CHAPTER 9

Nature and Meaning of Emotion

Motivation - latin word “movere” which means move.
 refers to the process that initiates, sustains, and direct behavior.
 also refers to the aspect of human behavior that deals with the
understanding why human beings behave the way they behave the
way they do.

The Motivation Cycle

 Need
 Goal
 Drive
 Incentive

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

Kinds of Motives and Drives
 Physiological drives and motives - these drives are inborn and
present at birth.
 Hunger drive - the first need that the human being is satisfied
at birth.
 Thirst - when the water level of the body becomes low, we
experience thirst
 Oxygen need or air hunger - a need more powerful than either
hunger or thirst is the need of oxygen, more commonly
referred to air hunger.
 Fatigue - motivates people to action. when tired, you look for
ways to rest and unwind.
 Rest and sleep - the most common way to seek relief.
 Avoidance of pain - every normal person likes to avoid pain.
the moment he feels pain, he reacts quickly to avoid it.
 Elimination drive - as waste matter accumulates in the bowels
or bladder, the pressure or the distention in these organs
tends to stimulate the drive to empty them.
 Sex drive - is not essential to life, but is responsible for the
preservation of species.
 Maternal drive - all mammal mothers manifest the maternal
drive to take care of their young.
 Warmth and cold - the perception of warmth and cold is a drive
of behavior.
 Psychological and social drives - the individual is faced with
other kinds of drives which are classified by different authors
as psychological and social drives.
 Peer group relations - the affirmation motive - such motives as
group approval, desire for status and success, desire for
leadership and power, desire to belong, desire for security,
emerge and affect the child’s behavior to a great extent.
 Motives related to competence and self - the first of these
motives is achievement motivation or the desire to accomplish
something.
Emotions - comes from the Latin word “emovere” which means to
stir up, agitate, upset, or move.
 is a response of the entire organism involving both the internal
and external bodily changes.
 plays an important role in the individual’s response to certain
stimuli or situations.

Theories of Emotion
James Lange Theory of Emotion
 proposed by William James (1948) and Carl Lange (1885).
 William James proposed the theory of emotion which was
rather different from the ordinary or common sense concept of
how an emotion is felt. common sense involves three steps:
first, the person perceives the situation that evokes the
emotion; second he becomes aware of the emotion; then he
reacts to the emotion.
 Carl Lange thought that emotion is not due to the perceived
object and its influence or consciousness, but when the object
is perceived physiological changes occur, then the emotion
follows.
Hypothalamic Theory of Emotions
 proposed by Walter B. Cannon (1929)
 studies on emotion point out the fact that the hypothalamus is
the control center of the neural activity involved in the
emotion.
Schacter and Singer’s Theory of Emotion
 proposed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer.
 asserted that emotion reflects how we interpret autonomic
arousal in the light of all the information we have about
ourselves and the situation.
Lazarus Cognitive Theory
 proposed by Arnold Lazarus (1984)
  Lazarus was led to this theory by the following facts; first, you
can experience “arousal” just by exercising. so, emotion is
more than just changes in your bodily processes. second, you
can experience “feelings” that are not really emotions. third,
you can learn to behave in a stereo-typed manner that will
make others presume you are experiencing an emotion when
you are really just faking it.

Physiological Aspects - the changes in our circulatory system.

 a change during an emotional experience is noted by the
respiratory system.
 physiological changes are manifested by the secretion of duct
or ductless glands during strong emotions.
 physiological changes caused by emotions is the role played by
the nervous system, whenever the individual experiences an
emotion.

Facial Expressions - cultural differences influence emotional

expressions of behavior.
 emotional behavior is the result of both maturation and
learning.
 a number of facial expressions don’t depend on whether or not
one has seen others.

Vocal Expressions - are detected by means of cues

 loudness, pitch or change of pitch may serve as a cue to the
emotion being expressed.

Personal Emotional Experience - the third aspect of emotion

 earlier psychologists made distinctions between feelings and
emotions.
 feelings were described as states of pleasantness or
unpleasantness, tension, relaxation, excitement, or quiet.
  emotions were thought or more complex experiences than
feelings.
 emotional experiences are personal, subjective, and varied.

Classification of Emotions
 Basic vs. Derived Emotions
 Mild vs. Intense Emotions
 Pleasant vs. Unpleasant Emotions
 Positive vs. Negative Emotions
 Fear
 Anger
 Love

CHAPTER 10
Personality - comes from the Latin word "persona " meaning mask.
 personality is defined as the sum total of all the traits and
characteristics of a person that distinguishes him from another.

Personality Theories
Psychoanalytic Theory - according to Freud personality consists of three
parts: the id the ego the superego.
 Id - the id consists of all our primitive, innate desires which include
bodily needs, sexual urges, and aggressive impulses.
"pleasure principle".
 The Ego - the ego is that part of personality that deals with reality if
the id's desires are to be met.
"reality principle."
  The Superego - the superego controls the satisfaction of the id and
permits its gratification only when it is morally correct to do so.
"moral principle."

Psychosexual Stages Of Development

 Oral Stage - focuses on oral satisfaction (sucking and biting).
 Anal Stage - is focused on the bowel and bladder control (pooping).
 Phallic Stage - focused on levels of pleasure-seeking energies or
erogenous zones, and during the phallic stage, a child's focus is on the
genitals or penis.
 Latent Stage - is a time where kids focus their energy on creating
their identities through hobbies, friends, and school.
 Genital Stage - the person seeks ways of satisfying sexual impulses
in dyadic relationships, and aggressive impulses through competition,
physically demanding activities, exercise, and argumentation.

Social Learning Theory Of Personality

 this theory explains personality almost entirely in terms of experience
rather than biological factors.
 personality is shaped not just by environmental influences on the
person, but also by the person's ability to influence the environment.

Condition For Effective Modeling

 A- Attention
 R- Relation
 M- Motor Reproduction
 M- Motivation
The Humanistic Theory
 they believe that human beings are endowed with free will and free
choice; thus, a person carves out his own destiny.
Carl Rogers' Phenomenological Theory Of Personality
  Rogers holds that the innermost core of human nature is essentially
good, purposive, and trustworthy.
 the basic drive underlying personality is the self-actualizing tendency.
Personality Theory Of George Kelly
 Kelly's personal construct theory suggested that the differences
between people result from the different ways that we predict and
interpret events in the world around us.
 example: a person is friendly to dogs if they pet the dogs - a person is
unfriendly to dogs if they avoid it.
Type Theories Of Personality
Carl Jung used the terms introvert and extrovert to classify individuals.
Introvert - reacts to situations in terms of its significance to him.
Extrovert - is oriented to objects; his interests and attention are directed
outward.
Extravert - who is neither extremely introverted or extroverted.

Sheldon's Type Theory

 the personality of a person is based on his physical or body
Types: Ectomorph – skinny, is anxious, self-conscious, artistic, thoughtful,
quiet, and private.
Mesomorph - lean bulk, is adventurous, assertive, competitive, and fearless
Endomorph - chubby/bulky, is relaxed, comfortable, good-humored, even-
tempered, sociable, and tolerant

Kretschmer who postulated a relationship between a physical type and

susceptibility to mental disorder.
Kretschmer developed the idea of two normal temperamental types:
 The Schizoid - is a condition where a person shows very little, if any,
interest and ability to form relationships with other people.
  The Cycloid - is a personality disorder characterized by recurrent
mood swings, with alternating periods of elation and depression.
The Trait Approach
 a personality trait is defined as a person's generalized and consistent
way of behaving in a given situation.
 traits account for the consistency of behavior of an individual over the
years under the same situations.
Allport's Trait Theory
 Allport's Theory is based on the statement that no two people are
completely alike.
 Allport defines personality as the dynamic organization within the
individual whose characteristic behavior and thought is determined by
psychophysical systems.
Raymond Cattell
 used a statistical technique, factor analysis, to find out how many traits
there are really. cattel found that sixteen source traits represented the
basic dimensions of personality.
Using a 10-point scale, Cattel came up with these 16 source traits:

Reserved Outgoing

Less intelligent Most intelligent

Affective by feeling Emotionally stable

Submissive Dominant

Serious Happy go lucky

Expedient Conscientious
Timid Venturesome

Tough minded Sensitive

Trusting Suspicious

Practical Imaginative

Forthright Shrewd

Self-assured Apprehensive

Conservative Experimenting

Group dependent Self-sufficient

Uncontrolled Controlled

Relaxed Tense

Determinants Of Personality
Genetic Determinants Of Personality
 certain characteristics undoubtedly ran in families but this alone does
not prove that they are inherited.
 certain characteristics undoubtedly ran in the families.
Social Determinants Of Personality
 the family is one of the major social determinants of personality.
 Freud emphasized the importance of early childhood in personality
formation.
In a study by Hewitt and Jenkins as cited by Lewis, three unfavorable
family patterns affect a child's personality very strongly, these are:
 parental rejection
 negligence and exposure
 family repression
Culture And Personality
 within a given culture, a particular pattern of traits is likely to be
idealized and held up to all children as a desirable orientation.

Assessment Of Personality
There are many ways of assessing personality, some more scientific than
others:
Observation - common way of assessing personality.
Diagnosis - a process by which the current state of an organism is
determined.
Observation of certain expressive movements - the way a person walks
can give a clue to his personality.
Graphology - is the study of the connection between handwriting and
personality characteristics.
Personality Inventory - It is usually a paper-and-pencil test containing a
number of questions aimed at determining personality traits.

Rating scales are of three types: rating by experts, by colleagues, and

by oneself. it involves the use of a checklist.
Interviews - may be structured or non-structured.
Dialogue - is a specific instance involving a person who seeks self-
understanding with a trained therapist.

Personality can be described only in terms of the past. Today, the first step
in attempting to understand and counsel any individual is to use the
historical approach.
There are Two Techniques:
Case History - a record of a person's health, development, or behavior, kept
by an official such as a doctor.
Autobiography - the biography of oneself narrated by oneself.

CHAPTER 11

Stress - can be defined as a state of worry or mental tension caused by a

difficult situation.
 stress is a natural human response that prompts us to address
challenges and threats in our lives.
 stress is how we react when we feel under pressure or threatened.
Eustress - the term eustress was created by Hungarian endocrinologist,
Hans Selye.
  eustress is positive stress that is healthy, improves your well being,
and results in satisfaction.
 ::it's counterpart is distress which has all of the negative effects of
stress we hear about like physical and mental illness.

Daily hassles - the minor irritations and annoyances that are part of our
everyday lives (work, health, financial hassles).
Life Changes - events (such as divorce, or marriage) that necessitate a
significant adjustment in various aspects of a person's life. as such, they can
be seen as a significant source of stress.

Conflict - is characterized by opposing motives, in which gratification of one

motive prevents gratification of the other.
Types Of Conflict
Approach-approach conflict - involves 2 positive but mutually exclusive
goals (least stressful)
Avoidance-avoidance conflict - involves 2 negative goals. avoidance of
one requires an approach of the other.
Approach-avoidance conflict - involves positive and negative features.
Multiple approach-avoidance - conflict involves 2 or more goals, each of
which has positive and negative aspects.

Irrational Beliefs
 concept developed by psychologist Albert Ellis Believed that events
don't stress us out, but our perception of them contribute to stress
irrational beliefs create or compound stress.
Ex: Doing poorly on a test.
Catastrophizing is to make into a catastrophe or interpret an event as
being catastrophic when it is not.

Moderators Of Stress
Self-efficacy expectations - are beliefs to the effect that one can handle a
task or manage stress. research shows that high self efficacy expectations
contribute to lower adrenaline levels in the bloodstream.
Control - allows us to feel that we are not at the mercy of randomness and
that we can influence our lives.
Internals - are those who believe that they can exercise the control
necessary to obtain reinforcement.
Externals - are those who believe that other people or the situation
exercises control.
Sources of Social Support:
1. Emotional Concern- listening to the problems of others and
expressing feelings of empathy.
2. Instrumental Aid - having material support and services available to
help (after a hurricane, the government provides resources).
3. Information - guidance and advice that enhances people's ability to
cope.
4. Appraisal - feedback from others about how one is doing to make
sense of what has happened.
5. Socializing - simple conversation or recreation with another.
The General Adaptation Syndrome
The General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) is a group of bodily changes that
occur is three stages:
1. Alarm reaction
 which is triggered by the impact of a stressor and characterized by
sympathetic activity.
Fight-or-flight reaction - an innate adaptive response to the perception of
danger.
2. Resistance stage
 characterized by prolonged sympathetic activity in an effort to restore
lost energy and repair damage. also called the adaptation stage.
3. Exhaustion stage
 characterized by weakened resistance and possible deterioration.
  these changes mobilize the body for action and-like that alarm that
goes on ringing-can eventually wear out the body.

Stress has a domino effect on the endocrine system, leading to the release
of corticosteroids and a mixture of adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Corticosteroids combat allergic reactions (such as difficulty in breathing)
and decrease inflammation.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline arouse the body to cope by accelerating
the heart rate and providing energy for the fight-or-flight reaction.
Psychoneuroimmunology - the term used to describe the interactions
between the emotional state, nervous system function, and the immune
system.

The Immune System

Leukocytes
 the technical term for white blood cells.
 they engage in search-and-destroy missions in which they recognize
and eradicate foreign agents and unhealthy cells.
 white blood cells (derived from the Greek words leukes, meaning
'white," and kytos, literally meaning "a hollow" but used to refer to
cells).
Antigens
 substances that stimulate the body to mount an Immune system
response to it (short for antibody generator).
Antibodies
 substances formed by white blood cells that recognize and destroy
antigens.
Inflammation
 flow to an injured area of the body resulting in redness, warmth, and
an increased supply of white blood cells.

Stress And Immune System

  one of the reasons that stress eventually exhausts us is that it
stimulates the production of steroids .
Steroids - suppress the functioning of the immune system.
Suppression - has negligible effects when steroids are secreted
occasionally.

The Biopsychosocial Approach to health recognizes that there is no

single, simple answer to these questions. The likelihood of contracting an
illness, be it a case of the flu or cancer can reflect the interaction of many
factors including biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors.
Biological Factors such as pathogens injuries, age, gender, and a family
history of disease may strike us as the most obvious causes of illness.
Genetics, in particular, tempts some people to assume that there is little
they can do about their health.
Coronary Heart Disease - coronary heart disease (CHD) is the leading
cause of death in the United States, most often from heart attacks.

CHAPTER 12
 defined as the branch of psychology concerned with how people's
thoughts, feelings and actions are affected by others.
Attitudes
  tendencies to respond to people, events, or situations either positively
or negatively.

3 Components
1. Affective Component
 it encompasses your positive or negative emotions about something
 how do you feel about it.
2. Behavior Component
 the intention is to act in a manner relevant to your attitude.
3. Cognitive Component
 refers to the beliefs and thoughts you hold about the object of your
attitude.

Operant Conditioning
- a learning process that underlies the formation of attitudes by
reinforcement.
Vicarious Learning
- in which you learn something through the observation of others, also
accounts for attitudes development.

Changing Attitudes through

 Persuasion
 Cognitive Dissonance
 Selective Exposure

Persuasion
 convincing someone to do something.

Promote Effective Persuasion

The Source Of The Message
 if one delivers a persuasive message, the impact of the message is
likewise very effective.
Characteristics Of The Message
 it is not just who delivers the message, but what the message is that
affects attitude.
Characteristics Of The Target Or Recipient
 once a message has been communicated, the characteristics of your
audience will determine whether the message is accepted.

Cognitive Dissonance
 when a person holds 2 attitudes or thoughts which are contradictory to
each other.

Selective Exposure
 an attempt to minimize dissonance by exposing yourself only to
information that supports your choice.
Social Cognition
 the process that underlies your understanding of the social world.
Formation Of Impression
 the process by which one organizes information about another person
to form an overall view or impression of that individual.
Stereotypes
 these are beliefs and expectations about members of groups held
simply on the basis of their membership in the group.
Reverse Discrimination
 behavior in which people are prejudiced toward a group compensates
them favorably than others.
Conformity
 it is the tendency to do what others are doing.
The Most Important Variables Producing Conformity
 The Nature Of The Group - the more attractive the group, the
greater its ability to produce conformity.
 The Nature Of The Individual's Response - conformity is
considerably higher when people make a response publicly than they
can respond privately.
 The Kind Of Task - the task in which an individual is less competitive
relative to the group creates conditions toward conformity.
 Unanimity Of The Group - conformity pressures are most
pronounced in groups that are unanimous in their support of a cause or
position.

Most Important Factors Considered By Social Psychologists

 Proximity - leads to liking.
 Repeated Exposure - any person often leads to attraction.
 Similarity - tend to like those who are similar to you in terms of
values, traits and attitudes.
 Physical Attractiveness - is an asset in social situations.

Relationships That Are On The Decline Follow A Pattern Of Stages

 Interpsychic Stage - your focus is on the other person's behavior and
you use this as an evaluation.
 Dyadic Stage - you decide to confront the other person if there is a
need to repair or terminate the relationship.
 Social Stage - finally decide to end a relationship with public
acknowledgment.
 Grave-Dressing Stage - the end of a relationship physically and
psychologically.
Helping Others: The Brighter Side Of Life
 Diffusion Of Responsibility
 the tendency of people to feel that responsibility for acting out is
shared among those present.
Altruism
 a helping behavior that requires self-sacrifice but is beneficial to
others.

Learning To Be Helpful
 helping behavior suggests a number of approaches to teaching the
virtues of helping.

The Most Important Approaches Are:

 Providing Models Using Moral Admonitions
 Teaching Moral Reasoning