Analog and Digital Communications

Dr Krishna Samalla
Department of ECE
 UNIT - III
Transmitters and Receivers
 Contents
Transmitters
• Classification of Transmitters
• AM Transmitters
• FM Transmitters
Receivers
• Radio Receiver - Receiver Types.
• Tuned radio frequency receiver limitations
• Super-heterodyne receiver
• RF section and characteristics
• Frequency changing and tracking
• Intermediate Frequency
• Image frequency
• AGC
• Amplitude limiting
• FM Receiver.
 Unguided Media: Wireless Transmission
• Transport signals without using a physical conductor.
• Signals are transmitted in the form of ElectroMagnetic Waves.
• Signals are sent through air and thus are available to anyone who has
a device capable of receiving them.
• Fig. shows a part of the electromagnetic spectrum, used for wireless
communication.
Frequency Bands
 Radio Transmitters
An electronic system which modulates the
characteristic of a high frequency carrier in
accordance with the modulating signal and then
amplifies the modulated carrier adequately to drive
the transmitting antenna efficiently.
 Classification of Radio Transmitters
• According to the type of modulation used:
AM transmitters – the modulating signal amplitude modulates the carrier. These
transmitters are used for radio broadcast on long, medium and short waves. And,
also used for radio telephony on short waves, radio telegraphy on short waves,
television picture broadcast on very short waves.
FM transmitters – the signal voltage frequency modulates the carrier. These
transmitters are used for radio broadcast, television sound broadcast and radio
telephone communication in VHF and UHF range over short distances.
Pulse modulation transmitters – the signal voltage alters some characteristic of the
pulses.
• According to the type of service involved:
Radio Broadcast Transmitters – These are designed for transmitting speeches, talks,
music, dramas, etc. for the information and recreation of people.
 Radio Telephone Transmitters – These are designed for transmitting telephone
signals over long distance by radio means.
Radio Telegraph Transmitters – These transmitters transmit telegraph signals from
one radio station to another radio station.
– Television Transmitters
– RADAR (Radio Detection and Ranging) Transmitters
– Navigation Transmitters
• According to the carrier frequency: Long wave, Medium wave, Short wave, VHF, UHF
and Microwave transmitters.

*Broadcast transmitters require more transmission power to point-to-point

communication.
 AM Transmitter
• AM Transmitter is an electronic communication system which generates high power,
high frequency AM signals.
• It takes the audio signal as an input and delivers an amplitude modulated wave to
the antenna as an output to be transmitted.
• The basic block diagram of AM transmitter is shown in the following figure.
• The audio signal from the output of the microphone is sent to the pre-amplifier,
which boosts the level of the modulating signal.
• The RF oscillator generates the carrier signal.
• Both the modulating and the carrier signal are sent to AM modulator.
• Power amplifier is used to increase the power levels of AM wave.
• Then the antenna present at the end of transmitter section, transmits the modulated
wave.
Figure: Basic block diagram of AM transmitter
 AM Transmitter at high power level
• The figure gives the block diagram of high power level AM transmitter in which the
carrier voltage is modulated at the highest power level.
• Carrier Oscillator: It generates oscillations of desired frequency with high
constancy of frequency. The generated frequency is required to remain constant
inspite of variations in the supply voltage, ambient temperature, temperature of
components of load.
• Buffer Amplifier: It is used between the carrier oscillator and harmonic generator
to avoid loading of carrier oscillator. Loading of carrier oscillator causes variation of
effective resistance of the tank circuit of the oscillator and hence results in
frequency variation.
• Harmonic Generator: Usually carrier oscillator generates a frequency which is a
sub-multiple of the carrier frequency. Basically, these generators are class-C tuned
amplifiers.
 Transmitting
Antenna
Modulated
Carrier Buffer Harmonic Power Class-C
Oscillator Amplifier generator Amplifiers Power
Amplifier

Carrier section
Modulating
Amplifier
Audio section

Audio
Amplifier

Modulating signal

Block diagram of high level modulation AM Transmitter

• Power Amplifiers: The RF voltage generated by the oscillator has usually very small
power, of the order of a few watts. Hence, a chain of class-C power amplifiers are
used to raise the signal level.
• Modulated Amplifier: This is a class-C tuned amplifier usually of push-pull type and
is modulated by audio modulating voltage from the modulating amplifier.
• Modulating Amplifier: This is usually a class-B push-pull amplifier and feeds audio
power into the modulation amplifier.
 AM Transmitter at low power level
• The figure gives the block diagram of low power level AM transmitter.
• Modulating the carrier takes place at low power level and the carrier power is
subsequently raised to the desired level in class-B tuned power amplifiers as
shown in figure.
• These are systems used in the early stages of development of radio
communication but now has been almost completely replaced by high power level
modulation system.
• Modulating Amplifier: This is usually a class-B push-pull amplifier, however, class-A
modulating amplifiers are also used for sometimes.
 Transmitting
Antenna

Carrier Buffer Harmonic Modulated Class-B Tuned

Oscillator Amplifier generator Amplifier Power
Amplifiers

Modulating
Amplifier

Modulating signal

Block diagram of low level modulation AM Transmitter

Merits and Demerits of HLM (high level modulation)
and LLM (low level modulation)
• Transmission efficiency of HLM is excellent, LLM is not so.
• High transmission powers are achievable in HLM.
• In HLM non-linear distortion is more.
• In HLM modulation power must be large, in LLM it must be small.
• In HLM BJT’s and FET’s are not suitable, where as in LLM they are suitable.
• IN HLM many special arrangements are required, in LLM no special arrangements
are required.
• HLM Transmitters are suitable for broadcasting.
 FM Transmitter
• FM transmitter is the whole unit, which takes the audio signal as an input and delivers FM
wave to the antenna as an output to be transmitted.
• The block diagram of basic FM transmitter is shown in the following figure.
• The audio signal from the output of the microphone (after getting amplified, if required) is
sent to the pre-emphasis network to boost up the higher modulating frequencies and
thereby to improve the signal to noise ratio.
• This signal is then passed to the FM modulator circuit.
• The oscillator circuit generates a high frequency carrier, which is sent to the modulator along
with the modulating signal.
• Several stages of frequency multiplier are used to increase the operating frequency. Even
then, the power of the signal is not enough to transmit. Hence, a RF power amplifier is used
at the end to increase the power of the modulated signal.
• This FM modulated output is finally passed to the antenna to be transmitted.
Figure: Basic block diagram of FM transmitter
 Armstrong FM Transmitter
• The figure gives the block diagram of Armstrong FM transmitter.
• A crystal oscillator is used to provide the stable carrier frequency.
• A portion of 900 phase-shifted carrier voltage is fed to a suppressed carrier balanced
modulator to which is also fed the amplified, integrated and pre-emphasized modulating
signal.
• The resulting sideband components are then combined with the amplified carrier voltage in
a combining amplifier, the output of which is the desired frequency modulated voltage.
• Relative amplitudes of the modulating voltage and the carrier voltage are so adjusted that
the maximum phase deviation is small. This is necessary in order to avoid excessive
distortion.
• This frequency modulated voltage is fed to first group of multipliers, followed by a
frequency changer (mixer and crystal oscillator together) and then second group of
multipliers to get the carrier frequency and the frequency deviation to the required levels.
• After power amplification in a few stages, raising the power level to the desired value, the
output is fed to the transmitting antenna.
 Transmitting
Antenna

Carrier Combining 1st Group 2nd Group Class-C Power

Mixer
Amplifier Amplifier of Multipliers of Multipliers Amplifiers

Buffer Balanced Pre- Crystal

Amplifier Modulator emphasis Oscillator

Crystal 900 Phase Integrator

Oscillator Shifter

Audio
Amplifier

Modulating signal

Block diagram of Armstrong FM Transmitter

 Radio Receivers
• Radio Receiver is an electronic system which selects
the desired signal from all other existing signals,
amplifies the selected signal, demodulates the signal
to recover the original message signal and amplifies
the message signal adequately to drive an output
device.
Functions of Radio Receivers
• Intercept the EM waves in the receiving antenna to produce the desired RF
modulated carrier. (- Interception)
• Select the desired signal and reject the unwanted signal. (- Selection)
• Amplify the RF signal. (- RF Amplification)
• Detect the RF carrier to get back the original modulating signal. (- Detection)
• Amplify the modulating signal voltage. (- AF Amplification)

Features of Radio Receivers

• Simplicity of operation
• Good fidelity
• Good selectivity
• Good sensitivity
• Adaptability to different types of antennas
• Some of the performance parameters of good receiver are
– Fidelity: defined as the ability of the radio receiver to faithfully reproduce all
the frequency components present in the baseband signal.
Final receiver output should be an exact replica of the baseband signal at the
transmitter.
This feature is mainly decided by the detector and audio amplifier stages of
the receiver.
– Selectivity: defined as the ability of the radio receiver to select desired band of
frequencies and to reject unwanted signals.
It depends on the sharpness of the resonance curve of a tuned circuit involved
in the receiver. Sharper the resonance curve, the better the selectivity. The
sharpness of the resonance curve depends on Q of the tuned circuit.
– Sensitivity: defined as the ability of the radio receiver to detect weakest
possible input signals.
(or)
 The minimum RF signal level that can be detected at the input of the receiver
and produce a usable demodulated information signal with a minimum
acceptable signal-to-noise ratio.
It is decided by the gain of amplifier stages.
– Dynamic Range: It is the range of input levels (strongest signal strength -
weakest signal strength) over which the receiver can successfully receive
signals.
The lower end of the range is governed by the receiver sensitivity and the high
end is governed by its overload or strong signal handling performance.
• It is easy to design a receiver which has high sensitivity, high selectivity and high
fidelity for a particular frequency signal. Whereas, it is very difficult to design a
receiver which has high sensitivity, selectivity and fidelity to a band of
frequencies.
• It is the point where frequency translation or heterodyne concept becomes very
important.
Classification of Radio Receivers
Depending upon fundamental aspects
• Crystal Radio, Regenerative Radio were used before world war-II. (Now obsolete)
• Tuned Radio Frequency Receiver (TRF) is a simple logical receiver (used as a fixed
frequency special application receiver)
• Super-heterodyne Receiver (Superhet) is the most popular receiver (due to its
merits over other types of receivers)
 TRF (Tuned Radio Frequency) Receiver
• It is a simple straight receiver.
• It includes
– RF amplifier stage
– Demodulator stage
– AF amplifier stage

Receiving
Antenna
• Two or three RF amplifiers, all tuning together, are used to select the desired
signal and amplify it to a level sufficient to drive the detector stage.
• Then the signal is demodulated (detected) and fed to the audio amplifier.
• Audio amplifiers are used to amplify the demodulated signal sufficient enough to
drive the loudspeaker.

Advantages
• Simplicity.
• High sensitivity.
 Limitations of TRF Receiver
Limitations
• Instability
• Insufficient adjacent-frequency rejection
• Bandwidth variation

Instability
• At high frequencies, multi-stage amplifiers are susceptible to breaking into
oscillation. As gain of RF stage is very high, a small feedback from output to input
with correct phase (positive feedback) can lead to oscillations. It is through stray
capacitances. The reactance of stray capacitances decreases at high frequencies
resulting in increased feedback.
Insufficient adjacent-frequency rejection
• It is due to not possibility of using double-tuned RF amplifiers in this receiver.
• This in turn is due to the fact that all such amplifiers had to be tunable, and the
difficulties of making several double-tuned amplifiers tune in unison is too great.

Variation in bandwidth
• Consider a tuned circuit required to have a bandwidth (B) of 10KHz and the AM
broadcast band is 535 to 1640KHz.
• Then the Q of this circuit must be Q = fr/B = 535/10 = 53.5 at one end and at the
other end of the band, i.e., at 1640KHz it must be Q = 1640/10 = 164.
• However, in practice, various losses dependent on frequency will prevent this
increase. Thus the Q is unlikely to be in excess of 120.
 Super-heterodyne Receiver
• The shortcomings of the TRF receiver are overcome by the super-heterodyne
receiver.
• Heterodyne – to mix two frequencies together in a non-linear device.

• In a super-heterodyne receiver, all incoming RF signals are frequency translated

to a signal of lower fixed frequency called Intermediate frequency (IF).

• This IF signal contains the same modulation as the original signal.

• Mainly, super-heterodyne receiver has five sections.

– RF section
– Mixer/converter section
– IF section
– Detector section
– Audio amplifier section
• Superhet has the same essential components as the TRF receiver, inaddition to the
mixer, local oscillator and intermediate-frequency (IF) amplifier.
• The incoming signal frequency is combined with a signal generated in the local
oscillator at mixer which produces a difference fixed frequency called IF.
• The signal at this IF level contains the same modulation as the original carrier, and it
is now detected and amplified to reproduce the original information.
• A constant frequency difference is maintained between the local oscillator and the
RF circuit normally through capacitance tuning, in which all the capacitors are
ganged together and operated in unison by one control knob.
• RF circuits are used mainly to select the wanted frequency, to reject interference
such as the image frequency and (especially at high frequencies) to reduce the noise
figure of the receiver.
• The IF amplifier generally uses two or three transformers, each consisting of a pair
of mutually coupled tuned circuits. With this large number of double tuned circuits
operating at a constant, specially chosen frequency, the IF amplifier provides most of
the gain and bandwidth requirements to the receiver.
• The characteristics of the IF amplifier are independent of frequency to which the
receiver is tuned, the selectivity and sensitivity of the superhet are usually fairly
uniform throughout its tuning range and not subject to the variations that effect the
TRF receiver.
• The IF signal output is amplified which is composite of the modulated RF from the
transmitter and the RF from the local oscillator.
• The detector eliminates one of the side bands still present, and separates the RF
from the audio components of the other sideband.
• The RF is filtered to ground, and audio is supplied to the audio stages for
amplification and then to the speakers.
AM Super-heterodyne Receiver
 Frequency information of AM Receivers
• Tunability (Band of frequencies) :
Medium Wave: 535 KHz to 1640 KHz
Amateur Radio: 1.7 MHz to 2.0 MHz
Short Wave: 2.0 MHz to 30 MHz

Hyderabad-A: 737 KHz

Hyderabad-B: 1377 kHz
 Example of Tuning process
• To understand the process, follow the below steps
1. Select an AM station say 550 KHz.
2. Tune the RF amplifier to 550 KHz. This also tunes the local oscillator to a frequency
of 1005 KHz.
3. The mixer produces 550 KHz, 1005 KHz, 1555KHz and 455KHz.
4. The IF amplifier selects 455KHz and rejects all other frequencies.
5. The converted signal is rectified and filtered to eliminate the unusable portions,
and amplified for listening purposes.
Sensitivity:
Typical sensitivity for commercial broadcast band AM receiver is 50 μV.

Figure. Sensitivity curve of AM Receiver

Figure. Selectivity curve of AM Receiver

 RF section and characteristics
• Consists of pre-selector and an amplifier.
• Pre-selector is a broad-tuned BPF with an adjustable center frequency that is tuned
to desired carrier frequency. It is connected to the antenna terminals. It is there to
select the wanted frequencies and reject all other unwanted frequencies. It reduces
the noise bandwidth of the receiver.
• Advantages of having an RF amplifier are
– Greater gain, i.e., better sensitivity
– Improved image-frequency rejection
– Improved signal-to-noise ratio
– Improved rejection of adjacent unwanted signals, i.e., better selectivity.
– Better coupling of the receiver to the antenna
– Prevention of spurious frequencies from entering the mixer.
– Prevention of re-radiation of the local oscillator through the antenna.
• Single-tuned, transformer-coupled amplifier is most commonly employed for RF
amplification.
• RF amplifier determines the sensitivity of the receiver and a predominant factor in
determining the noise figure for the receiver.
Mixer/converter section
• It consists of a local (RF) oscillator and a mixer.
• Several frequencies are present at the mixer output as shown in the figure.
• The difference frequency is the IF (455KHz) and is the one to which the output
circuit of the mixer is tuned.
• Clearly, mixer is a non-linear device having two input terminals and one output
terminal that converts RF to IF (i.e. heterodyning process).
• The shape of the envelope, the bandwidth and the original information contained
in the envelope remain unchanged although the carrier and the sideband
frequencies are translated from RF to IF.
• The most common types of mixers are the bipolar transistor, FET, dual-gate
MOSFET and ICs.
• Choice of oscillator depends on the stability and accuracy desired.
• It is a tunable frequency oscillator which is tuned always to a frequency equal to
the sum of input signal frequency (which depends on the station tuned) and the
fixed IF
fo= fs+ fif
where fo= local oscillator frequency
fs = signal frequency
fif = intermediate frequency
• Ganged tuning is adapted to ensure the above relation over the tuning range.
• The process of tuning the Local oscillator to a predetermined frequency for each
station throughout the AM band is known as Tracking.
Why Local Oscillator (LO) frequency is made higher than the signal
frequency?
• The frequency range of LO is calculated based on the signal frequency.
• For example, AM broadcast band ranges from 535 to 1640 kHz and IF frequency is
generally 455KHz.
• For the case of LO frequency above signal frequency, this range is 1005 to
2105KHz, giving a ratio of max. to min. frequency 2.1:1.
• With the normal tunable capacitors the possible frequency ratio is 3.2:1. Hence,
the ratio 2.1:1 is well within this range.
• If the LO is designed to be below signal frequency, the range becomes 95 to
1195KHz, and the ratio will be 12.5:1.
• This frequency ratio can not be covered with normal capacitors.
IF section
• Consists of a series of IF amplifiers and BPFs to achieve most of the receiver gain
and selectivity.
• The IF is always lower than the RF because it is easier and less expensive to
construct high-gain, stable amplifiers for low frequency signals.
• IF amplifiers are also less likely to oscillate than their RF counterparts.
• Selectivity is determined by the response of the IF section, with the mixer and RF
amplifier input circuits playing a small but significant part.
Detector section
• To convert IF signals back to the original source information.
• Several methods are available to detect the message signal from the AM signal:
Square law demodulation, Rectifier Detector, Envelope Detector etc.
Audio Amplifier section
• Comprises several cascaded audio amplifiers and one or more speakers.
Image frequency
• Any frequency other than the selected radio frequency carrier that produces a
cross-product frequency which is equal to the IF, if allowed to enter a receiver
and mix with the local oscillator.
• It is equivalent to a second radio frequency that will produce an IF that will
interfere with the IF from the desired radio frequency.
• It is given by signal frequency plus twice the IF and is represented by fsi, called
image frequency.
fsi = fs + 2fif
• Image frequency rejection depends on the front end selectivity of the receiver
and must be achieved before the IF stage.
• So image channel selectivity depends upon pre-selector & RF amplifiers.
• If image frequency enters IF stage it becomes impossible to remove it from the
wanted signal.
• If the selected RF carrier and its image frequency enter a receiver at a same time,
they both mix with the local oscillator frequency and produce different frequencies
that are equal to the IF. Consequently, two different stations are received and
demodulated simultaneously.
• The higher the IF, the farther away the image frequency is from the desired radio
frequency.
• However, the higher the IF, it is more difficult to build a stable amplifier with high
gain, i.e. there is a trade-off when selecting the IF for a radio receiver.
Image frequency rejection ratio (IFRR)
• It is the numerical measure of the ability of the pre-selector to reject the image
frequency.
• The rejection of an image frequency by a single-tuned circuit, i.e., the ratio of gain at
the signal frequency to the gain at the image frequency, is given by

where

Q = loaded Q of tuned circuit.

• If the receiver has an RF stage, then there are two tuned circuits, both tuned to fs. The
rejection of each will be calculated by the same formula, and the total rejection will be
the product of the two.

• For comfortable reconstruction of the signal, IFRR should be very high.

Problem 1
• In a broadcast super-heterodyne receiver having no RF amplifier, the loaded Q of
the antenna coupling circuit (at the input to the mixer) is 100. If the IF is 455KHz,
calculate (a) the local oscillator frequency, image frequency and its rejection ratio
at 1000KHz and (b) the local oscillator frequency, image frequency and its
rejection ratio at 25MHz.
Solution
Given that Q = 100 and fif = 455KHz
• (a) fs = 1000KHz, fo = 1000 + 455 = 1455KHz, fsi = 1000 + 2 x 455 = 1910KHz,
ƥ = 1.386, IFRR = 138.6
This is 42dB and is considered adequate for domestic receivers in the MF band.
• (b) fs = 25MHz, fo = 25 + 0.455 = 25.455MHz, fsi = 25 + 2 x 0.455 = 25.91MHz,
ƥ = 0.0715, IFRR = 7.22
It is obvious that this rejection will be insufficient for a practical receiver in the HF
band.
Problem 2
• A receiver is tuned to 500KHz, local oscillator frequency is given as 1050KHz. Find
IF, image frequency and image frequency rejection ratio, if quality factor Q = 50.

Solution
Given that Q = 50, fs = 500KHz and fo = 1050KHz
• IF = fo - fs = 1050 – 500 = 550KHz
• fsi = 500 + 2 x 550 = 1600KHz

• ƥ=

• IFRR =
Problem 3
• A radio receiver is tuned to 750KHz and the corresponding image frequency is
given by 1750KHz. Find local oscillator frequency, IF and image frequency
rejection ratio if two tuned amplifiers of having Q = 50 and 70 are connected in
cascade.
Solution
Given that fs = 750KHz, fsi = 1750KHz, Q1 = 50 and Q2 = 70. fif = 455KHz

• fo = 750 + 500 = 1250KHz

• ƥ = 1.9
• IFRR
 Intermediate Frequency
• Choice of IF is a compromise because there are problems with both HIGH and
LOW values.
Choice of IF
• If the IF is too high,
– Poor selectivity and Poor adjacent-channel rejection
– Increased tracking difficulties
• If the IF is too low,
– Image frequency rejection becomes poorer.
– Make the selectivity too sharp, cutting off the sidebands.
– Frequency stability of the local oscillator becomes critical.
• The IF must not fall within the tuning range of the receiver, or else instability will
occur.
• The values chosen are almost world standards
1. AM(MW) : 455 kHz
2. AM, SSB(SW): 1.6 to 2.3 MHz
3. FM: 10.7 MHz
4. TV(Sound): 33.4 MHz
TV(Picture): 38.9 MHz
5. Microwave and RADAR Receivers: 30,60 and 70 MHz
 Automatic Gain Control (AGC)
• Ability of the receiver to respond equally to different input signal levels.
Ex: A receiver producing 1V at its detector output for a wide range of RF input
signal that ranges say 50μV to 50 mV is said to have excellent AGC.

• Automatic gain control (AGC) is a process where the overall gain of the radio
receiver is automatically varied according to the changing strength of the
received input signal.

• This is carried out to maintain the output at a constant level. The AGC dc bias
voltage is derived from the part of the detected signal to apply to the RF, IF and
mixer stages to control their gains.

• The transconductance and hence the gain of the devices used in these stages of
the receiver depends on the applied bias voltage or current.
• When the signal level increases, the value of the applied AGC bias increases,
decreasing the gain of the connected stages.

• When there is no/low signal, the AGC bias becomes minimum which results in
maximum amplifier gain.

• There are two types of AGC circuits:

1.Simple AGC: The gain control mechanism is active for high as well as low value
of carrier voltage.

2. Delayed AGC: AGC bias is not applied to the amplifiers until signal strength
crosses a predetermined threshold level, after which AGC bias is applied.
Simple AGC Delayed AGC
Various AGC characteristics

Figure: Various AGC characteristics

 Frequency changing and tracking
Ganged tuning and Tracking:
• The super-heterodyne receiver has number of tunable circuits which must all be
tuned correctly if any given station is to be received.
• The ganged tuning is employed to do this work, which mechanically couples all
tuning circuits so that only one tuning control or dial is required.
• Usually there are three tuned circuits:
- antenna or RF tuned circuit,
- mixer tuned circuit and
- local oscillator tuned circuit.
• All these circuits must be tuned to get proper RF input and to get IF frequency at
the output of the mixer.
• The process of tuning to get the desired output (IF) is called tracking.
• Any error that exists in the frequency difference will result in an incorrect frequency
being fed to the IF amplifier. Such errors are known as “Tracking errors” and these
must be avoided.
• Here, standard capacitors are not used.
• Special capacitors called trimmers and padders are used to adjust the capacitance of
the oscillator to the proper range.
• There are three common methods used for tracking.
i. Padder Tracking
ii. Trimmer Tracking
iii. Three-Point Tracking
 i. Padder Tracking:

Figure: (a) Padder Tracking Figure: (b) Tracking error in Padder

Tracking

• A small variable capacitor CP called as the padder capacitor is connected to in series

with the oscillator coil. Local oscillator tuned circuit.
• Due to the series connection of Cp and Co, the effective capacitance will be less than
Co.
• This will increase the oscillator frequency and making the tracking error positive.
• The padder capacitor is adjusted to have zero tracking error on two extreme points
on the frequency dial.
ii. Trimmer Tracking:

Figure: (a) Trimmer Tracking Figure: (b) Tracking error in

Trimmer Tracking

• A small variable capacitor CT called as the trimmer capacitor is connected to in

parallel with the main capacitor Co.
• Due to parallel connection of Cp and Co, the effective capacitance will be greater
than Co.
• This decreases the oscillator frequency and making the error negative.
• The trimmer is adjusted to get zero error at on two points on the frequency dial.
iii. Three Point Tracking:

• This combines the padder and trimmer tracking.

• It is called three point tracking i.e., adjusted to give zero error at three points
across the band, at each end, and at the middle.
 FM Receiver
FM Receiver is an electronic equipment which
receives, selects, amplifies the selected signals at
RF level and at IF level, demodulates the waves to
produce AF waves and then amplifies message
signals adequately to drive an output device such
as loud speaker.
 Similarities between FM and AM Receivers
• Choice of IF and features of IF are similar
• RF amplifier is always used in FM receivers to
reduce noise figure; this is due to large bandwidth
requirements of FM
• Super heterodyne principle is used
• AF and power amplification methods are identical
 Differences between FM and AM Receivers
• Operating frequencies and bandwidths of FM are much higher than AM
RF: 88-108 MHz
IF:10.7 MHz ± 75 KHz
• Amplitude limiting is required in FM Receivers.
• The AGC for FM is achieved in a different method.
• FM receiver needs de-emphasis network to compensate for pre-
emphasis at the transmitter.
• FM detection methods are different from AM detection methods.
 Rx
FM Receiver
antenna

RF RF IF Amplitude FM
FM signal
Amplifier Mixer Amplifier Limiter Detector

De-emphasis

AGC Local AGC AGC

in in out
Oscillator
Audio and Power
Amplifiers

Figure: Block diagram of FM Super-heterodyne Receiver

• The front end converter consisting of RFA, Local oscillator, and Mixer as well as
the IF amplifiers are very similar to those of AM Receivers.
• Amplitude limiting is necessary to prevent distortion caused by amplitude
variations of FM waves.
• If the detector used is a Ratio detector, then the limiter is not required.
FM Detector stage (Demodulation)
• There are several methods of demodulating FM waves to extract the message
signal.
• FM demodulation involves conversion of frequency deviation into amplitude
variation efficiently & linearly. In addition to this, FM detector should be
insensitive to the spurious amplitude variations of the FM waves.
• Slope detector, balanced slope detector, Foster-Seeley phase discriminator, Ratio
detector, zero crossing detector, Phase Locked Loop are popular methods of FM
detection.
Amplitude Limiting
• In FM receiver, a demodulator must be preceded by an amplitude limiter.
• In FM demodulation, any amplitude changes in the signal fed to the demodulator are
false. They must therefore be removed if distortion is to be avoided. It is
accomplished by an amplitude limiter circuit.
• The limiter is a form of clipping device, a circuit whose output tends to remain
constant irrespective of changes in the input signal.
• Figure shows the response characteristic of the amplitude limiter. It indicates clearly
that limiting takes place only for a certain range of input voltages, outside which
output varies with input.
AGC in FM Receivers
• Some times two amplitude limiters are connected in cascade to achieve necessary
limiting range.
• Alternatively, an AGC circuit is used in place of the first limiter.
• AGCcensures that the signal fed to the second limiter is within the limiting range.
• Also AGC prevents overloading of the IF Amplifier.
De-emphasis
• It is an established fact that NOISE has greater effect on the higher frequencies
than on the lower frequencies.
• To minimize this effect, the higher frequencies of the message signals are
artificially boosted at the transmitter before modulation takes place. This process
is called pre-emphasis.
• In order to bring back to their original strength, the higher frequencies are de-
emphasized or deliberately attenuated at the receiver after demodulation or
detection.
THANK YOU