of one
of the
A= 180 += 180 +
76.10 = 256.10º
auadrant.
forces and the arm of couple.
Taking moments of forces about A
 1.42

Module- |
1.43
Module-1

components. the greater of the two forces. Find the magnitude of the
Example 1.17 forces.
shown in Fig. 1.59, into two parallel
Resolve the force of 300N 4300N
and (ii) at C and D Solution. A 450mm
(i)at B and C
Let P > Q
Solution. 2m
2m
D
Let P and Q be the
components.
B A P-Q=900 --------(i)
Fig.I.62
Fig.1.59 Moment of P about B must be equal to moment of 900 N about B.
P+Q=300
components are at B and C. Px 450= 900 x650
Case (i)When the The magnitude of P and
O Q
B is 300 x 2= 600 Nm
Moment of the given force about be 600 Nm.
P = 1300 N
their moments about B should
should be such that the sum of From eqn (i) 200mm 450mm
Px0 +0 x3 = 600 1300 -Q = 900
Q =200N Q= 1300 900 Ip
900N
P+Q=300 Q= 400 N. Fig.1.63
2m Im 2m
D
P+200 =300 A Properties of couple.
P= 100 N Fig. 1.60 The two forces constituting a couple are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. There
fore, the sum of forces of a couple is zero.
Case ( i )When the components are at C and D.
P+Q=300 N F= 0

Moment of the given force about D is 300x 3 = 900Nm The magnitude of P and O
should be such that the sum of their moments about D should be 900 Nm. X
D

Px2+Q x0 =900
P=450 N Fig.1 .64
P +Q=300 P The moment of a couple about any point in the plane of couple is a constant and is
450 +Q = 300
independent of the position of moment centre.
Q=300 - 450 2m
Moment of couple about O,
Im 2m
=- 150N B A C D M=F (d+x) Fx
O is 150N downward. = Fd+Fx-FX
Fig.1.61
Example 1.18 =Fd

Two unlike parallel forces are acting at a Since the moment of couple, F x d is independent of x, it is aconstant.
forces are equivalent to a single force of 900 N,distance of 450 mm from each other. The Another property of couple is that the action of a couple on a rigid body will not be
which acts at a distance of 200 mm from