Quantum computing

A quantum computer is a computer that exploits quantum mechanical phenomena. On small scales,
physical matter exhibits properties of both particles and waves, and quantum computing leverages
this behavior using specialized hardware. Classical physics cannot explain the operation of these
quantum devices, and a scalable quantum computer could perform some calculations exponentially
faster[a] than any modern "classical" computer. In particular, a large-scale quantum computer could
break widely used encryption schemes and aid physicists in performing physical simulations;
however, the current state of the art is largely experimental and impractical, with several obstacles to
useful applications.

Quantum System One, a quantum computer

by IBM from 2019 with 20 superconducting
qubits[1]

The basic unit of information in quantum computing, the qubit (or "quantum bit"), serves the same
function as the bit in classical computing. However, unlike a classical bit, which can be in one of two
states (a binary), a qubit can exist in a superposition of its two "basis" states, which loosely means
that it is in both states simultaneously. When measuring a qubit, the result is a probabilistic output of
a classical bit. If a quantum computer manipulates the qubit in a particular way, wave interference
effects can amplify the desired measurement results. The design of quantum algorithms involves
creating procedures that allow a quantum computer to perform calculations efficiently and quickly.

Physically engineering high-quality qubits has proven challenging. If a physical qubit is not sufficiently
isolated from its environment, it suffers from quantum decoherence, introducing noise into
calculations. National governments have invested heavily in experimental research that aims to
develop scalable qubits with longer coherence times and lower error rates. Example
implementations include superconductors (which isolate an electrical current by eliminating
electrical resistance) and ion traps (which confine a single atomic particle using electromagnetic
fields).
In principle, a classical computer can solve the same computational problems as a quantum
computer, given enough time. Quantum advantage comes in the form of time complexity rather than
computability, and quantum complexity theory shows that some quantum algorithms are
exponentially more efficient than the best known classical algorithms. A large-scale quantum
computer could in theory solve computational problems unsolvable by a classical computer in any
reasonable amount of time. While claims of such quantum supremacy have drawn significant
attention to the discipline, near-term practical use cases remain limited.

History

The Mach–Zehnder interferometer

shows that photons can exhibit
wave-like interference.

For many years, the fields of quantum mechanics and computer science formed distinct academic
communities.[2] Modern quantum theory developed in the 1920s to explain the wave–particle duality
observed at atomic scales,[3] and digital computers emerged in the following decades to replace
human computers for tedious calculations.[4] Both disciplines had practical applications during
World War II; computers played a major role in wartime cryptography,[5] and quantum physics was
essential for the nuclear physics used in the Manhattan Project.[6]

As physicists applied quantum mechanical models to computational problems and swapped digital
bits for qubits, the fields of quantum mechanics and computer science began to converge. In 1980,
Paul Benioff introduced the quantum Turing machine, which uses quantum theory to describe a
simplified computer.[7] When digital computers became faster, physicists faced an exponential
increase in overhead when simulating quantum dynamics,[8] prompting Yuri Manin and Richard
Feynman to independently suggest that hardware based on quantum phenomena might be more
efficient for computer simulation.[9][10][11] In a 1984 paper, Charles Bennett and Gilles Brassard
applied quantum theory to cryptography protocols and demonstrated that quantum key distribution
could enhance information security.[12][13]

Quantum algorithms then emerged for solving oracle problems, such as Deutsch's algorithm in
1985,[14] the Bernstein–Vazirani algorithm in 1993,[15] and Simon's algorithm in 1994.[16] These
algorithms did not solve practical problems, but demonstrated mathematically that one could gain
more information by querying a black box with a quantum state in superposition, sometimes referred
to as quantum parallelism.[17]

Peter Shor (pictured here in 2017)

showed in 1994 that a scalable
quantum computer would be able
to break RSA encryption.

Peter Shor built on these results with his 1994 algorithm for breaking the widely used RSA and
Diffie–Hellman encryption protocols,[18] which drew significant attention to the field of quantum
computing.[19] In 1996, Grover's algorithm established a quantum speedup for the widely applicable
unstructured search problem.[20][21] The same year, Seth Lloyd proved that quantum computers
could simulate quantum systems without the exponential overhead present in classical
simulations,[22] validating Feynman's 1982 conjecture.[23]

Over the years, experimentalists have constructed small-scale quantum computers using trapped
ions and superconductors.[24] In 1998, a two-qubit quantum computer demonstrated the feasibility
of the technology,[25][26] and subsequent experiments have increased the number of qubits and
reduced error rates.[24]

In 2019, Google AI and NASA announced that they had achieved quantum supremacy with a 54-
qubit machine, performing a computation that is impossible for any classical computer.[27][28][29]
However, the validity of this claim is still being actively researched.[30][31]

The threshold theorem shows how increasing the number of qubits can mitigate errors,[32] yet fully
fault-tolerant quantum computing remains "a rather distant dream".[33] According to some
researchers, noisy intermediate-scale quantum (NISQ) machines may have specialized uses in the
near future, but noise in quantum gates limits their reliability.[33]
Investment in quantum computing research has increased in the public and private sectors.[34][35]
As one consulting firm summarized,[36]

... investment dollars are pouring in, and quantum-computing start-ups are
proliferating. ... While quantum computing promises to help businesses solve
problems that are beyond the reach and speed of conventional high-performance
computers, use cases are largely experimental and hypothetical at this early stage.

With focus on business management’s point of view, the potential applications of quantum
computing into four major categories are cybersecurity, data analytics and artificial intelligence,
optimization and simulation, and data management and searching.[37]

In December 2023, physicists, for the first time, reported the entanglement of individual molecules,
which may have significant applications in quantum computing.[38] Also in December 2023,
scientists at Harvard University successfully created "quantum circuits" that correct errors more
efficiently than alternative methods, which may potentially remove a major obstacle to practical
quantum computers.[39][40] The Harvard research team was supported by MIT, QuEra Computing,
Caltech, and Princeton University and funded by DARPA's Optimization with Noisy Intermediate-
Scale Quantum devices (ONISQ) program.[41][42] Research efforts are ongoing to jumpstart quantum
computing through topological and photonic approaches as well.[43]

In July 2024, quantum computing company Quantinuum announced that their new 56-qubit H2-1
computer has broken a world record in "quantum supremacy," topping the performance of
benchmarking set by Google's Sycamore machine by 100-fold and consumes 30,000 times less
power.[44]

Quantum information processing

Computer engineers typically describe a modern computer's operation in terms of classical

electrodynamics. Within these "classical" computers, some components (such as semiconductors
and random number generators) may rely on quantum behavior, but these components are not
isolated from their environment, so any quantum information quickly decoheres. While programmers
may depend on probability theory when designing a randomized algorithm, quantum mechanical
notions like superposition and interference are largely irrelevant for program analysis.

Quantum programs, in contrast, rely on precise control of coherent quantum systems. Physicists
describe these systems mathematically using linear algebra. Complex numbers model probability
amplitudes, vectors model quantum states, and matrices model the operations that can be
performed on these states. Programming a quantum computer is then a matter of composing
operations in such a way that the resulting program computes a useful result in theory and is
implementable in practice.

As physicist Charlie Bennett describes the relationship between quantum and classical
computers,[45]

A classical computer is a quantum computer ... so we shouldn't be asking about

"where do quantum speedups come from?" We should say, "well, all computers are
quantum. ... Where do classical slowdowns come from?"

Quantum information

Bloch sphere representation of a qubit.

The state is a
point on the surface of the sphere,
partway between the poles, and
.

Just as the bit is the basic concept of classical information theory, the qubit is the fundamental unit
of quantum information. The same term qubit is used to refer to an abstract mathematical model
and to any physical system that is represented by that model. A classical bit, by definition, exists in
either of two physical states, which can be denoted 0 and 1. A qubit is also described by a state, and
two states often written and serve as the quantum counterparts of the classical states 0 and
1. However, the quantum states and belong to a vector space, meaning that they can be
multiplied by constants and added together, and the result is again a valid quantum state. Such a
combination is known as a superposition of and .[46][47]

A two-dimensional vector mathematically represents a qubit state. Physicists typically use Dirac
notation for quantum mechanical linear algebra, writing 'ket psi' for a vector labeled . Because
a qubit is a two-state system, any qubit state takes the form , where and are the
standard basis states,[b] and and are the probability amplitudes, which are in general complex
numbers.[47] If either or is zero, the qubit is effectively a classical bit; when both are nonzero, the
qubit is in superposition. Such a quantum state vector acts similarly to a (classical) probability vector,
with one key difference: unlike probabilities, probability amplitudes are not necessarily positive
numbers.[49] Negative amplitudes allow for destructive wave interference.

When a qubit is measured in the standard basis, the result is a classical bit. The Born rule describes
the norm-squared correspondence between amplitudes and probabilities—when measuring a qubit
, the state collapses to with probability , or to with probability . Any valid
qubit state has coefficients and such that . As an example, measuring the qubit
would produce either or with equal probability.

Each additional qubit doubles the dimension of the state space.[48] As an example, the vector
1 1
|00⟩ + ⁠√2 ⁠|01⟩ represents a two-qubit state, a tensor product of the qubit |0⟩ with the qubit
√2 ⁠
1 1
√2
⁠|0⟩ + ⁠√2 ⁠|1⟩. This vector inhabits a four-dimensional vector space spanned by the basis vectors
1 1
|00⟩, |01⟩, |10⟩, and |11⟩. The Bell state ⁠√2 ⁠|00⟩ + ⁠√2 ⁠|11⟩ is impossible to decompose into the tensor
product of two individual qubits—the two qubits are entangled because their probability amplitudes
are correlated. In general, the vector space for an n-qubit system is 2n-dimensional, and this makes it
challenging for a classical computer to simulate a quantum one: representing a 100-qubit system
requires storing 2100 classical values.

Unitary operators

The state of this one-qubit quantum memory can be manipulated by applying quantum logic gates,
analogous to how classical memory can be manipulated with classical logic gates. One important
gate for both classical and quantum computation is the NOT gate, which can be represented by a
matrix

Mathematically, the application of such a logic gate to a quantum state vector is modelled with matrix
multiplication. Thus

and .

The mathematics of single qubit gates can be extended to operate on multi-qubit quantum
memories in two important ways. One way is simply to select a qubit and apply that gate to the
target qubit while leaving the remainder of the memory unaffected. Another way is to apply the gate
to its target only if another part of the memory is in a desired state. These two choices can be
illustrated using another example. The possible states of a two-qubit quantum memory are

The controlled NOT (CNOT) gate can then be represented using the following matrix:

As a mathematical consequence of this definition, , ,

, and . In other words, the CNOT applies a NOT gate (
from before) to the second qubit if and only if the first qubit is in the state . If the first qubit is ,
nothing is done to either qubit.

In summary, quantum computation can be described as a network of quantum logic gates and
measurements. However, any measurement can be deferred to the end of quantum computation,
though this deferment may come at a computational cost, so most quantum circuits depict a
network consisting only of quantum logic gates and no measurements.

Quantum parallelism

Quantum parallelism is the heuristic that quantum computers can be thought of as evaluating a
function for multiple input values simultaneously. This can be achieved by preparing a quantum
system in a superposition of input states, and applying a unitary transformation that encodes the
function to be evaluated. The resulting state encodes the function's output values for all input values
in the superposition, allowing for the computation of multiple outputs simultaneously. This property is
key to the speedup of many quantum algorithms. However, "parallelism" in this sense is insufficient to
speed up a computation, because the measurement at the end of the computation gives only one
value. To be useful, a quantum algorithm must also incorporate some other conceptual
ingredient.[50][51]
Quantum programming

There are a number of models of computation for quantum computing, distinguished by the basic
elements in which the computation is decomposed.

Gate array

A quantum circuit diagram implementing a

Toffoli gate from more primitive gates

A quantum gate array decomposes computation into a sequence of few-qubit quantum gates. A
quantum computation can be described as a network of quantum logic gates and measurements.
However, any measurement can be deferred to the end of quantum computation, though this
deferment may come at a computational cost, so most quantum circuits depict a network consisting
only of quantum logic gates and no measurements.

Any quantum computation (which is, in the above formalism, any unitary matrix of size over
qubits) can be represented as a network of quantum logic gates from a fairly small family of gates.
A choice of gate family that enables this construction is known as a universal gate set, since a
computer that can run such circuits is a universal quantum computer. One common such set
includes all single-qubit gates as well as the CNOT gate from above. This means any quantum
computation can be performed by executing a sequence of single-qubit gates together with CNOT
gates. Though this gate set is infinite, it can be replaced with a finite gate set by appealing to the
Solovay-Kitaev theorem. Implementation of Boolean functions using the few-qubit quantum gates is
presented here.[52]

Measurement-based quantum computing

A measurement-based quantum computer decomposes computation into a sequence of Bell state

measurements and single-qubit quantum gates applied to a highly entangled initial state (a cluster
state), using a technique called quantum gate teleportation.

Adiabatic quantum computing

An adiabatic quantum computer, based on quantum annealing, decomposes computation into a

slow continuous transformation of an initial Hamiltonian into a final Hamiltonian, whose ground states
contain the solution.[53]
Neuromorphic quantum computing

Neuromorphic quantum computing (abbreviated as ‘n.quantum computing’) is an unconventional

computing type of computing that uses neuromorphic computing to perform quantum operations. It
was suggested that quantum algorithms, which are algorithms that run on a realistic model of
quantum computation, can be computed equally efficiently with neuromorphic quantum computing.
Both, traditional quantum computing and neuromorphic quantum computing are physics-based
unconventional computing approaches to computations and don’t follow the von Neumann
architecture. They both construct a system (a circuit) that represents the physical problem at hand,
and then leverage their respective physics properties of the system to seek the “minimum”.
Neuromorphic quantum computing and quantum computing share similar physical properties during
computation.

Topological quantum computing

A topological quantum computer decomposes computation into the braiding of anyons in a 2D

lattice.[54]

Quantum Turing machine

A quantum Turing machine is the quantum analog of a Turing machine.[7] All of these models of
computation—quantum circuits,[55] one-way quantum computation,[56] adiabatic quantum
computation,[57] and topological quantum computation[58]—have been shown to be equivalent to the
quantum Turing machine; given a perfect implementation of one such quantum computer, it can
simulate all the others with no more than polynomial overhead. This equivalence need not hold for
practical quantum computers, since the overhead of simulation may be too large to be practical.

Quantum cryptography and cybersecurity

Example of a quantum cryptosystem

layout
Quantum computing has significant potential applications in the fields of cryptography and
cybersecurity. Quantum cryptography, which relies on the principles of quantum mechanics, offers
the possibility of secure communication channels that are resistant to eavesdropping. Quantum key
distribution (QKD) protocols, such as BB84, enable the secure exchange of cryptographic keys
between parties, ensuring the confidentiality and integrity of communication. Moreover, quantum
random number generators (QRNGs) can produce high-quality random numbers, which are
essential for secure encryption.

However, quantum computing also poses challenges to traditional cryptographic systems. Shor's
algorithm, a quantum algorithm for integer factorization, could potentially break widely used public-
key cryptography schemes like RSA, which rely on the difficulty of factoring large numbers. Post-
quantum cryptography, which involves the development of cryptographic algorithms that are
resistant to attacks by both classical and quantum computers, is an active area of research aimed
at addressing this concern.

Ongoing research in quantum cryptography and post-quantum cryptography is crucial for ensuring
the security of communication and data in the face of evolving quantum computing capabilities.
Advances in these fields, such as the development of new QKD protocols, the improvement of
QRNGs, and the standardization of post-quantum cryptographic algorithms, will play a key role in
maintaining the integrity and confidentiality of information in the quantum era.[59]

Communication

Quantum cryptography enables new ways to transmit data securely; for example, quantum key
distribution uses entangled quantum states to establish secure cryptographic keys.[60] When a
sender and receiver exchange quantum states, they can guarantee that an adversary does not
intercept the message, as any unauthorized eavesdropper would disturb the delicate quantum
system and introduce a detectable change.[61] With appropriate cryptographic protocols, the sender
and receiver can thus establish shared private information resistant to eavesdropping.[12][62]

Modern fiber-optic cables can transmit quantum information over relatively short distances. Ongoing
experimental research aims to develop more reliable hardware (such as quantum repeaters), hoping
to scale this technology to long-distance quantum networks with end-to-end entanglement.
Theoretically, this could enable novel technological applications, such as distributed quantum
computing and enhanced quantum sensing.[63][64]
Algorithms

Progress in finding quantum algorithms typically focuses on this quantum circuit model, though
exceptions like the quantum adiabatic algorithm exist. Quantum algorithms can be roughly
categorized by the type of speedup achieved over corresponding classical algorithms.[65]

Quantum algorithms that offer more than a polynomial speedup over the best-known classical
algorithm include Shor's algorithm for factoring and the related quantum algorithms for computing
discrete logarithms, solving Pell's equation, and more generally solving the hidden subgroup problem
for abelian finite groups.[65] These algorithms depend on the primitive of the quantum Fourier
transform. No mathematical proof has been found that shows that an equally fast classical algorithm
cannot be discovered, but evidence suggests that this is unlikely.[66] Certain oracle problems like
Simon's problem and the Bernstein–Vazirani problem do give provable speedups, though this is in the
quantum query model, which is a restricted model where lower bounds are much easier to prove
and doesn't necessarily translate to speedups for practical problems.

Other problems, including the simulation of quantum physical processes from chemistry and solid-
state physics, the approximation of certain Jones polynomials, and the quantum algorithm for linear
systems of equations have quantum algorithms appearing to give super-polynomial speedups and
are BQP-complete. Because these problems are BQP-complete, an equally fast classical algorithm
for them would imply that no quantum algorithm gives a super-polynomial speedup, which is believed
to be unlikely.[67]

Some quantum algorithms, like Grover's algorithm and amplitude amplification, give polynomial
speedups over corresponding classical algorithms.[65] Though these algorithms give comparably
modest quadratic speedup, they are widely applicable and thus give speedups for a wide range of
problems.[21]

Simulation of quantum systems

Since chemistry and nanotechnology rely on understanding quantum systems, and such systems
are impossible to simulate in an efficient manner classically, quantum simulation may be an important
application of quantum computing.[68] Quantum simulation could also be used to simulate the
behavior of atoms and particles at unusual conditions such as the reactions inside a collider.[69] In
June 2023, IBM computer scientists reported that a quantum computer produced better results for
a physics problem than a conventional supercomputer.[70][71]
About 2% of the annual global energy output is used for nitrogen fixation to produce ammonia for
the Haber process in the agricultural fertilizer industry (even though naturally occurring organisms
also produce ammonia). Quantum simulations might be used to understand this process and
increase the energy efficiency of production.[72] It is expected that an early use of quantum
computing will be modeling that improves the efficiency of the Haber–Bosch process[73] by the mid
2020s[74] although some have predicted it will take longer.[75]

Post-quantum cryptography

A notable application of quantum computation is for attacks on cryptographic systems that are
currently in use. Integer factorization, which underpins the security of public key cryptographic
systems, is believed to be computationally infeasible with an ordinary computer for large integers if
they are the product of few prime numbers (e.g., products of two 300-digit primes).[76] By
comparison, a quantum computer could solve this problem exponentially faster using Shor's
algorithm to find its factors.[77] This ability would allow a quantum computer to break many of the
cryptographic systems in use today, in the sense that there would be a polynomial time (in the
number of digits of the integer) algorithm for solving the problem. In particular, most of the popular
public key ciphers are based on the difficulty of factoring integers or the discrete logarithm problem,
both of which can be solved by Shor's algorithm. In particular, the RSA, Diffie–Hellman, and elliptic
curve Diffie–Hellman algorithms could be broken. These are used to protect secure Web pages,
encrypted email, and many other types of data. Breaking these would have significant ramifications
for electronic privacy and security.

Identifying cryptographic systems that may be secure against quantum algorithms is an actively
researched topic under the field of post-quantum cryptography.[78][79] Some public-key algorithms
are based on problems other than the integer factorization and discrete logarithm problems to
which Shor's algorithm applies, like the McEliece cryptosystem based on a problem in coding
theory.[78][80] Lattice-based cryptosystems are also not known to be broken by quantum computers,
and finding a polynomial time algorithm for solving the dihedral hidden subgroup problem, which
would break many lattice based cryptosystems, is a well-studied open problem.[81] It has been
proven that applying Grover's algorithm to break a symmetric (secret key) algorithm by brute force
requires time equal to roughly 2n/2 invocations of the underlying cryptographic algorithm, compared
with roughly 2n in the classical case,[82] meaning that symmetric key lengths are effectively halved:
AES-256 would have the same security against an attack using Grover's algorithm that AES-128 has
against classical brute-force search (see Key size).
Search problems

The most well-known example of a problem that allows for a polynomial quantum speedup is
unstructured search, which involves finding a marked item out of a list of items in a database. This
can be solved by Grover's algorithm using queries to the database, quadratically fewer than
the queries required for classical algorithms. In this case, the advantage is not only provable
but also optimal: it has been shown that Grover's algorithm gives the maximal possible probability of
finding the desired element for any number of oracle lookups. Many examples of provable quantum
speedups for query problems are based on Grover's algorithm, including Brassard, Høyer, and
Tapp's algorithm for finding collisions in two-to-one functions,[83] and Farhi, Goldstone, and
Gutmann's algorithm for evaluating NAND trees.[84]

Problems that can be efficiently addressed with Grover's algorithm have the following
properties:[85][86]

1. There is no searchable structure in the collection of possible answers,

2. The number of possible answers to check is the same as the number of inputs to the algorithm,
and

3. There exists a boolean function that evaluates each input and determines whether it is the
correct answer.

For problems with all these properties, the running time of Grover's algorithm on a quantum
computer scales as the square root of the number of inputs (or elements in the database), as
opposed to the linear scaling of classical algorithms. A general class of problems to which Grover's
algorithm can be applied[87] is a Boolean satisfiability problem, where the database through which
the algorithm iterates is that of all possible answers. An example and possible application of this is a
password cracker that attempts to guess a password. Breaking symmetric ciphers with this
algorithm is of interest to government agencies.[88]

Quantum annealing

Quantum annealing relies on the adiabatic theorem to undertake calculations. A system is placed in
the ground state for a simple Hamiltonian, which slowly evolves to a more complicated Hamiltonian
whose ground state represents the solution to the problem in question. The adiabatic theorem
states that if the evolution is slow enough the system will stay in its ground state at all times through
the process. Adiabatic optimization may be helpful for solving computational biology problems.[89]
Machine learning

Since quantum computers can produce outputs that classical computers cannot produce efficiently,
and since quantum computation is fundamentally linear algebraic, some express hope in developing
quantum algorithms that can speed up machine learning tasks.[33][90]

For example, the HHL Algorithm, named after its discoverers Harrow, Hassidim, and Lloyd, is believed
to provide speedup over classical counterparts.[33][91] Some research groups have recently explored
the use of quantum annealing hardware for training Boltzmann machines and deep neural
networks.[92][93][94]

Deep generative chemistry models emerge as powerful tools to expedite drug discovery. However,
the immense size and complexity of the structural space of all possible drug-like molecules pose
significant obstacles, which could be overcome in the future by quantum computers. Quantum
computers are naturally good for solving complex quantum many-body problems[22] and thus may
be instrumental in applications involving quantum chemistry. Therefore, one can expect that
quantum-enhanced generative models[95] including quantum GANs[96] may eventually be developed
into ultimate generative chemistry algorithms.

Engineering

A wafer of adiabatic quantum

computers

As of 2023, classical computers outperform quantum computers for all real-world applications.
While current quantum computers may speed up solutions to particular mathematical problems,
they give no computational advantage for practical tasks. Scientists and engineers are exploring
multiple technologies for quantum computing hardware and hope to develop scalable quantum
architectures, but serious obstacles remain.[97][98]
Challenges

There are a number of technical challenges in building a large-scale quantum computer.[99]

Physicist David DiVincenzo has listed these requirements for a practical quantum computer:[100]

Physically scalable to increase the number of qubits

Qubits that can be initialized to arbitrary values

Quantum gates that are faster than decoherence time

Universal gate set

Qubits that can be read easily.

Sourcing parts for quantum computers is also very difficult. Superconducting quantum computers,
like those constructed by Google and IBM, need helium-3, a nuclear research byproduct, and
special superconducting cables made only by the Japanese company Coax Co.[101]

The control of multi-qubit systems requires the generation and coordination of a large number of
electrical signals with tight and deterministic timing resolution. This has led to the development of
quantum controllers that enable interfacing with the qubits. Scaling these systems to support a
growing number of qubits is an additional challenge.[102]

Decoherence

One of the greatest challenges involved with constructing quantum computers is controlling or
removing quantum decoherence. This usually means isolating the system from its environment as
interactions with the external world cause the system to decohere. However, other sources of
decoherence also exist. Examples include the quantum gates, and the lattice vibrations and
background thermonuclear spin of the physical system used to implement the qubits. Decoherence
is irreversible, as it is effectively non-unitary, and is usually something that should be highly
controlled, if not avoided. Decoherence times for candidate systems in particular, the transverse
relaxation time T2 (for NMR and MRI technology, also called the dephasing time), typically range
between nanoseconds and seconds at low temperature.[103] Currently, some quantum computers
require their qubits to be cooled to 20 millikelvin (usually using a dilution refrigerator[104]) in order to
prevent significant decoherence.[105] A 2020 study argues that ionizing radiation such as cosmic
rays can nevertheless cause certain systems to decohere within milliseconds.[106]

As a result, time-consuming tasks may render some quantum algorithms inoperable, as attempting
to maintain the state of qubits for a long enough duration will eventually corrupt the
superpositions.[107]
These issues are more difficult for optical approaches as the timescales are orders of magnitude
shorter and an often-cited approach to overcoming them is optical pulse shaping. Error rates are
typically proportional to the ratio of operating time to decoherence time, hence any operation must
be completed much more quickly than the decoherence time.

As described by the threshold theorem, if the error rate is small enough, it is thought to be possible
to use quantum error correction to suppress errors and decoherence. This allows the total
calculation time to be longer than the decoherence time if the error correction scheme can correct
errors faster than decoherence introduces them. An often-cited figure for the required error rate in
each gate for fault-tolerant computation is 10 −3, assuming the noise is depolarizing.

Meeting this scalability condition is possible for a wide range of systems. However, the use of error
correction brings with it the cost of a greatly increased number of required qubits. The number
required to factor integers using Shor's algorithm is still polynomial, and thought to be between L and
L2, where L is the number of digits in the number to be factored; error correction algorithms would
inflate this figure by an additional factor of L. For a 1000-bit number, this implies a need for about
10 4 bits without error correction.[108] With error correction, the figure would rise to about 10 7 bits.
Computation time is about L2 or about 10 7 steps and at 1 MHz, about 10 seconds. However, the
encoding and error-correction overheads increase the size of a real fault-tolerant quantum
computer by several orders of magnitude. Careful estimates[109][110] show that at least 3 million
physical qubits would factor 2,048-bit integer in 5 months on a fully error-corrected trapped-ion
quantum computer. In terms of the number of physical qubits, to date, this remains the lowest
estimate[111] for practically useful integer factorization problem sizing 1,024-bit or larger.

Another approach to the stability-decoherence problem is to create a topological quantum

computer with anyons, quasi-particles used as threads, and relying on braid theory to form stable
logic gates.[112][113]

Quantum supremacy

Physicist John Preskill coined the term quantum supremacy to describe the engineering feat of
demonstrating that a programmable quantum device can solve a problem beyond the capabilities of
state-of-the-art classical computers.[114][115][116] The problem need not be useful, so some view the
quantum supremacy test only as a potential future benchmark.[117]

In October 2019, Google AI Quantum, with the help of NASA, became the first to claim to have
achieved quantum supremacy by performing calculations on the Sycamore quantum computer
more than 3,000,000 times faster than they could be done on Summit, generally considered the
world's fastest computer.[28][118][119] This claim has been subsequently challenged: IBM has stated
that Summit can perform samples much faster than claimed,[120][121] and researchers have since
developed better algorithms for the sampling problem used to claim quantum supremacy, giving
substantial reductions to the gap between Sycamore and classical supercomputers[122][123][124] and
even beating it.[125][126][127]

In December 2020, a group at USTC implemented a type of Boson sampling on 76 photons with a
photonic quantum computer, Jiuzhang, to demonstrate quantum supremacy.[128][129][130] The authors
claim that a classical contemporary supercomputer would require a computational time of 600
million years to generate the number of samples their quantum processor can generate in 20
seconds.[131]

Claims of quantum supremacy have generated hype around quantum computing,[132] but they are
based on contrived benchmark tasks that do not directly imply useful real-world applications.[97][133]

In January 2024, a study published in Physical Review Letters provided direct verification of quantum
supremacy experiments by computing exact amplitudes for experimentally generated bitstrings
using a new-generation Sunway supercomputer, demonstrating a significant leap in simulation
capability built on a multiple-amplitude tensor network contraction algorithm. This development
underscores the evolving landscape of quantum computing, highlighting both the progress and the
complexities involved in validating quantum supremacy claims.[134]

Skepticism

Despite high hopes for quantum computing, significant progress in hardware, and optimism about
future applications, a 2023 Nature spotlight article summarised current quantum computers as
being "For now, [good for] absolutely nothing".[97] The article elaborated that quantum computers
are yet to be more useful or efficient than conventional computers in any case, though it also argued
that in the long term such computers are likely to be useful. A 2023 Communications of the ACM
article[98] found that current quantum computing algorithms are "insufficient for practical quantum
advantage without significant improvements across the software/hardware stack". It argues that the
most promising candidates for achieving speedup with quantum computers are "small-data
problems", for example in chemistry and materials science. However, the article also concludes that
a large range of the potential applications it considered, such as machine learning, "will not achieve
quantum advantage with current quantum algorithms in the foreseeable future", and it identified I/O
constraints that make speedup unlikely for "big data problems, unstructured linear systems, and
database search based on Grover's algorithm".
This state of affairs can be traced to several current and long-term considerations.

Conventional computer hardware and algorithms are not only optimized for practical tasks, but
are still improving rapidly, particularly GPU accelerators.

Current quantum computing hardware generates only a limited amount of entanglement before
getting overwhelmed by noise.

Quantum algorithms provide speedup over conventional algorithms only for some tasks, and
matching these tasks with practical applications proved challenging. Some promising tasks and
applications require resources far beyond those available today.[135][136] In particular, processing
large amounts of non-quantum data is a challenge for quantum computers.[98]

Some promising algorithms have been "dequantized", i.e., their non-quantum analogues with
similar complexity have been found.

If quantum error correction is used to scale quantum computers to practical applications, its
overhead may undermine speedup offered by many quantum algorithms.[98]

Complexity analysis of algorithms sometimes makes abstract assumptions that do not hold in
applications. For example, input data may not already be available encoded in quantum states, and
"oracle functions" used in Grover's algorithm often have internal structure that can be exploited
for faster algorithms.

In particular, building computers with large numbers of qubits may be futile if those qubits are not
connected well enough and cannot maintain sufficiently high degree of entanglement for long time.
When trying to outperform conventional computers, quantum computing researchers often look for
new tasks that can be solved on quantum computers, but this leaves the possibility that efficient
non-quantum techniques will be developed in response, as seen for Quantum supremacy
demonstrations. Therefore, it is desirable to prove lower bounds on the complexity of best possible
non-quantum algorithms (which may be unknown) and show that some quantum algorithms
asymptomatically improve upon those bounds.

Some researchers have expressed skepticism that scalable quantum computers could ever be built,
typically because of the issue of maintaining coherence at large scales, but also for other reasons.

Bill Unruh doubted the practicality of quantum computers in a paper published in 1994.[137] Paul
Davies argued that a 400-qubit computer would even come into conflict with the cosmological
information bound implied by the holographic principle.[138] Skeptics like Gil Kalai doubt that quantum
supremacy will ever be achieved.[139][140][141] Physicist Mikhail Dyakonov has expressed skepticism of
quantum computing as follows:
 "So the number of continuous parameters describing the state of such a useful quantum
computer at any given moment must be... about 10 300... Could we ever learn to control the more
than 10 300 continuously variable parameters defining the quantum state of such a system? My
answer is simple. No, never."[142][143]

Physical realizations

A practical quantum computer must use a physical system as a programmable quantum register.[144]
Researchers are exploring several technologies as candidates for reliable qubit implementations.[145]
Superconductors and trapped ions are some of the most developed proposals, but experimentalists
are considering other hardware possibilities as well.[146]

The first quantum logic gates were implemented with trapped ions and prototype general purpose
machines with up to 20 qubits have been realized. However the technology behind these devices
combines complex vacuum equipment, lasers, microwave and radio frequency equipment making
full scale processors difficult to integrate with standard computing equipment. Moreover the trapped
ion system itself has engineering challenges to overcome.[147]

The largest commercial systems are based on superconductor devices and have scaled to 2000
qubits. However the error rates for larger machines have been on the order of 5%. Technologically
these devices are all cryogenic and scaling to large numbers of qubits requires wafer-scale
integration, a serious engineering challenge by itself.[148]

Theory

Computability

Any computational problem solvable by a classical computer is also solvable by a quantum

computer.[149] Intuitively, this is because it is believed that all physical phenomena, including the
operation of classical computers, can be described using quantum mechanics, which underlies the
operation of quantum computers.

Conversely, any problem solvable by a quantum computer is also solvable by a classical computer. It
is possible to simulate both quantum and classical computers manually with just some paper and a
pen, if given enough time. More formally, any quantum computer can be simulated by a Turing
machine. In other words, quantum computers provide no additional power over classical computers
in terms of computability. This means that quantum computers cannot solve undecidable problems
like the halting problem, and the existence of quantum computers does not disprove the Church–
Turing thesis.[150]

Complexity

While quantum computers cannot solve any problems that classical computers cannot already
solve, it is suspected that they can solve certain problems faster than classical computers. For
instance, it is known that quantum computers can efficiently factor integers, while this is not believed
to be the case for classical computers.

The class of problems that can be efficiently solved by a quantum computer with bounded error is
called BQP, for "bounded error, quantum, polynomial time". More formally, BQP is the class of
problems that can be solved by a polynomial-time quantum Turing machine with an error probability
of at most 1/3. As a class of probabilistic problems, BQP is the quantum counterpart to BPP
("bounded error, probabilistic, polynomial time"), the class of problems that can be solved by
polynomial-time probabilistic Turing machines with bounded error.[151] It is known that
and is widely suspected that , which intuitively would mean that quantum computers
are more powerful than classical computers in terms of time complexity.[152]

The suspected relationship of BQP to

several classical complexity classes[67]

The exact relationship of BQP to P, NP, and PSPACE is not known. However, it is known that
; that is, all problems that can be efficiently solved by a deterministic
classical computer can also be efficiently solved by a quantum computer, and all problems that can
be efficiently solved by a quantum computer can also be solved by a deterministic classical
computer with polynomial space resources. It is further suspected that BQP is a strict superset of P,
meaning there are problems that are efficiently solvable by quantum computers that are not
efficiently solvable by deterministic classical computers. For instance, integer factorization and the
discrete logarithm problem are known to be in BQP and are suspected to be outside of P. On the
relationship of BQP to NP, little is known beyond the fact that some NP problems that are believed
not to be in P are also in BQP (integer factorization and the discrete logarithm problem are both in
NP, for example). It is suspected that ; that is, it is believed that there are efficiently
checkable problems that are not efficiently solvable by a quantum computer. As a direct
consequence of this belief, it is also suspected that BQP is disjoint from the class of NP-complete
problems (if an NP-complete problem were in BQP, then it would follow from NP-hardness that all
problems in NP are in BQP).[153]

See also

D-Wave Systems – Canadian quantum Quantum bus – device which can be used to
computing company store or transfer information between
independent qubits in a quantum computer
Electronic quantum holography
Quantum cognition – Application of quantum
Glossary of quantum computing
theory mathematics to cognitive phenomena
IARPA – American government agency
Quantum volume – Metric for a quantum
IonQ – US information technology company computer's capabilities
List of emerging technologies – New Quantum weirdness – Unintuitive aspects of
technologies actively in development quantum mechanics
List of quantum processors – List of quantum Rigetti Computing – American quantum
computer components computing company
Magic state distillation – Quantum computing Supercomputer – Type of extremely powerful
algorithm computer
Natural computing – terminology introduced to Theoretical computer science – Subfield of
encompass three classes of methods computer science and mathematics
Optical computing – Computer that uses Unconventional computing – Computing by
photons or light waves new or unusual methods

Valleytronics – Experimental area in

semiconductors

Notes

a. As used in this article, "exponentially faster" has a precise complexity theoretical meaning.
Usually, it means that as a function of input size in bits, the best known classical algorithm for a
 problem requires an exponentially growing number of steps, while a quantum algorithm uses
only a polynomial number of steps.

b. The standard basis is also the computational basis.[48]

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Aaronson, Scott (2013). Quantum Computing Since Democritus. Cambridge University Press.
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0-521-19956-8. OCLC 829706638 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/829706638) .
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Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi:10.17226/25196 (https://doi.org/10.17226%2F2
5196) . ISBN 978-0-309-47970-7. OCLC 1091904777 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/109190
4777) . S2CID 125635007 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125635007) .

Mermin, N. David (2007). Quantum Computer Science: An Introduction.

doi:10.1017/CBO9780511813870 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511813870) . ISBN 978-0-
511-34258-5. OCLC 422727925 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/422727925) .

Nielsen, Michael; Chuang, Isaac (2010). Quantum Computation and Quantum Information (10th
anniversary ed.). doi:10.1017/CBO9780511976667 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO978051197666
7) . ISBN 978-0-511-99277-3. OCLC 700706156 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/70070615
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Shor, Peter W. (1994). Algorithms for Quantum Computation: Discrete Logarithms and Factoring.
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8186-6580-6.

Further reading

Textbooks
Akama, Seiki (2014). Elements of Quantum Computing: History, Theories and Engineering
Applications. Springer. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-08284-4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-08
284-4) . ISBN 978-3-319-08284-4. OCLC 884786739 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/88478
6739) .

Benenti, Giuliano; Casati, Giulio; Rossini, Davide; Strini, Giuliano (2019). Principles of Quantum
Computation and Information: A Comprehensive Textbook (2nd ed.). doi:10.1142/10909 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1142%2F10909) . ISBN 978-981-3237-23-0. OCLC 1084428655 (https://search.worldcat.o
rg/oclc/1084428655) . S2CID 62280636 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6228063
6) .

Bernhardt, Chris (2019). Quantum Computing for Everyone. MIT Press. ISBN 978-0-262-35091-4.
OCLC 1082867954 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1082867954) .

Hidary, Jack D. (2021). Quantum Computing: An Applied Approach (2nd ed.). doi:10.1007/978-3-
030-83274-2 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-83274-2) . ISBN 978-3-03-083274-2.
OCLC 1272953643 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1272953643) . S2CID 238223274 (https://
api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:238223274) .
Hiroshi, Imai; Masahito, Hayashi, eds. (2006). Quantum Computation and Information: From Theory
to Experiment. Topics in Applied Physics. Vol. 102. doi:10.1007/3-540-33133-6 (https://doi.org/10.10
07%2F3-540-33133-6) . ISBN 978-3-540-33133-9.

Hughes, Ciaran; Isaacson, Joshua; Perry, Anastasia; Sun, Ranbel F.; Turner, Jessica (2021).
Quantum Computing for the Quantum Curious (https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3
-030-61601-4.pdf) (PDF). doi:10.1007/978-3-030-61601-4 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-0
30-61601-4) . ISBN 978-3-03-061601-4. OCLC 1244536372 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1
244536372) . S2CID 242566636 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:242566636) .

Jaeger, Gregg (2007). Quantum Information: An Overview. doi:10.1007/978-0-387-36944-0 (http

s://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-0-387-36944-0) . ISBN 978-0-387-36944-0. OCLC 186509710 (ht
tps://search.worldcat.org/oclc/186509710) .

Johnston, Eric R.; Harrigan, Nic; Gimeno-Segovia, Mercedes (2019). Programming Quantum
Computers: Essential Algorithms and Code Samples. O'Reilly Media, Incorporated. ISBN 978-1-
4920-3968-6. OCLC 1111634190 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1111634190) .

Kaye, Phillip; Laflamme, Raymond; Mosca, Michele (2007). An Introduction to Quantum Computing.
OUP Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-857000-4. OCLC 85896383 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/858
96383) .

Kitaev, Alexei Yu.; Shen, Alexander H.; Vyalyi, Mikhail N. (2002). Classical and Quantum
Computation. American Mathematical Soc. ISBN 978-0-8218-3229-5. OCLC 907358694 (https://
search.worldcat.org/oclc/907358694) .

Kurgalin, Sergei; Borzunov, Sergei (2021). Concise Guide to Quantum Computing: Algorithms,
Exercises, and Implementations (https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65052-0) . Springer.
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-65052-0 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-65052-0) . ISBN 978-
3-030-65052-0.

Stolze, Joachim; Suter, Dieter (2004). Quantum Computing: A Short Course from Theory to
Experiment. doi:10.1002/9783527617760 (https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9783527617760) .
ISBN 978-3-527-61776-0. OCLC 212140089 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/212140089) .

Susskind, Leonard; Friedman, Art (2014). Quantum Mechanics: The Theoretical Minimum. New
York: Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-08061-8.

Wichert, Andreas (2020). Principles of Quantum Artificial Intelligence: Quantum Problem Solving
and Machine Learning (2nd ed.). doi:10.1142/11938 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F11938) . ISBN 978-
981-12-2431-7. OCLC 1178715016 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1178715016) .
S2CID 225498497 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225498497) .
 Wong, Thomas (2022). Introduction to Classical and Quantum Computing (https://web.archive.org/
web/20220129214631/http://www.thomaswong.net/introduction-to-classical-and-quantum-comp
uting-1e.pdf) (PDF). Rooted Grove. ISBN 979-8-9855931-0-5. OCLC 1308951401 (https://searc
h.worldcat.org/oclc/1308951401) . Archived from the original (http://www.thomaswong.net/introdu
ction-to-classical-and-quantum-computing-1e.pdf) (PDF) on 29 January 2022. Retrieved
6 February 2022.

Zeng, Bei; Chen, Xie; Zhou, Duan-Lu; Wen, Xiao-Gang (2019). Quantum Information Meets
Quantum Matter. arXiv:1508.02595 (https://arxiv.org/abs/1508.02595) . doi:10.1007/978-1-4939-
9084-9 (https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4939-9084-9) . ISBN 978-1-4939-9084-9.
OCLC 1091358969 (https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1091358969) . S2CID 118528258 (https://a
pi.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:118528258) .

Academic papers
Abbot, Derek; Doering, Charles R.; Caves, Carlton M.; Lidar, Daniel M.; Brandt, Howard E.; et al.
(2003). "Dreams versus Reality: Plenary Debate Session on Quantum Computing". Quantum
Information Processing. 2 (6): 449–472. arXiv:quant-ph/0310130 (https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0
310130) . Bibcode:2003QuIP....2..449A (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003QuIP....2..449
A) . doi:10.1023/B:QINP.0000042203.24782.9a (https://doi.org/10.1023%2FB%3AQINP.000004
2203.24782.9a) . hdl:2027.42/45526 (https://hdl.handle.net/2027.42%2F45526) .
S2CID 34885835 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:34885835) .

Berthiaume, Andre (1 December 1998). "Quantum Computation". Solution Manual for Quantum
Mechanics. pp. 233–234. doi:10.1142/9789814541893_0016 (https://doi.org/10.1142%2F97898145
41893_0016) . ISBN 978-981-4541-88-6. S2CID 128255429 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/Cor
pusID:128255429) – via Semantic Scholar.

DiVincenzo, David P. (2000). "The Physical Implementation of Quantum Computation". Fortschritte

der Physik. 48 (9–11): 771–783. arXiv:quant-ph/0002077 (https://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/000207
7) . Bibcode:2000ForPh..48..771D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ForPh..48..771D) .
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 DiVincenzo, David P. (1995). "Quantum Computation". Science. 270 (5234): 255–261.
Bibcode:1995Sci...270..255D (https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995Sci...270..255D) .
CiteSeerX 10.1.1.242.2165 (https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.242.2165) .
doi:10.1126/science.270.5234.255 (https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.270.5234.255) .
S2CID 220110562 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220110562) . Table 1 lists switching
and dephasing times for various systems.

Feynman, Richard (1982). "Simulating physics with computers". International Journal of Theoretical
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Jeutner, Valentin (2021). "The Quantum Imperative: Addressing the Legal Dimension of Quantum
Computers" (https://lup.lub.lu.se/record/e034e7b7-d17c-4863-9cee-7e654f97225b) . Morals &
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External links

Media related to Quantum computer at Wikimedia Commons

Learning materials related to Quantum computing at Wikiversity

Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Quantum Computing (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/qt-qu

antcomp/) " by Amit Hagar and Michael E. Cuffaro.

"Quantum computation, theory of" (https://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.php?title=Quantum

_computation,_theory_of) , Encyclopedia of Mathematics, EMS Press, 2001 [1994]
 Quantum computing for the very curious (https://quantum.country/qcvc) by Andy Matuschak
and Michael Nielsen
Lectures

Quantum computing for the determined (https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PL1826E60FD05B

44E4) – 22 video lectures by Michael Nielsen

Video Lectures (http://www.quiprocone.org/Protected/DD_lectures.htm) by David Deutsch

Lectures at the Institut Henri Poincaré (slides and videos) (https://web.archive.org/web/20160303

183533/http://www.quantware.ups-tlse.fr/IHP2006/)

Online lecture on An Introduction to Quantum Computing, Edward Gerjuoy (2008) (https://web.ar

chive.org/web/20130901004919/http://nanohub.org/resources/4778)

Lomonaco, Sam. Four Lectures on Quantum Computing given at Oxford University in July 2006 (h
ttp://www.csee.umbc.edu/~lomonaco/Lectures.html#OxfordLectures)