PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS

Atomic and Nuclear Physics 1

Chapter

26
Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Thomson's Atomic Model
J.J. Thomson gave the first idea regarding structure of (1) Most of the -particles pass through the foil straight
atom. According to this model. away undeflected.

(1) An atom is a solid sphere in which entire and positive (2) Some of them are deflected through small angles.

charge and it's mass is uniformly distributed and in which (3) A few -particles (1 in 1000) are deflected through
negative charge (i.e. electron) are embedded like seeds in the angle more than 90o.

watermelon. (4) A few  -particles (very few) returned back i.e.

Positively charged deflected by 180o.

– sphere
– – (5) Number of scattered particles :
–
– Electron N
–

Fig. 26.1

N(180°
(2) This model explained successfully the phenomenon ) 
Fig. 26.3
of thermionic emission, photoelectric emission and ionization.

(3) The model fail to explain the scattering of - particles (6) If t is the thickness of the foil and N is the number of -

and it cannot explain the origin of spectral lines observed in particles scattered in a particular direction (i.e.  = constant),

the spectrum of hydrogen and other atoms. it was observed that 

-Scattering Experiment (7) Distance of closest approach (Nuclear dimension) :The

'Geiger and Marsden (students of Rutherford) studied minimum distance from the nucleus up to which the -
particle approach, is called the distance of closest approach
the scattering of -particles by gold foil on the advice of
(r0). At this distance the entire initial kinetic energy has been
Rutherford and made the following observations.
converted into potential energy so


r0
Nucleus

-particle
(energy E )
 2 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
 Failure of Rutherford's Model

(8) Impact parameter (b) : The perpendicular distance (1) Stability of atom : It could not explain stability of

of the velocity vector ( ) of the -particle from the centre of atom because according to classical electrodynamics theory
the nucleus when it is far away from the nucleus is known as an accelerated charged particle should continuously radiate
impact parameter. It is given as energy. Thus an electron moving in an circular path around

 the nucleus should also radiate energy and thus move into
smaller and smaller orbits of gradually decreasing radius and
b e–
+ it should ultimately fall into nucleus.
+
Nucleus

Fig. 26.4

Instability of atom
Fig. 26.6


For large b,  particles will go undeviated and for small b

the -particle will suffer large scattering.

Rutherford's Atomic Model (2) According to this model the spectrum of atom must

After -particles scattering experiment, following be continuous where as practically it is a line spectrum.
conclusions were made by Rutherford as regard as atomic (3) It did not explain the distribution of electrons outside
structure : the nucleus.
Atom
Bohr's Atomic Model
Nucleus
+ Bohr proposed a model for hydrogen atom which is also

10–15 m applicable for some lighter atoms in which a single electron

10–10 m revolves around a stationary nucleus of positive charge Ze

Size of the nucleus = 1 Fermi = 10–15 (called hydrogen like atom)

m
Size of theFig.
atom 26.5
1 Å = 10–10 m Bohr's model is based on the following postulates.

(1) He postulated that an electron in an atom can move

around the nucleus in certain circular stable orbits without
(1) Most of the mass (at least 99.95%) and all of the emitting radiations.
charge of an atom concentrated in a very small region is called
(2) Bohr found that the magnitude of the electron's
atomic nucleus.
Angular momentum is quantized i.e.
(2) Nucleus is positively charged and it's size is of the
where n = 1, 2, 3, ..... each value of n corresponds to a
order of
permitted value of the orbit radius.
10–15 m  1 Fermi. The nucleus occupies only about 10–12
rn = Radius of nth orbit, vn = corresponding speed
of the total volume of the atom or less.
(3) The radiation of energy occurs only when an electron
(3) In an atom there is maximum empty space and the
jumps from one permitted orbit to another.
electrons revolve around the nucleus in the same way as the
planets revolve around the sun. When electron jumps from higher energy orbit (E2) to
lower energy orbit (E1) then difference of energies of these
PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS
Atomic and Nuclear Physics 3
orbits i.e. E2 – E1 emits in the form of photon. But if electron

goes from E1 to E2 it absorbs the same amount of energy.

Table 26.1 : Some other quantities for revolution of
Draw Backs of Bohr's Atomic Model electron in nth orbit

(1) It is valid only for one electron atoms, e.g. : H, He+, Quantity Formula Dependenc

Li+2, Na+1 etc. y on n and Z

(1) Angular speed

(2) Orbits were taken as circular but according to
Sommerfield these are elliptical. (2) Frequency

(3) Intensity of spectral lines could not be explained. (3) Time period

(4) Nucleus was taken as stationary but it also rotates on (4) Angular momentum
its own axis.
(5) Corresponding

(5) It could not be explained the minute structure in current

spectrum line. (6) Magnetic moment

(where
(6) This does not explain the Zeeman effect (splitting up Bohr
of spectral lines in magnetic field) and Stark effect (splitting magneton)
up in electric field) (7) Magnetic field

(7) This does not explain the doublets in the spectrum of

some of the atoms like sodium (5890 Å & 5896 Å)

Energy
Bohr's Orbits (for Hydrogen and H2-like Atoms) (1) Potential energy : An electron possesses some
(1) Radius of orbit : For an electron around a stationary potential energy because it is found in the field of nucleus
potential energy of electron in nth orbit of radius rn is given by
nucleus the electrostatics force of attraction provides the


necessary centripetal force L

(2) Kinetic energy : Electron posses kinetic energy
r
i.e. …. (i) 
because of it's motion. Closer orbits have greater kinetic
m, – e v energy than outer ones.
also ….(ii)
Fig. 26.7 As we know

From equation (i) and (ii) radius of nth orbit  Kinetic energy

(3) Total energy : Total energy (E) is the sum of

potential energy and kinetic energy i.e. E = K + U


 also .
(2) Speed of electron : From the above relations, speed
of electron in nth orbit can be calculated as Hence

where = Rydberg's constant = 1.09  107 per m.

where (c = speed of light 3  108 m/s)

(4) Ionisation energy and potential : The energy

required to ionise an atom is called ionisation energy. It is the

 4 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
energy required to make the electron jump from the present e
n=4 Fourth Third – 0.85 eV
orbit to the infinite orbit.
n=3 Third Second – 1.51 eV

Hence n=2 Secon First – 3.4 eV

d
For H2-atom in the ground state n=1 First Ground – 13.6 eV

Principle Orbit Excited Energy

quantum state for H2 –
number atom
The potential through which an electron need to be

accelerated so that it acquires energy equal to the ionisation

Transition of Electron
energy is called ionisation potential.
When an electron makes transition from higher energy
(5) Excitation energy and potential : When energy is level having energy E2(n2) to a lower energy level having
given to an electron from external source, it jumps to higher energy E1 (n1) then a photon of frequency  is emitted
energy level. This phenomenon is called excitation. E2

The minimum energy required to excite an atom is called E2 – E1 = h

E1
excitation energy of the particular excited state and Fig. 26.8
corresponding potential is called exciting potential.
(1) Energy of emitted radiation
and

(6) Binding energy (B.E.) : Binding energy of a system

is defined as the energy released when it's constituents are

brought from infinity to form the system. It may also be

defined as the energy needed to separate it's constituents (2) Frequency of emitted radiation

to large distances. If an electron and a proton are initially at


rest and brought from large distances to form a hydrogen
(3) Wave number/wavelength
atom, 13.6 eV energy will be released. The binding energy of
Wave number is the number of waves in unit length
a hydrogen atom is therefore 13.6 eV.

(7) Energy level diagram : The diagrammatic description

(4) Number of spectral lines : If an electron jumps from
of the energy of the electron in different orbits around the
higher energy orbit to lower energy orbit it emits raidations
nucleus is called energy level diagram.
with various spectral lines.

If electron falls from orbit n2 to n1 then the number of

spectral lines emitted is given by

Table 26.2 : Energy level diagram of hydrogen/hydrogen

like atom

n= Infinit Infinite 0 eV

PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS
Atomic and Nuclear Physics 5
If electron falls from n orbit to ground state ( i.e. n2 = n
th

and n1 = 1) then number of spectral lines emitted

(5) Recoiling of an atom : Due to the transition of

electron, photon is emitted and the atom is recoiled

Recoil momentum of atom = momentum of photon

Also recoil energy of atom (where m = Fig. 26.10

mass of recoil atom)

Hydrogen Spectrum and Spectral Series

When hydrogen atom is excited, it returns to its normal
(3) First line of the series is called first member, for this
unexcited (or ground state) state by emitting the energy it
line wavelength is maximum (max)
had absorbed earlier. This energy is given out by the atom in
the form of radiations of different wavelengths as the For maximum wavelength if n1 = n then n2 = n + 1

electron jumps down from a higher to a lower orbit. So

Transition from different orbits cause different wavelengths,
(4) Last line of the series is called series limit, for this
these constitute spectral series which are characteristic of
line wavelength is minimum (min)
the atom emitting them. When observed through a
spectroscope, these radiations are imaged as sharp and For minimum wavelength So
straight vertical lines of a single colour.
(5) The ratio of first member and series limit can be
Photon of calculated as
Spectrum
wavelength 
+ + +
Table 26.3 : Different spectral series

Spectral Transition max min Region

Fig. 26.9 : Emission spectra series
1. Lymen n2 = 2, 3, 4 … Ultraviol
series n1 = 1 et region
The spectral lines arising from the transition of electron

forms a spectra series. 2.Balmer n2 = 3, 4, 5 … Visible

series n1 = 2 region
(1) Mainly there are five series and each series is named
after it's discover as Lymen series, Balmer series, Paschen 3. n2 = 4, 5, 6 … Infrared
Paschen n1 = 3 region
series, Bracket series and Pfund series. series

(2) According to the Bohr's theory the wavelength of the 4. Bracket n2 = 5, 6, 7 …  Infrared
series n1 = 4 region
radiations emitted from hydrogen atom is given by
5. Pfund n2 = 6, 7, 8 …  Infrared
 series n1 = 5 region

where n2 = outer orbit (electron jumps from this orbit), n1

= inner orbit (electron falls in this orbit)

 6 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Nucleus
(1) Rutherford's -scattering experiment established that
(1) The charge of neutron : It is neutral
the mass of atom is concentrated with small positively
(2) The mass of neutron : 1.6750  10–27 kg
charged region at the centre which is called 'nucleus'.
(3) It's spin angular momentum :
e–

(4) It's magnetic moment : 9.57  10–27 J/Tesla

(5) It's half life : 12 minutes

(6) Penetration power : High

e–

e– (7) Types : Neutrons are of two types slow neutron and

fast neutron, both are fully capable of penetrating a nucleus

Fig. 26.11 and causing artificial disintegration.

Thermal Neutrons
Fast neutrons can be converted into slow neutrons by
(2) The stability or instability of a particular nucleus is
certain materials called moderator's (Paraffin wax, heavy
determined by the competition between the attractive
water, graphite) when fast moving neutrons pass through a
nuclear force among the protons and neutrons and the
moderator, they collide with the molecules of the moderator,
repulsive electrical interactions among the protons. Unstable
as a result of this, the energy of moving neutron decreases
nuclei decay, transforming themselves spontaneously into
while that of the molecules of the moderator increases. After
other structure by a variety of decay processes.
sometime they both attains same energy. The neutrons are
(3) We could not survive without the 3.90  1026 watt
then in thermal equilibrium with the molecules of the
output of one near by fusion reactor, our sun.
moderator and are called thermal neutrons.
(4) Nuclei are made up of proton and neutron. The
number of protons in a nucleus (called the atomic number or Energy of thermal neutron is about 0.025 eV and speed is
proton number) is represented by the symbol Z. The number about 2.2 km/s.
of neutrons (neutron number) is represented by N. The total
Types of Nuclei
number of neutrons and protons in a nucleus is called it's
The nuclei have been classified on the basis of the
mass number A so A = Z + N.
number of protons (atomic number) or the total number of
(5) Neutrons and proton, when described collectively are
nucleons (mass number) as follows
called nucleons. A single nuclear species having specific
values of both Z and N is called a nuclide. (1) Isotopes : The atoms of element having same atomic
(6) Nuclides are represented as where X denotes number but different mass number are called isotopes. All
the chemical symbol of the element. isotopes have the same chemical properties. The isotopes of
Neutron some elements are the following

Neutron is a fundamental particle which is essential

constituent of all nuclei except that of hydrogen atom. It was
discovered by Chadwick. A free neutron outside the nucleus

is unstable and decays into proton and electron.

PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS
Atomic and Nuclear Physics 7
(2) Isobars : The nuclei which have the same mass
number (A) but different atomic number (Z) are called

isobars. Isobars occupy different positions in periodic table

so all isobars have different chemical properties. Some of the
examples of isobars are

(1) Nuclear forces are short range forces. These do not

(3) Isotones : The nuclei having equal number of
exist at large distances greater than 10–15 m.
neutrons are called isotones. For them both the atomic
(2) Nuclear forces are the strongest forces in nature.
number (Z) and mass number (A) are different, but the value

of (A – Z) is same. Some examples are (3) These are attractive force and causes stability of the

nucleus.

(4) These forces are charge independent.

(5) Nuclear forces are non-central force.

(4) Mirror nuclei : Nuclei having the same mass number
(6) Nuclear forces are exchange forces : According to
A but with the proton number (Z) and neutron number (A – Z)
scientist Yukawa the nuclear force between the two nucleons
interchanged (or whose atomic number differ by 1) are called
is the result of the exchange of particles called mesons
mirror nuclei for example.
between the nucleons.

 - mesons are of three types – Positive  meson (+),

Size of Nucleus
negative  meson ( –), neutral  meson (0)
(1) Nuclear radius : Experimental results indicates that
The force between neutron and proton is due to
the nuclear radius is proportional to A1/3, where A is the mass
exchange of charged meson between them i.e.
number of nucleus i.e.  , where R0 =
1.2  10–15 m = 1.2 fm.
The forces between a pair of neutrons or a pair of
(2) Nuclear volume : The volume of nucleus is given by
protons are the result of the exchange of neutral meson (o)
between them i.e. and
(3) Nuclear density : Mass per unit volume of a nucleus
Thus exchange of  meson between nucleons keeps the
is called nuclear density.
nucleons bound together. It is responsible for the nuclear

forces.
where m = Average of mass of a nucleon (= mass of
proton + mass of neutron = 1.66  10–27 kg) and mA = Mass
of nucleus Atomic Mass Unit (amu)
 (1) In nuclear physics, a convenient unit of mass is the

Nuclear Force unified atomic mass unit abbreviated u.

Forces that keep the nucleons bound in the nucleus are (2) The amu is defined as mass of a at on.
called nuclear forces. (3) 1 amu (or 1 u) = 1.6605402  10–27 kg .

(4) Masses of electron, proton and neutrons :

(A) At low speeds, (B) At high speeds, nuclei

electromagnetic repulsion come close enough for the
prevents the collision of strong force to bind them
 8 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
Mass of electron (me) = 9.1  10–31 kg = 0.0005486 amu,
Mass of proton (mp) = 1.6726  10–27 kg = 1.007276 amu

Mass of neutron (mn) = 1.6750  10–27 kg = 1.00865 amu, Mass

of hydrogen atom (me + mp) = 1.6729  10–27 kg = 1.0078 amu The rest-mass energy of each of positron and electron is

(5) The energy associated with a nuclear process is E0 = m0c2 = (9.1  10–31 kg)  (3.0  108

usually large, of the order of MeV. m/s)2

= 8.2  10–14 J = 0.51 MeV

(6) According to Einstein, mass and energy are inter
convertible. The Einstein's mass energy relationship is given Hence, for pair-production it is essential that the energy
by of -photon must be at least 2  0.51 = 1.02 MeV. If the
If m = 1 amu, c = 3  108 m/sec then E = 931 MeV i.e. 1 energy of -photon is less than this, it would cause photo-

amu is equivalent to 931 MeV or 1 amu (or 1 u) = 931 MeV electric effect or Compton effect on striking the matter.

(1 u) c2 = 931 MeV  or The converse phenomenon pair-annihilation is also

possible. Whenever an electron and a positron come very
Table 26.5 : Neutral atomic masses for some light nuclides
close to each other, they annihilate each other by combining
Element and isopore Atomic mass ( u) together and two -photons (energy) are produced. This
Hydrogen 1.007825 phenomenon is called pair annihilation and is represented by
Deuterium 2.014102 the following equation.

Tritium 3.016049

Helium 3.016029
Nuclear Stability
Helium 4.002603
Among about 1500 known nuclides, less than 260 are
Lithium 7.016004
stable. The others are unstable that decay to form other
Beryllium 9.012182
nuclides by emitting , -particles and  - EM waves. (This
Carbon 12.000000
process is called radioactivity). The stability of nucleus is
Nitrogen 14.003074
determined by many factors. Few such factors are given
Oxygen 15.994915
below :

Pair Production and Pair-Annihilation (1) Neutron-proton ratio : The chemical

When an energetic -ray photon falls on a heavy properties of an atom are governed entirely by the number of
substance. It is absorbed by some nucleus of the substance protons (Z) in the nucleus, the stability of an atom appears to
and an electron and a positron are produced. This depend on both the number of protons and the number of
phenomenon is called pair production and may be neutrons.
represented by the following equation
(i) For lighter nuclei, the greatest stability is achieved
when the number of protons and neutrons are approximately

+1 0 equal (N  Z) i.e.

h +Ze (ii) Heavy nuclei are stable only when they have more

-photon Nucleus neutrons than protons. Thus heavy nuclei are neutron rich

–1  0

Fig. 26.14
PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS
Atomic and Nuclear Physics 9
compared to lighter nuclei (for heavy nuclei, more is the (ii) An even-odd nucleus (even Z and odd N) or odd-even
number of protons in the nucleus, greater is the electrical nuclide (odd Z and even N) is found to be lesser sable while
repulsive force between them. Therefore more neutrons are the odd-odd nucleus is found to be less stable.
added to provide the strong attractive forces necessary to
(iii) Only five stable odd-odd nuclides are known :
keep the nucleus stable.)

104 (3) Binding energy per nucleon : The stability of a

96
nucleus is determined by value of it's binding energy per
86
80
nucleon. In general higher the value of binding energy per

nucleon, more stable the nucleus is

Neutron number (N)

72
64
56 Mass Defect and Binding Energy
48
(1) Mass defect (m) : It is found that the mass of a
40
32 nucleus is always less than the sum of masses of it's
24 constituent nucleons in free state. This difference in masses
16
is called mass defect. Hence mass defect
8

0 8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80 88 96 m = Sum of masses of nucleons – Mass of nucleus

Atomic number (Z)

Fig. 26.15

where mp = Mass of proton, mn = Mass of each

neutron, me = Mass of each electron

M = Mass of nucleus, Z = Atomic number, A =

(iii) Figure shows a plot of N verses Z for the stable
Mass number, M = Mass of atom as a whole.
nuclei. For mass number upto about A = 40. For larger value
of Z the nuclear force is unable to hold the nucleus together (2) Packing fraction : Mass defect per nucleon is called
against the electrical repulsion of the protons unless the packing fraction
number of neutrons exceeds the number of protons. At Bi (Z
Packing fraction (f ) where M = Mass
= 83, A = 209), the neutron excess in N – Z = 43. There are
of nucleus, A = Mass number
no stable nuclides with Z > 83.
Packing fraction measures the stability of a nucleus.
(2) Even or odd numbers of Z or N : The stability of a
Smaller the value of packing fraction, larger is the stability of
nuclide is also determined by the consideration whether it
the nucleus.
contains an even or odd number of protons and neutrons.
(i) Packing fraction may be of positive, negative or zero
(i) It is found that an even-even nucleus (even Z and
value.
even N) is more stable (60% of stable nuclide have even Z

and even N). (ii) At A = 16, f  Zero

40
30
20
10
0 Mass
A > 240
– 10 number (A)
– 20
 10 Atomic and Nuclear Physics

(3) Binding energy (B.E.) : The neutrons and protons in

a stable nucleus are held together by nuclear forces and (1) Some nuclei with mass number A < 20 have large

energy is needed to pull them infinitely apart (or the same binding energy per nucleon than their neighbour nuclei. For

energy is released during the formation of the nucleus). This example . These nuclei are

energy is called the binding energy of the nucleus. more stable than their neighbours.

or (2) The binding energy per nucleon is maximum for

nuclei of mass number A = 56 . It's value is 8.8 MeV
The binding energy of a nucleus may be defined as the
per nucleon.
energy equivalent to the mass defect of the nucleus.
(3) For nuclei having A > 56, binding energy per nucleon
If m is mass defect then according to Einstein's mass
gradually decreases for uranium (A = 238), the value of
energy relation
binding energy per nucleon drops to 7.5 MeV.
Binding energy = m  c2 = [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] c2
Nuclear Reactions
(This binding energy is expressed in joule, because m is
The process by which the identity of a nucleus is
measured in kg)
changed when it is bombarded by an energetic particle is
If m is measured in amu then binding energy = m amu called nuclear reaction. The general expression for the
= [{mpZ + mn(A – Z)} – M] amu = m  931 MeV nuclear reaction is as follows.
(4) Binding energy per nucleon : The average energy
required to release a nucleon from the nucleus is called
binding energy per nucleon.

Binding energy per nucleon

Here X and a are known as reactants and Y and b are
known as products. This reaction is known as (a, b) reaction
and can be represented as X(a, b) Y

Binding energy per nucleon  Stability of nucleus (1) Q value or energy of nuclear reaction : The energy
Binding Energy Curve absorbed or released during nuclear reaction is known as Q-

It is the graph between binding energy per nucleon and value of nuclear reaction.

total number of nucleons (i.e. mass number A)

Q-value = (Mass of reactants – mass of products)c2
Joules
26 Fe56
Binding energy per

8.0 He = (Mass of reactants – mass of products) amu

nucleon (MeV)

6.0
Li
4.0

2.0
H2
0
50 56 100 150 200
Mass number A
Fig. 26.17
PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS
Atomic and Nuclear Physics 11
If Q < 0, The nuclear reaction is known as endothermic. (1) The process of splitting of a heavy nucleus into two
(The energy is absorbed in the reaction) lighter nuclei of comparable masses (after bombardment with

a energetic particle) with liberation of energy is called

If Q > 0, The nuclear reaction is known as exothermic
nuclear fission.
(The energy is released in the reaction)

(2) The phenomenon of nuclear fission was discovered

(2) Law of conservation in nuclear reactions
by scientist Ottohann and F. Strassman and was explained by
(i) Conservation of mass number and charge number : In
N. Bohr and J.A. Wheeler on the basis of liquid drop model of
the following nuclear reaction
nucleus.

Fission
fragmen
Mass number (A)  Before the reaction After the
t
reaction

4 +14 = 18 17 + 1 = 18
235
U
Neutron
Fission
Charge number (Z)  2 + 7 = 9 8+1=9 Neutron s
fragmen
s
Fig. 26.18 t
(ii) Conservation of momentum : Linear
momentum/angular momentum of particles before the
reaction is equal to the linear/angular momentum of the
particles after the reaction. That is p = 0 (3) Fission reaction of U235

(iii) Conservation of energy : Total energy before the

reaction is equal to total energy after the reaction. Term Q is
(4) The energy released in U235 fission is about 200 MeV
added to balance the total energy of the reaction.
or 0.8 MeV per nucleon.
(3) Common nuclear reactions : The nuclear reactions
(5) By fission of , on an average 2.5 neutrons are
lead to artificial transmutation of nuclei. Rutherford was the
liberated. These neutrons are called fast neutrons and their
first to carry out artificial transmutation of nitrogen to
energy is about 2 MeV (for each). These fast neutrons can
oxygen in the year 1919.
escape from the reaction so as to proceed the chain reaction

they are need to slow down.

It is called (, p) reaction. Some other nuclear reactions

(6) Fission of U235 occurs by slow neutrons only (of energy
are given as follows.
about 1eV) or even by thermal neutrons (of energy about 0.025
(p, n) reaction  eV).

(p, ) reaction  (7) 50 kg of U235 on fission will release  4 × 1015 J of

(p, ) reaction  energy. This is equivalence to 20,000 tones of TNT explosion.

The nuclear bomb dropped at Hiroshima had this much

(n, p) reaction 
explosion power.
(, n) reaction 

Nuclear Fission
 12 Atomic and Nuclear Physics
(8) The mass of the compound nucleus must be greater

than the sum of masses of fission products.

(9) The of compound nucleus must be less

than that of the fission products.

(10) It may be pointed out that it is not necessary that in

each fission of uranium, the two fragments and

are formed but they may be any stable isotopes of middle

weight atoms.

(11) Same other fission reactions are

(1) Fissionable material (Fuel) : The fissionable
material used in the reactor is called the fuel of the reactor.
Uranium isotope (U235) Thorium isotope (Th232) and
 Many more
Plutonium isotopes (Pu239, Pu240 and Pu241) are the most
(12) The neutrons released during the fission process are
commonly used fuels in the reactor.
called prompt neutrons.
(2) Moderator : Moderator is used to slow down the fast
(13) Most of energy released appears in the form of
moving neutrons. Most commonly used moderators are
kinetic energy of fission fragments. Ba
Energy graphite and heavy water (D2O).

Energy (3) Control Material : Control material is used to control

Slow
the chain reaction and to maintain a stable rate of reaction.
Neutron 236
235
U U
92 92
This material controls the number of neutrons available for
Energy
the fission. For example, cadmium rods are inserted into the
Energy
core of the reactor because they can absorb the neutrons.
Kr
Fig. 26.19 The neutrons available for fission are controlled by moving
the cadmium rods in or out of the core of the reactor.

(4) Coolant : Coolant is a cooling material which

removes the heat generated due to fission in the reactor.
Nuclear Reactor
Commonly used coolants are water, CO2 nitrogen etc.
A nuclear reactor is a device in which nuclear fission can
(5) Protective shield : A protective shield in the form a
be carried out through a sustained and a controlled chain
concrete thick wall surrounds the core of the reactor to save
reaction. It is also called an atomic pile. It is thus a source of
the persons working around the reactor from the hazardous
controlled energy which is utilised for many useful purposes.
radiations.

Cadmium (6) Uses of nuclear reactor

rods Core
Coolant (i) In electric power generation.
Coolant out
Turbine (ii) To produce radioactive isotopes for their use in
Concret To electric
medical science, agriculture and industry.
e wall generator

Condenser

Moderator Water
Heat
Coolant in
exchanger
PRADIP SIR’S PHYSICS
Atomic and Nuclear Physics 13
(iii) In manufacturing of which is used in atom present rate, it would take about to exhaust its

bomb. supply of protons.

(iv) They are used to produce neutron beam of high (5) For the same mass of the fuel, the energy released in
intensity which is used in the treatment of cancer and fusion is much larger than in fission.
nuclear research. (6) Plasma : The temperature of the order of 108 K
Nuclear Fusion required for thermonuclear reactions leads to the complete
ionisation of the atom of light elements. The combination of
(1) In nuclear fusion two or more than two lighter nuclei
base nuclei and electron cloud is called plasma. The
combine to form a single heavy nucleus. The mass of single
enormous gravitational field of the sun confines the plasma
nucleus so formed is less than the sum of the masses of
in the interior of the sun.
parent nuclei. This difference in mass results in the release
The main problem to carryout nuclear fusion in the
of tremendous amount of energy
laboratory is to contain the plasma at a temperature of 108K.
No solid container can tolerate this much temperature. If this
problem of containing plasma is solved, then the large
P P
n P quantity of deuterium present in sea water would be able to
2
P 3
He 4
He
P H
P P nP P P serve as in-exhaustible source of energy.
n n n n n
P P
P P

Table 26.7 : Nuclear bomb (Based on uncontrolled
 e+
P nuclear reactions)
Fig. 26.22
Atom bomb Hydrogen bomb
(2) For fusion high pressure ( 106 atm) and high
Based on fission process it Based on fusion process.
temperature (of the order of 107 K to 108 K) is required and
involves the fission of U235 Mixture of deutron and tritium
so the reaction is called thermonuclear reaction. is used in it

(3) Here are three examples of energy-liberating fusion In this critical size is There is no limit to critical size
important
reactions, written in terms of the neutral atoms. Together the
Explosion is possible at High temperature and
reactions make up the process called the proton-proton
normal temperature and pressure are required
chain. pressure

Less energy is released More energy is released as

compared to hydrogen bomb compared to atom bomb so it
is more dangerous than atom
bomb

(4) The proton-proton chain takes place in the interior of

the sun and other stars. Each gram of the suns mass
contains about 4.5  1023 protons. If all of these protons were
fused into helium, the energy released would be about
130,000 kWh. If the sun were to continue to radiate at its