Course Name: Essentials of Surveying Application and Techniques

Week No.: 02 Lecture No: 06

Topic Name: Compass Surveying: Introduction, Types and Terminology

Objectives:
● Define and understand the concept of compass surveying.
● Learn about different types of meridians and their significance.
● Understand the various types of bearings and their importance.
● Apply compass surveying principles in practical scenarios.

Lecture Content:

Compass Surveying

Introduction
In chain surveying the control network at control points is established with the help of linear
measurement but in the case of compass surveying these control points are established with the
help of both linear and angular measurements and this process is called traversing. According to
the method employed, surveying is classified into Triangulation and Traverse surveying. A series
of connected survey lines of known lengths and directions is called a traverse. When triangulation
is not possible, the traversing method is used. In traversing, a compass is used for making angular
measurements, known as compass traversing or compass surveying.
As you know, Chain surveying can be used when the area to be surveyed is comparatively
small and fairly flat. But when the area is large, undulating, and crowded with many details,
triangulation (the principle of chain survey) is impossible. In such an area, the method of
Traversing is used.
The basic difference between Chain and Compass Surveying:
Chain Surveying Compass surveying

It requires only Linear measurement Both Linear and Angular measurement

Framework consists of networks of Open or closed polygon

triangle
 Check lines are required to check the Accuracy is checked by method of adjustments
accuracy

Suitable to be used for small flat area Suitable for large area where accuracy required is
where area required is less more

Purpose and Principle of Compass Surveying

Compass surveying is suitable in the following situations:

1. When the survey work is to be completed quickly.
2. When the area is hilly and chaining is difficult.
3. When the area to be surveyed is relatively large.
4. When the details are too many.
5. When the area cannot be divided into a network of triangles.

6. When the area to be surveyed is long and narrow e.g. road, stream, etc.
A compass survey is one in which the traverse work consists of a series of lines, the lengths and
directions of which are measured with a chain or a tape, and with an angular instrument
respectively.
A traverse may be classified as:
a) Closed traverse
b) Open traverse
Traverse: Framework consists of no. of connected lines forming open or closed polygon called a
traverse.
A) Closed traverse: A closed traverse is a traverse that starts from a station and closed
either on the same station or another station whose location is already known.
Closed traverse can further be of two types:

1- Loop Traverse 2- Linked Traverse

1- Loop Traverse: A traverse starts and ends at the same point whose location is known.
This type of closed traverse is termed as loop Traverse.

2- Linked Traverse: If the traverse starts and ends at different points of known location,
this type of closed traverse is called Linked traverse

Loop Traverse
 Linked Traverse

B) Open traverse: An open traverse is that where the start location is known or established
but the station at which the traverse is completed or closed is not known or established
Used for survey at roads, railways, tunnels etc.

Traversing can be done by any of the following method:

• Compass traverse
• Plane table traverse
• Theodolite
• Stadia

Compass Traverse: In compass traverse magnetic compass is used for the measurement of
angle and chain and tape is used for linear measurement.

Measurement of angle: The direction of the traverse line is defined by the horizontal angle
which this line makes with the reference line and that is termed as meridian.

Types of Meridian

In compass surveying, meridians are reference lines used to measure the bearings of
survey lines. There are several types of meridians, each serving a specific purpose. Here’s
a detailed look at the main types:
1. True Meridian:
Definition: The true meridian is a line that passes through the geographical North and
South Poles and a point on the Earth's surface.
Characteristics: It is a fixed reference and does not change with time.
Usage: Used for precise surveying and navigation since it is based on the earth's
rotational axis.

2. Magnetic Meridian:
Definition: The magnetic meridian is the direction indicated by a freely suspended
magnetic needle, such as a compass, which aligns with the Earth's magnetic
field.
Characteristics: It can vary over time and from place to place due to changes in the Earth's
magnetic field.
Usage: Commonly used in compass surveying because it is easy to determine with a
magnetic compass.

3. Grid Meridian:
Definition: The grid meridian is a line parallel to the central meridian of a map projection.
Characteristics: It is used in coordinate systems, such as the Universal Transverse
Mercator (UTM) system, and is consistent within a given map grid.
Usage: Employed in large-scale mapping and for navigation systems that use grid
coordinates

4. Arbitrary Meridian:
Definition: An arbitrary meridian is a meridian chosen for convenience in a particular
survey, not necessarily aligned with true or magnetic meridians.

Characteristics: It can be any line used as a reference for the survey, often chosen based on
ease of measurement or local conditions.
Usage: Used in small, localized surveys where other meridians are not practical

Types of Bearing

Bearing of a line is its direction relative to a given direction

True Bearing-True bearing of a line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the true
meridian through one of the extremities of the lines. Since the direction of the true meridian
through a point remains fixed, the true bearing of a line is a constant quantity

Magnetic Bearing: The magnetic bearing of line is the horizontal angle which it makes
with the magnetic meridian passing through of the extremities of the line. A magnetic
compass is used to measure it.
Arbitrary Bearing: The Arbitrary bearing of line is the horizontal angle which it makes
with the arbitrary meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A theodolite
or sextant is used to measure it.

Grid Bearing: The Grid bearing of line is the horizontal angle which it makes with the
grid meridian passing through one of the extremities of the line. A theodolite or sextant is
used to measure it.

Designation of Bearing
The bearings are designated into following two systems:
1. Whole circle bearing System or Azimuthal system (W.C.B)
2. Quadrantal Bearing System (Q.B)
Whole Circle Bearing System (W.C.B)
In this, the bearing of a line measured with respect to magnetic meridian in clockwise direction is
called magnetic bearing and its value varies between 0° to 360°.The quadrant start from north and
progress in a clockwise direction as the first quadrant is 0° to 90° in the clockwise direction, 2nd
90° to 180° , 3rd 180° to 270°, and up to 360°is 4th one. Referring to Fig. the W.C.B. of AB is 𝜃1
of AC is 𝜃2 of AD is 𝜃3and of AF is 𝜃4.

Quadrantal Bearing System (Reduced Bearing):

In this system, the bearing of survey lines are measured wrt to north line or south line
which ever is the nearest to the given survey line and either in clockwise direction or in
anticlockwise direction. In this system. therefore, the quadrant in which the line lies, will
have to be mentioned. These bearings are observed by Surveyor's compass.

Referring Fig. , the Q.B. of the line AB is ∝ and is written as N ∝ E, the bearing being measured
with reference to North meridian (since it is nearer) towards East.
The bearing of AC is 𝛽 and is written as S 𝛽 E, it being measured with reference of South and in
anticlockwise direction towards East. Similarly,the bearings of AD and AF are S 𝜃 W and N Ø W
respectively. Thus, in the quadrantal system. the reference meridian is prefixed and the direction
of measurement (Eastward or Westward) is affixed to the numerical value of the bearing. The Q.B.
of a line varies from 0 to 90 . The bearings of this system are known as Reduced Bearings (R.B.).

Conversion of Bearing from one system to another

Conversion of W.C.B to R.B:
The bearing of a line can be very easily converted from one system to the other, with the aid of a
diagram. Referring to Fig. the conversion Of W.C.B. into R.B. can be expressed in the following
Table:

Line W.C.B between Rule for R.B Quadrant

AB 0° to 90° R.B=W.C.B NE

AC 90° to 180° R.B= 180°-W.C.B SE

AD 180° to 270° R.B=W.C.B-180° SW

AF 270° to 360° R.B=360°-W.C.B NW

Conversion of R.B to W.C.B:
Similarly, referring to Fig. the conversion of R.B into W.C.B. can be expressed in the following Table:

Line R.B Rule for W.C.B W.C.B between

AB N∝E W.C.B=R.B 0° and 90°

AC S𝛽E W.C.B=180°-R.B 90° and 180°

AD S𝜃W W.C.B=180°+R.B 180° and 270°

AF NØW W.C.B=360°-R.B 270° and 360°

Compass and its types

A compass is a small instrument essentially consisting of a graduated circle, and a line of sight.The
compass can not measures angle between two lines directly but can measure angle of a line with reference
to magnetic meridian at the instrument station point is called magnetic bearing of a line.
Types of compass
There are two types of compass they are as follows: -
1) The prismatic compass
2)The Surveyors Compass

Prismatic Compass
The prismatic compass is a magnetic compass which consists of the following parts.
Cylindrical Metal Box

Cylindrical metal box is having a diameter of 8 to 12 cm. It protects the compass and forms the entire
casing or body of the compass. It protects the compass from dust, rain, etc.

Pivot
Pivot is provided at the center of the compass and freely Supports a suspended magnetic needle over it.

Lifting Pin and Lifting Lever

A lifting pin is provided just below the sight vane. When the sight vane is folded, it presses the lifting pin.
The lifting pin with the help of the lifting lever then lifts the magnetic needle out of pivot point to prevent
damage to the pivot head.

Spring Brake or Brake Pin

To dampen the oscillation of the needle before taking a reading and to bring it to rest quickly, the light
spring brake attached to the inside of the box is brought in contact with the edge of the ring by gently
pressing inward the brake pin.
Magnetic Needle
The magnetic needle is the heart of the instrument. This needle measures angles of a line from the magnetic
meridian a the needle always remains pointed towards north and south pole at the two ends of the needle
when freely suspended on any support.

Graduated Circle or Ring:

This is an aluminium graduated ring to 360 0 to marked with 0 measure all possible bearings of lines, and
attached with the magnetic needle. The ring is graduated to half a degree.

Prism:
Prism is used to read graduations on ring and to take exact reading by compass. It is placed exactly opposite
to object vane. The prism hole is protected by prism cap to protected by prism cap to protect it from dust
and moisture.

Object Vane :
Object Vane is diametrically opposite to the prism and eye vane. The object vane is carrying a horse hair
or black thin wire to sight object in line with eye sight.

Eye Vane:
Eye Vane is a fine slit provided with eye hole at bottom to bisect the object from the slit and to take reading
simultaneously from the eye hole. This eye vane is provided With prism and can be lifted up and down by
the stud to bisect the object of higher level.

Glass Cover:
It covers the instrument box from the top such that needle and graduated ring is seen from the top.

Reflecting Mirror:
It is used to get an image of an object located above or below the instrument level while bisection. It is
placed on the object vane

Temporary Adjustment of a Prismatic Compass

The following procedure should be adopted after the prismatic compass on the tripod for measuring the
bearing of a line:

Centering : Centering is the operation in which compass is kept exactly over the station from where the
bearing is to be determined. The centering is checked by dropping a small pebble from the underside of
the compass. If the pebble falls on the top of the peg then the centering is correct, if not then the centering
is corrected by adjustment the legs of the tripod.

Levelling : Levelling of the compass is done with the aim to freely swing the graduated circular ring of
the prismatic compass. The ball and socket arrangement on the tripod will help to achieve a proper lever
of the compass. This can be checked by rolling round pencil on glass cover.
Focusing : The prism is moved up or down in its slide till the graduations on the aluminium ring are seen
clear, sharp and perfect focus. The position of the prism will depend upon the vision of the observer.

The Surveyor’s Compass

It is similar to a prismatic compass except that it has only plain eye slit instead of eye slit with prism and
eye hole. This compass is having pointed magnetic needle in place of broad form needle as in case of
prismatic compass.

Working of Surveyor’s Compass:

• Centering
• Levelling
• Observing the Bearing of a Line
First two operations are similar to that of prismatic compass but the method of taking observation differs
from that.Observing the bearing of a line. In this type of compass, the reading is taken from the top of glass
and under the tip of north end of the magnetic needle directly. No prism is provided here.

Difference between Prismatic Compass and Surveyor’s Compass

Prismatic Compass Surveyor Compass

Graduation circle is fixed to broad type needle; Graduation circle is fixed to the box.hence it
hence it will not rotate with the line of sight rotates with the line of sight.
 There is a prism at viewing end At the viewing end, there is no prism. There is
only a slit

The magnetic needle does not act as an index Magnetic needles act as index while reading

The graduation is in whole circle bearing The graduations are in the quadrantal system

Graduations are marked inverted since its Graduation are marked directly. They are not
reflection is read through prism inverted

The reading is taken through prism The reading is taken by directly viewing from
top glass

Fore Bearing

The bearing of a line measured in the forward direction (i.e. along the progress of the survey) is known as
fore bearing.
ForeBearing = Back Bearing ± 180°

Back Bearing
The bearing of a line measured in the Backward direction is known as Back Bearing.
BB= FB ± 180 0
+ sign is applied when FB is < 180 0
- sign is applied when FB is > 180 0
In the quadrantal bearing (i.e. reduced bearing) system the FB and BB are numerically equal but the
quadrant is just opposite.
For example, if the bearing of AB is N 60 0 E, then its BB is S 60 0 W.
Examples:

Q) Convert the following WCB into Reduced Bearing.

i) 49 0
ii) 240 0
Solution: i)

Since the line falls in the first quadrant therefore the nearer pole is the north pole and is
measured from North towards E as 49 0

Therefore, fore RB = N 49 0 E

ii) Since the line falls in the third quadrant therefore the nearer pole is the north pole and is
measured from South towards West as
RB = WCB- 180 0
RB = 240 0 - 180 0 = 60 0
RB= S 60 0 W

Q) Convert the following reduced bearings into whole circle bearings:

i) N 65° E
ii) S 43° 15′ E
iii) N 32° 42′ W
Solution. Let ‘θ’ be whole circle bearing.
(i) Since it is in NE quadrant,
θ = α = 65° Ans.

(ii) Since it is in South East quadrant

43° 15′ = 180° – θ

or θ = 180° – 43° 15′ = 136° 45′ Ans.

iii) Since it is in NW quadrant,

32° 42′ = 360° – θ
or θ = 360° – 32° 42′ = 327° 18′

Summary: Compass surveying involves

measuring linear distances and angular
directions, ideal for quick surveys in hilly or large areas where triangulation isn't feasible. It uses
meridians, including true, magnetic, grid, and arbitrary, for reference. Bearings, defined as angles
with these meridians, are categorized into true, magnetic, and arbitrary, with systems like Whole
Circle Bearing (W.C.B) and Quadrantal Bearing (Q.B). Conversions between bearing systems are
essential. Instruments like the prismatic and surveyor's compass, along with temporary
adjustments, ensure accurate observations. Practical exercises help solidify understanding.
Accurate measurements and bearing knowledge are crucial for effective compass surveying

References:
1. Surveying and Levelling" by R. Subramanian
2. Surveying Vol. 1" by B.C. Punmia, Ashok Kumar Jain, and Arun Kumar Jain
3. Online Resources and Tutorials