"Traffic Lights Detection and Classification using

ResNet50"

Abstract:
This project focuses on the robust detection and classification of traffic lights
using the ResNet50 architecture. Leveraging deep learning techniques,
particularly Residual Networks (ResNet), the project aims to accurately identify
and classify traffic lights in diverse environmental conditions. The application
of ResNet50 provides a powerful framework for feature extraction and
classification, enhancing the precision and reliability of traffic light recognition.
The project contributes to improved traffic management and autonomous
vehicle navigation by providing real-time information about the state of traffic
lights.

Introduction:
Efficient traffic light detection and classification are vital components of
intelligent transportation systems and autonomous vehicles. Traditional methods
may face challenges in handling variations in lighting conditions, occlusions,
and diverse shapes of traffic lights. This project addresses these challenges by
employing ResNet50, a deep convolutional neural network architecture known
for its ability to capture complex features in images. ResNet50 is applied to
extract hierarchical features, enabling the precise detection and classification of
traffic lights in real-world scenarios.
Existing System with Disadvantages:
Current traffic light detection systems might rely on handcrafted features or less
sophisticated neural network architectures, which could result in limitations in
accuracy, especially under challenging conditions. The disadvantages of
existing systems may include reduced reliability in the presence of occlusions,
variations in illumination, and diverse traffic light designs.
Proposed System with Advantages:
The proposed system utilizes ResNet50, a state-of-the-art deep learning
architecture. ResNet50's residual learning framework enables the extraction of
intricate hierarchical features, allowing the model to discern fine details crucial
for accurate traffic light detection and classification. The advantages of this
approach include improved accuracy, robustness to environmental variations,
and the potential for real-time deployment in traffic management systems and
autonomous vehicles.
HARDWARE & SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS:

HARD REQUIRMENTS :

 System : i3 or above.
 Ram : 4 GB.
 Hard Disk : 40 GB

SOFTWARE REQUIRMENTS :

 Operating system : Windows8 or Above.

 Coding Language : python
SYSTEM STUDY FEASIBILITY STUDY

The feasibility of the project is analyzed in this phase and business proposal is
put forth with a very general plan for the project and some cost estimates.
During system analysis the feasibility study of the proposed system is to be
carried out. This is to ensure that the proposed system is not a burden to the
company. For feasibility analysis, some understanding of the major
requirements for the system is essential.

Three key considerations involved in the feasibility analysis are

 ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY
 TECHNICAL FEASIBILITY
 SOCIAL FEASIBILITY

ECONOMICAL FEASIBILITY

This study is carried out to check the economic impact that the system will have
on the organization. The amount of fund that the company can pour into the
research and development of the system is limited. The expenditures must be
justified. Thus the developed system as well within the budget and this was
achieved because most of the technologies used are freely available. Only the
customized products had to be purchased.

TECHNICAL FEASIBILI

This study is carried out to check the technical feasibility, that is, the technical
requirements of the system. Any system developed must not have a high
demand on the available technical resources. This will lead to high demands on
the available technical resources. This will lead to high demands being placed
on the client. The developed system must have a modest requirement, as only
minimal or null changes are required for implementing this system.

SOCIAL FEASIBILITY

The aspect of study is to check the level of acceptance of the system by the user.
This includes the process of training the user to use the system efficiently. The
user must not feel threatened by the system, instead must accept it as a
necessity. The level of acceptance by the users solely depends on the methods
that are employed to educate the user about the system and to make him familiar
with it. His level of confidence must be raised so that he is also able to make
some constructive criticism, which is welcomed, as he is the final user of the
system.

4. SYSTEM DESIGN :

4.1 .UML DIAGRAM’S :

UML stands for Unified Modeling Language. UML is a standardized general-

purpose modeling language in the field of object-oriented software engineering.
The standard is managed, and was created by, the Object Management Group.

The goal is for UML to become a common language for creating models of
object oriented computer software. In its current form UML is comprised of two
major components: a Meta-model and a notation. In the future, some form of
method or process may also be added to; or associated with, UML.

The Unified Modeling Language is a standard language for specifying,

Visualization, Constructing and documenting the artifacts of software system,
as well as for business modeling and other non-software systems.

The UML represents a collection of best engineering practices that have proven
successful in the modeling of large and complex systems.

The UML is a very important part of developing objects oriented software and
the software development process. The UML uses mostly graphical notations to
express the design of software projects.
GOALS:

The Primary goals in the design of the UML are as follows:

1. Provide users a ready-to-use, expressive visual modeling Language so that
they can develop and exchange meaningful models.
2. Provide extendibility and specialization mechanisms to extend the core
concepts.
3. Be independent of particular programming languages and development
process.
4. Provide a formal basis for understanding the modeling language.
5. Encourage the growth of OO tools market.
6. Support higher level development concepts such as collaborations,
frameworks, patterns and components.
7. Integrate best practices.
USE CASE DIAGRAM:
A use case diagram in the Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a type of
behavioral diagram defined by and created from a Use-case analysis. Its purpose
is to present a graphical overview of the functionality provided by a system in
terms of actors, their goals (represented as use cases), and any dependencies
between those use cases. The main purpose of a use case diagram is to show
what system functions are performed for which actor. Roles of the actors in the
system can be depicted.

CLASS DIAGRAM:
In software engineering, a class diagram in the Unified Modeling Language
(UML) is a type of static structure diagram that describes the structure of a
system by showing the system's classes, their attributes, operations (or
methods), and the relationships among the classes. It explains which class
contains information.
SEQUENCE DIAGRAM:
A sequence diagram in Unified Modeling Language (UML) is a kind of
interaction diagram that shows how processes operate with one another and in
what order. It is a construct of a Message Sequence Chart. Sequence diagrams
are sometimes called event diagrams, event scenarios, and timing diagrams.

COLLABRATION DIAGRAM:
Activity diagrams are graphical representations of workflows of stepwise
activities and actions with support for choice, iteration and concurrency. In the
Unified Modeling Language, activity diagrams can be used to describe the
business and operational step-by-step workflows of components in a system. An
activity diagram shows the overall flow of control.

IMPLEMENTATION:

MODULES:
1. Upload Historical Trajectory Dataset : Upload Historical Trajectory Dataset’
button and upload dataset.
2. Generate Train & Test Model :Generate Train & Test Model’ button to read
dataset and to split dataset into train and test part to generate machine learning
train model
3. Run MLP Algorithm:Run MLP Algorithm’ button to train MLP model and to
calculate its accuracy.
4. Run DDS with Genetic Algorithm : Run DDS with Genetic Algorithm button
to train DDS and to calculate its prediction accuracy.
5. Predict DDS Type :Predict DDS Type’ button to predict test data

SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENT :

What is Python :
 Below are some facts about Python.

Python is currently the most widely used multi-purpose, high-level

programming language.

Python allows programming in Object-Oriented and Procedural paradigms.

Python programs generally are smaller than other programming languages
like Java.

Programmers have to type relatively less and indentation requirement

of the language, makes them readable all the time.

Python language is being used by almost all tech-giant companies like –

Google, Amazon, Facebook, Instagram, Dropbox, Uber… etc.

The biggest strength of Python is huge collection of standard library

which can be used for the following –

 Machine Learning
 GUI Applications (like Kivy, Tkinter, PyQt etc. )
 Web frameworks like Django (used by YouTube, Instagram, Dropbox)
 Image processing (like Opencv, Pillow)
 Web scraping (like Scrapy, BeautifulSoup, Selenium)
 Test frameworks
 Multimedia

Advantages of Python :-
 Let’s see how Python dominates over other languages.

1. Extensive Libraries
Python downloads with an extensive library and it contain code for various
purposes like regular expressions, documentation-generation, unit-testing,
web browsers, threading, databases, CGI, email, image manipulation, and
more. So, we don’t have to write the complete code for that manually.
2. Extensible
As we have seen earlier, Python can be extended to other languages. You
can write some of your code in languages like C++ or C. This comes in
handy, especially in projects.

3. Embeddable
Complimentary to extensibility, Python is embeddable as well. You can put
your Python code in your source code of a different language, like C++. This
lets us add scripting capabilities to our code in the other language.

4. Improved Productivity
The language’s simplicity and extensive libraries render programmers more
productive than languages like Java and C++ do. Also, the fact that you
need to write less and get more things done.

5. IOT Opportunities
Since Python forms the basis of new platforms like Raspberry Pi, it finds the
future bright for the Internet Of Things. This is a way to connect the
language with the real world.

When working with Java, you may have to create a class to print ‘Hello
World’. But in Python, just a print statement will do. It is also quite easy to
learn, understand, and code. This is why when people pick up Python,
they have a hard time adjusting to other more verbose languages like Java.
7. Readable
Because it is not such a verbose language, reading Python is much like
reading English. This is the reason why it is so easy to learn, understand,
and code. It also does not need curly braces to define blocks,
and indentation is mandatory. This further aids the readability of the
code.

8. Object-Oriented
This language supports both the procedural and object-
oriented programming paradigms. While functions help us with code
reusability, classes and objects let us model the real world. A class allows
the encapsulation of data and functions into one.

9. Free and Open-Source

Like we said earlier, Python is freely available. But not only can
you download Python for free, but you can also download its source code,
make changes to it, and even distribute it. It downloads with an extensive
collection of libraries to help you with your tasks.

10. Portable
When you code your project in a language like C++, you may need to make
some changes to it if you want to run it on another platform. But it isn’t the
same with Python. Here, you need to code only once, and you can run it
anywhere. This is called Write Once Run Anywhere (WORA). However,
you need to be careful enough not to include any system-dependent
features.

11. Interpreted
Lastly, we will say that it is an interpreted language. Since statements are
executed one by one, debugging is easier than in compiled languages.
Any doubts till now in the advantages of Python? Mention in the comment
section.
Advantages of Python Over Other Languages :

1. Less Coding
Almost all of the tasks done in Python requires less coding when the same
task is done in other languages. Python also has an awesome standard
library support, so you don’t have to search for any third-party libraries to
get your job done. This is the reason that many people suggest learning
Python to beginners.

2. Affordable
Python is free therefore individuals, small companies or big organizations
can leverage the free available resources to build applications. Python is
popular and widely used so it gives you better community support.

The 2019 Github annual survey showed us that Python has overtaken
Java in the most popular programming language category.

3. Python is for Everyone

Python code can run on any machine whether it is Linux, Mac or Windows.
Programmers need to learn different languages for different jobs but with
Python, you can professionally build web apps, perform data analysis
and machine learning, automate things, do web scraping and also build
 games and powerful visualizations. It is an all-rounder programming
language.

Disadvantages of Python
So far, we’ve seen why Python is a great choice for your project. But if you
choose it, you should be aware of its consequences as well. Let’s now see
the downsides of choosing Python over another language.

1. Speed Limitations

We have seen that Python code is executed line by line. But since Python is
interpreted, it often results in slow execution. This, however, isn’t a problem
unless speed is a focal point for the project. In other words, unless high
speed is a requirement, the benefits offered by Python are enough to distract
us from its speed limitations.

2. Weak in Mobile Computing and Browsers

While it serves as an excellent server-side language, Python is much rarely

seen on the client-side. Besides that, it is rarely ever used to implement
smartphone-based applications. One such application is called Carbonnelle.
The reason it is not so famous despite the existence of Brython is that it isn’t
that secure.

3. Design Restrictions

As you know, Python is dynamically-typed. This means that you don’t

need to declare the type of variable while writing the code. It uses duck-
typing. But wait, what’s that? Well, it just means that if it looks like a duck,
it must be a duck. While this is easy on the programmers during coding, it
can raise run-time errors.
 4. Underdeveloped Database Access Layers

Compared to more widely used technologies like JDBC (Java DataBase

Connectivity) and ODBC (Open DataBase Connectivity), Python’s
database access layers are a bit underdeveloped. Consequently, it is less
often applied in huge enterprises.

5. Simple

No, we’re not kidding. Python’s simplicity can indeed be a problem. Take
my example. I don’t do Java, I’m more of a Python person. To me, its syntax
is so simple that the verbosity of Java code seems unnecessary.

This was all about the Advantages and Disadvantages of Python

Programming Language.

History of Python : -

What do the alphabet and the programming language Python have in

common? Right, both start with ABC. If we are talking about ABC in the
Python context, it's clear that the programming language ABC is meant.
ABC is a general-purpose programming language and programming
environment, which had been developed in the Netherlands, Amsterdam, at
the CWI (Centrum Wiskunde &Informatica). The greatest achievement of
ABC was to influence the design of Python.Python was conceptualized in
the late 1980s. Guido van Rossum worked that time in a project at the CWI,
called Amoeba, a distributed operating system. In an interview with Bill
 Venners1, Guido van Rossum said: "In the early 1980s, I worked as an
implementer on a team building a language called ABC at Centrum voor
Wiskunde en Informatica (CWI). I don't know how well people know ABC's
influence on Python. I try to mention ABC's influence because I'm indebted
to everything I learned during that project and to the people who worked on
it."Later on in the same Interview, Guido van Rossum continued: "I
remembered all my experience and some of my frustration with ABC. I
decided to try to design a simple scripting language that possessed some of
ABC's better properties, but without its problems. So I started typing. I
created a simple virtual machine, a simple parser, and a simple runtime. I
made my own version of the various ABC parts that I liked. I created a basic
syntax, used indentation for statement grouping instead of curly braces or
begin-end blocks, and developed a small number of powerful data types: a
hash table (or dictionary, as we call it), a list, strings, and numbers."

What is Machine Learning : -

Before we take a look at the details of various machine learning methods,

let's start by looking at what machine learning is, and what it isn't. Machine
learning is often categorized as a subfield of artificial intelligence, but I find
that categorization can often be misleading at first brush. The study of
 machine learning certainly arose from research in this context, but in the
data science application of machine learning methods, it's more helpful to
think of machine learning as a means of building models of data.

Fundamentally, machine learning involves building mathematical models to

help understand data. "Learning" enters the fray when we give these
models tunable parameters that can be adapted to observed data; in this way
the program can be considered to be "learning" from the data. Once these
models have been fit to previously seen data, they can be used to predict and
understand aspects of newly observed data. I'll leave to the reader the more
philosophical digression regarding the extent to which this type of
mathematical, model-based "learning" is similar to the "learning" exhibited
by the human brain.Understanding the problem setting in machine learning
is essential to using these tools effectively, and so we will start with some
broad categorizations of the types of approaches we'll discuss here.

Categories Of Machine Leaning :-

At the most fundamental level, machine learning can be categorized into two
main types: supervised learning and unsupervised learning.

Supervised learning involves somehow modeling the relationship between

measured features of data and some label associated with the data; once this
model is determined, it can be used to apply labels to new, unknown data.
This is further subdivided into classification tasks and regression tasks: in
classification, the labels are discrete categories, while in regression, the
labels are continuous quantities. We will see examples of both types of
supervised learning in the following section.

Unsupervised learning involves modeling the features of a dataset without

reference to any label, and is often described as "letting the dataset speak for
 itself." These models include tasks such as clustering and dimensionality
reduction. Clustering algorithms identify distinct groups of data, while
dimensionality reduction algorithms search for more succinct
representations of the data. We will see examples of both types of
unsupervised learning in the following section.

Need for Machine Learning

Human beings, at this moment, are the most intelligent and advanced species
on earth because they can think, evaluate and solve complex problems. On
the other side, AI is still in its initial stage and haven’t surpassed human
intelligence in many aspects. Then the question is that what is the need to
make machine learn? The most suitable reason for doing this is, “to make
decisions, based on data, with efficiency and scale”.

Lately, organizations are investing heavily in newer technologies like

Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning and Deep Learning to get the key
information from data to perform several real-world tasks and solve
problems. We can call it data-driven decisions taken by machines,
particularly to automate the process. These data-driven decisions can be
used, instead of using programing logic, in the problems that cannot be
programmed inherently. The fact is that we can’t do without human
intelligence, but other aspect is that we all need to solve real-world problems
with efficiency at a huge scale. That is why the need for machine learning
arises.

Challenges in Machines Learning :-

While Machine Learning is rapidly evolving, making significant strides with

cybersecurity and autonomous cars, this segment of AI as whole still has a
long way to go. The reason behind is that ML has not been able to overcome
number of challenges. The challenges that ML is facing currently are −

Quality of data − Having good-quality data for ML algorithms is one of the

biggest challenges. Use of low-quality data leads to the problems related to
data preprocessing and feature extraction.

Time-Consuming task − Another challenge faced by ML models is the

consumption of time especially for data acquisition, feature extraction and
retrieval.

Lack of specialist persons − As ML technology is still in its infancy stage,

availability of expert resources is a tough job.

No clear objective for formulating business problems − Having no clear

objective and well-defined goal for business problems is another key
challenge for ML because this technology is not that mature yet.

Issue of overfitting & underfitting − If the model is overfitting or

underfitting, it cannot be represented well for the problem.

Curse of dimensionality − Another challenge ML model faces is too many

features of data points. This can be a real hindrance.

Difficulty in deployment − Complexity of the ML model makes it quite

difficult to be deployed in real life.
 Applications of Machines Learning :-

Machine Learning is the most rapidly growing technology and according to

researchers we are in the golden year of AI and ML. It is used to solve many
real-world complex problems which cannot be solved with traditional
approach. Following are some real-world applications of ML −

 Emotion analysis
 Sentiment analysis
 Error detection and prevention
 Weather forecasting and prediction
 Stock market analysis and forecasting
 Speech synthesis
 Speech recognition
 Customer segmentation
 Object recognition
 Fraud detection
 Fraud prevention
 Recommendation of products to customer in online shopping
How to Start Learning Machine Learning?

Arthur Samuel coined the term “Machine Learning” in 1959 and defined it
as a “Field of study that gives computers the capability to learn without
being explicitly programmed”.
And that was the beginning of Machine Learning! In modern times, Machine
Learning is one of the most popular (if not the most!) career choices.
According to Indeed, Machine Learning Engineer Is The Best Job of 2019
with a 344% growth and an average base salary of $146,085 per year.
But there is still a lot of doubt about what exactly is Machine Learning and
how to start learning it? So this article deals with the Basics of Machine
Learning and also the path you can follow to eventually become a full-
fledged Machine Learning Engineer. Now let’s get started!!!

How to start learning ML?

This is a rough roadmap you can follow on your way to becoming an

insanely talented Machine Learning Engineer. Of course, you can always
modify the steps according to your needs to reach your desired end-goal!

Step 1 – Understand the Prerequisites

In case you are a genius, you could start ML directly but normally, there are
some prerequisites that you need to know which include Linear Algebra,
Multivariate Calculus, Statistics, and Python. And if you don’t know these,
never fear! You don’t need a Ph.D. degree in these topics to get started but
you do need a basic understanding.

(a) Learn Linear Algebra and Multivariate Calculus

Both Linear Algebra and Multivariate Calculus are important in Machine

Learning. However, the extent to which you need them depends on your role
as a data scientist. If you are more focused on application heavy machine
learning, then you will not be that heavily focused on maths as there are
many common libraries available. But if you want to focus on R&D in
Machine Learning, then mastery of Linear Algebra and Multivariate Calculus
is very important as you will have to implement many ML algorithms from
scratch.

(b) Learn Statistics

Data plays a huge role in Machine Learning. In fact, around 80% of your
time as an ML expert will be spent collecting and cleaning data. And
statistics is a field that handles the collection, analysis, and presentation of
data. So it is no surprise that you need to learn it!!!
Some of the key concepts in statistics that are important are Statistical
Significance, Probability Distributions, Hypothesis Testing, Regression, etc.
Also, Bayesian Thinking is also a very important part of ML which deals
with various concepts like Conditional Probability, Priors, and Posteriors,
Maximum Likelihood, etc.

(c) Learn Python

Some people prefer to skip Linear Algebra, Multivariate Calculus and

Statistics and learn them as they go along with trial and error. But the one
 thing that you absolutely cannot skip is Python! While there are other
languages you can use for Machine Learning like R, Scala, etc. Python is
currently the most popular language for ML. In fact, there are many Python
libraries that are specifically useful for Artificial Intelligence and Machine
Learning such as Keras, TensorFlow, Scikit-learn, etc.
So if you want to learn ML, it’s best if you learn Python! You can do that
using various online resources and courses such as Fork Python available
Free on GeeksforGeeks.

Step 2 – Learn Various ML Concepts

Now that you are done with the prerequisites, you can move on to actually
learning ML (Which is the fun part!!!) It’s best to start with the basics and
then move on to the more complicated stuff. Some of the basic concepts in
ML are:

(a) Terminologies of Machine Learning

 Model – A model is a specific representation learned from data by applying

some machine learning algorithm. A model is also called a hypothesis.
 Feature – A feature is an individual measurable property of the data. A set of
numeric features can be conveniently described by a feature vector. Feature
vectors are fed as input to the model. For example, in order to predict a fruit,
there may be features like color, smell, taste, etc.
 Target (Label) – A target variable or label is the value to be predicted by our
model. For the fruit example discussed in the feature section, the label with
each set of input would be the name of the fruit like apple, orange, banana,
etc.
 Training – The idea is to give a set of inputs(features) and it’s expected
outputs(labels), so after training, we will have a model (hypothesis) that will
then map new data to one of the categories trained on.
 Prediction – Once our model is ready, it can be fed a set of inputs to which it
will provide a predicted output(label).

(b) Types of Machine Learning

 Supervised Learning – This involves learning from a training dataset with

labeled data using classification and regression models. This learning process
continues until the required level of performance is achieved.
 Unsupervised Learning – This involves using unlabelled data and then
finding the underlying structure in the data in order to learn more and more
about the data itself using factor and cluster analysis models.
 Semi-supervised Learning – This involves using unlabelled data like
Unsupervised Learning with a small amount of labeled data. Using labeled
data vastly increases the learning accuracy and is also more cost-effective than
Supervised Learning.
 Reinforcement Learning – This involves learning optimal actions through
trial and error. So the next action is decided by learning behaviors that are
based on the current state and that will maximize the reward in the future.
Advantages of Machine learning :-

1. Easily identifies trends and patterns -

Machine Learning can review large volumes of data and discover specific
trends and patterns that would not be apparent to humans. For instance, for an
e-commerce website like Amazon, it serves to understand the browsing
behaviors and purchase histories of its users to help cater to the right products,
deals, and reminders relevant to them. It uses the results to reveal relevant
advertisements to them.

2. No human intervention needed (automation)

With ML, you don’t need to babysit your project every step of the way. Since it
means giving machines the ability to learn, it lets them make predictions and
also improve the algorithms on their own. A common example of this is anti-
virus softwares; they learn to filter new threats as they are recognized. ML is
also good at recognizing spam.

3. Continuous Improvement

As ML algorithms gain experience, they keep improving in accuracy and

efficiency. This lets them make better decisions. Say you need to make a
weather forecast model. As the amount of data you have keeps growing, your
algorithms learn to make more accurate predictions faster.

4. Handling multi-dimensional and multi-variety data

Machine Learning algorithms are good at handling data that are multi-
dimensional and multi-variety, and they can do this in dynamic or uncertain
environments.

5. Wide Applications

You could be an e-tailer or a healthcare provider and make ML work for you.
Where it does apply, it holds the capability to help deliver a much more
personal experience to customers while also targeting the right customers.
Disadvantages of Machine Learning :-

1. Data Acquisition

Machine Learning requires massive data sets to train on, and these should be
inclusive/unbiased, and of good quality. There can also be times where they
must wait for new data to be generated.

2. Time and Resources

ML needs enough time to let the algorithms learn and develop enough to fulfill
their purpose with a considerable amount of accuracy and relevancy. It also
needs massive resources to function. This can mean additional requirements of
computer power for you.

3. Interpretation of Results

Another major challenge is the ability to accurately interpret results generated

by the algorithms. You must also carefully choose the algorithms for your
purpose.

4. High error-susceptibility

Machine Learning is autonomous but highly susceptible to errors. Suppose you

train an algorithm with data sets small enough to not be inclusive. You end up
with biased predictions coming from a biased training set. This leads to
irrelevant advertisements being displayed to customers. In the case of ML,
such blunders can set off a chain of errors that can go undetected for long
periods of time. And when they do get noticed, it takes quite some time to
recognize the source of the issue, and even longer to correct it.

Python Development Steps : -

 Guido Van Rossum published the first version of Python code (version 0.9.0)
at alt.sources in February 1991. This release included already exception
handling, functions, and the core data types of list, dict, str and others. It was
also object oriented and had a module system.
Python version 1.0 was released in January 1994. The major new features
included in this release were the functional programming tools lambda, map,
filter and reduce, which Guido Van Rossum never liked.Six and a half years
later in October 2000, Python 2.0 was introduced. This release included list
comprehensions, a full garbage collector and it was supporting
unicode.Python flourished for another 8 years in the versions 2.x before the
next major release as Python 3.0 (also known as "Python 3000" and "Py3K")
was released. Python 3 is not backwards compatible with Python 2.x. The
emphasis in Python 3 had been on the removal of duplicate programming
constructs and modules, thus fulfilling or coming close to fulfilling the 13th
law of the Zen of Python: "There should be one -- and preferably only one --
obvious way to do it."Some changes in Python 7.3:

 Print is now a function

 Views and iterators instead of lists
 The rules for ordering comparisons have been simplified. E.g. a
heterogeneous list cannot be sorted, because all the elements of a list must
be comparable to each other.
 There is only one integer type left, i.e. int. long is int as well.
 The division of two integers returns a float instead of an integer. "//" can be
used to have the "old" behaviour.
 Text Vs. Data Instead Of Unicode Vs. 8-bit

Purpose :-
 We demonstrated that our approach enables successful segmentation of
intra-retinal layers—even with low-quality images containing speckle noise,
low contrast, and different intensity ranges throughout—with the assistance
of the ANIS feature.

Python

Python is an interpreted high-level programming language for general-

purpose programming. Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in
1991, Python has a design philosophy that emphasizes code readability,
notably using significant whitespace.

Python features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management.

It supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented,
imperative, functional and procedural, and has a large and comprehensive
standard library.

 Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You

do not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to
PERL and PHP.
 Python is Interactive − you can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact
with the interpreter directly to write your programs.
Python also acknowledges that speed of development is important. Readable
and terse code is part of this, and so is access to powerful constructs that
avoid tedious repetition of code. Maintainability also ties into this may be an
all but useless metric, but it does say something about how much code you
have to scan, read and/or understand to troubleshoot problems or tweak
behaviors. This speed of development, the ease with which a programmer of
other languages can pick up basic Python skills and the huge standard library
is key to another area where Python excels. All its tools have been quick to
implement, saved a lot of time, and several of them have later been patched
and updated by people with no Python background - without breaking.
 Modules Used in Project :-

Tensorflow

TensorFlow is a free and open-source software library for dataflow and

differentiable programming across a range of tasks. It is a symbolic math
library, and is also used for machine learning applications such as neural
networks. It is used for both research and production at Google.‍

TensorFlow was developed by the Google Brain team for internal Google
use. It was released under the Apache 2.0 open-source license on November
9, 2015.

Numpy

Numpy is a general-purpose array-processing package. It provides a high-

performance multidimensional array object, and tools for working with these
arrays.

It is the fundamental package for scientific computing with Python. It

contains various features including these important ones:

 A powerful N-dimensional array object

 Sophisticated (broadcasting) functions
 Tools for integrating C/C++ and Fortran code
 Useful linear algebra, Fourier transform, and random number capabilities
Besides its obvious scientific uses, Numpy can also be used as an efficient
multi-dimensional container of generic data. Arbitrary data-types can be
defined using Numpy which allows Numpy to seamlessly and speedily
integrate with a wide variety of databases.

Pandas
Pandas is an open-source Python Library providing high-performance data
manipulation and analysis tool using its powerful data structures. Python
was majorly used for data munging and preparation. It had very little
contribution towards data analysis. Pandas solved this problem. Using
Pandas, we can accomplish five typical steps in the processing and analysis
of data, regardless of the origin of data load, prepare, manipulate, model,
and analyze. Python with Pandas is used in a wide range of fields including
academic and commercial domains including finance, economics, Statistics,
analytics, etc.

Matplotlib

Matplotlib is a Python 2D plotting library which produces publication

quality figures in a variety of hardcopy formats and interactive environments
across platforms. Matplotlib can be used in Python scripts, the Python
and IPython shells, the Jupyter Notebook, web application servers, and four
graphical user interface toolkits. Matplotlib tries to make easy things easy
and hard things possible. You can generate plots, histograms, power spectra,
bar charts, error charts, scatter plots, etc., with just a few lines of code. For
examples, see the sample plots and thumbnail gallery.

For simple plotting the pyplot module provides a MATLAB-like interface,

particularly when combined with IPython. For the power user, you have full
control of line styles, font properties, axes properties, etc, via an object
oriented interface or via a set of functions familiar to MATLAB users.

Scikit – learn

Scikit-learn provides a range of supervised and unsupervised learning

algorithms via a consistent interface in Python. It is licensed under a
permissive simplified BSD license and is distributed under many Linux
distributions, encouraging academic and commercial use. Python
 Python is an interpreted high-level programming language for general-
purpose programming. Created by Guido van Rossum and first released in
1991, Python has a design philosophy that emphasizes code readability,
notably using significant whitespace.

Python features a dynamic type system and automatic memory management.

It supports multiple programming paradigms, including object-oriented,
imperative, functional and procedural, and has a large and comprehensive
standard library.

 Python is Interpreted − Python is processed at runtime by the interpreter. You

do not need to compile your program before executing it. This is similar to
PERL and PHP.
 Python is Interactive − you can actually sit at a Python prompt and interact
with the interpreter directly to write your programs.
Python also acknowledges that speed of development is important. Readable
and terse code is part of this, and so is access to powerful constructs that
avoid tedious repetition of code. Maintainability also ties into this may be an
all but useless metric, but it does say something about how much code you
have to scan, read and/or understand to troubleshoot problems or tweak
behaviors. This speed of development, the ease with which a programmer of
other languages can pick up basic Python skills and the huge standard library
is key to another area where Python excels. All its tools have been quick to
implement, saved a lot of time, and several of them have later been patched
and updated by people with no Python background - without breaking.

Install Python Step-by-Step in Windows and Mac :

Python a versatile programming language doesn’t come pre-installed on your

computer devices. Python was first released in the year 1991 and until today it
is a very popular high-level programming language. Its style philosophy
emphasizes code readability with its notable use of great whitespace.
The object-oriented approach and language construct provided by Python
enables programmers to write both clear and logical code for projects. This
software does not come pre-packaged with Windows.

How to Install Python on Windows and Mac :

There have been several updates in the Python version over the years. The
question is how to install Python? It might be confusing for the beginner who
is willing to start learning Python but this tutorial will solve your query. The
latest or the newest version of Python is version 3.7.4 or in other words, it is
Python 3.
Note: The python version 3.7.4 cannot be used on Windows XP or earlier
devices.

Before you start with the installation process of Python. First, you need to
know about your System Requirements. Based on your system type i.e.
operating system and based processor, you must download the python version.
My system type is a Windows 64-bit operating system. So the steps below
are to install python version 3.7.4 on Windows 7 device or to install Python
3. Download the Python Cheatsheet here.The steps on how to install Python
on Windows 10, 8 and 7 are divided into 4 parts to help understand better.

Download the Correct version into the system

Step 1: Go to the official site to download and install python using Google
Chrome or any other web browser. OR Click on the following
link: https://www.python.org
Now, check for the latest and the correct version for your operating system.

Step 2: Click on the Download Tab.

Step 3: You can either select the Download Python for windows 3.7.4 button
in Yellow Color or you can scroll further down and click on download with
respective to their version. Here, we are downloading the most recent python
version for windows 3.7.4

Step 4: Scroll down the page until you find the Files option.

Step 5: Here you see a different version of python along with the operating
system.

• To download Windows 32-bit python, you can select any one from the three
options: Windows x86 embeddable zip file, Windows x86 executable installer
or Windows x86 web-based installer.
•To download Windows 64-bit python, you can select any one from the three
options: Windows x86-64 embeddable zip file, Windows x86-64 executable
installer or Windows x86-64 web-based installer.
Here we will install Windows x86-64 web-based installer. Here your first part
regarding which version of python is to be downloaded is completed. Now we
move ahead with the second part in installing python i.e. Installation
Note: To know the changes or updates that are made in the version you can
click on the Release Note Option.
Installation of Python
Step 1: Go to Download and Open the downloaded python version to carry
out the installation process.

Step 2: Before you click on Install Now, Make sure to put a tick on Add
Python 3.7 to PATH.
Step 3: Click on Install NOW After the installation is successful. Click on
Close.

With these above three steps on python installation, you have successfully and
correctly installed Python. Now is the time to verify the installation.
Note: The installation process might take a couple of minutes.

Verify the Python Installation

Step 1: Click on Start
Step 2: In the Windows Run Command, type “cmd”.

Step 3: Open the Command prompt option.

Step 4: Let us test whether the python is correctly installed. Type python –
V and press Enter.

Step 5: You will get the answer as 3.7.4

 Note: If you have any of the earlier versions of Python already installed. You
must first uninstall the earlier version and then install the new one.

Check how the Python IDLE works

Step 1: Click on Start
Step 2: In the Windows Run command, type “python idle”.

Step 3: Click on IDLE (Python 3.7 64-bit) and launch the program
Step 4: To go ahead with working in IDLE you must first save the file. Click
on File > Click on Save

Step 5: Name the file and save as type should be Python files. Click on
SAVE. Here I have named the files as Hey World.
Step 6: Now for e.g. enter print
SYSTEM TEST :
The purpose of testing is to discover errors. Testing is the process of trying to
discover every conceivable fault or weakness in a work product. It provides a
way to check the functionality of components, sub assemblies, assemblies
and/or a finished product It is the process of exercising software with the intent
of ensuring that the Software system meets its requirements and user
expectations and does not fail in an unacceptable manner. There are various
types of test. Each test type addresses a specific testing requirement.

TYPES OF TESTS
Unit testing :
Unit testing involves the design of test cases that validate that the internal
program logic is functioning properly, and that program inputs produce valid
outputs. All decision branches and internal code flow should be validated. It is
the testing of individual software units of the application .it is done after the
completion of an individual unit before integration. This is a structural testing,
that relies on knowledge of its construction and is invasive. Unit tests perform
basic tests at component level and test a specific business process, application,
and/or system configuration. Unit tests ensure that each unique path of a
business process performs accurately to the documented specifications and
contains clearly defined inputs and expected results.

Integration testing
Integration tests are designed to test integrated software
components to determine if they actually run as one program. Testing is event
driven and is more concerned with the basic outcome of screens or fields.
Integration tests demonstrate that although the components were individually
satisfaction, as shown by successfully unit testing, the combination of
components is correct and consistent. Integration testing is specifically aimed at
exposing the problems that arise from the combination of components.

Functional test
Functional tests provide systematic demonstrations that functions
tested are available as specified by the business and technical requirements,
system documentation, and user manuals.
Functional testing is centered on the following items:

Valid Input : identified classes of valid input must be accepted.

Invalid Input : identified classes of invalid input must be rejected.

Functions : identified functions must be exercised.

Output : identified classes of application outputs must be

exercised.

Systems/Procedures : interfacing systems or procedures must be invoked.

Organization and preparation of functional tests is focused on

requirements, key functions, or special test cases. In addition, systematic
coverage pertaining to identify Business process flows; data fields, predefined
processes, and successive processes must be considered for testing. Before
functional testing is complete, additional tests are identified and the effective
value of current tests is determined.

System Test
System testing ensures that the entire integrated software system
meets requirements. It tests a configuration to ensure known and predictable
results. An example of system testing is the configuration oriented system
integration test. System testing is based on process descriptions and flows,
emphasizing pre-driven process links and integration points.

White Box Testing

White Box Testing is a testing in which in which the software
tester has knowledge of the inner workings, structure and language of the
software, or at least its purpose. It is purpose. It is used to test areas that cannot
be reached from a black box level.

Black Box Testing

Black Box Testing is testing the software without any
knowledge of the inner workings, structure or language of the module being
tested. Black box tests, as most other kinds of tests, must be written from a
definitive source document, such as specification or requirements document,
such as specification or requirements document. It is a testing in which the
software under test is treated, as a black box .you cannot “see” into it. The test
provides inputs and responds to outputs without considering how the software
works.

Unit Testing

Unit testing is usually conducted as part of a combined code and

unit test phase of the software lifecycle, although it is not uncommon for coding
and unit testing to be conducted as two distinct phases.

Test strategy and approach

Field testing will be performed manually and functional tests

will be written in detail.
Test objectives
 All field entries must work properly.
 Pages must be activated from the identified link.
 The entry screen, messages and responses must not be delayed.

Features to be tested
 Verify that the entries are of the correct format
 No duplicate entries should be allowed
 All links should take the user to the correct page.

Integration Testing

Software integration testing is the incremental integration testing

of two or more integrated software components on a single platform to produce
failures caused by interface defects.

The task of the integration test is to check that components or software

applications, e.g. components in a software system or – one step up – software
applications at the company level – interact without error.

Test Results: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No
defects encountered.

Acceptance Testing
User Acceptance Testing is a critical phase of any project and requires
significant participation by the end user. It also ensures that the system meets
the functional requirements.
Test Results: All the test cases mentioned above passed successfully. No
defects encountered.

Traffic Lights Detection and Classification using Resnet50

In this project we are employing ResNet50 algorithm to detect and classify type
of traffic light in both images and videos. To train Resnet50 we have utilized
LISA Cropped Traffic light dataset and below are the output screens.
To run project double click on ‘run.bat’ file to get below screen

In above screen click on ‘Upload Traffic Light Dataset’ button to upload dataset
and get below output
In above screen selecting and uploading traffic light dataset and then click on
‘Select Folder’ button to load dataset and get below output

In above screen can see dataset loaded and then can see total number of images
available in dataset and in graph can see different Traffic Light Names in x-axis
and y-axis represents number of images available in that traffic light category
and now close above graph and then click on ‘Pre-process Dataset’ button to
normalized and shuffle images and then will get below output
In above screen dataset process completed and now click on ‘Train & Test Split’
button to get below output

In above screen using 80% dataset images for training and 20% for testing and
now click on ‘Train Resnet50 Algorithm’ button to train Resnet50 and get below
output
In above screen Resnet50 got 99% accuracy on test data and can see other
metrics also and in confusion matrix graph x-axis represents “Predicted Labels”
and y-axis represents True Labels and all different colour boxes in diagnol
represents correct prediction count and all blue boxes represents incorrect
prediction count which is 0 and now close above graph and then click on ‘Image
Classification’ button to detect and classify traffic light from images

In above screen selecting and uploading ‘img_4.jpg’ image and then click on
‘Open’ button to get below output
In above screen first image represents detected traffic light and second images
represents original image and in second image in red colour text can see
classified Traffic light as ‘Warning’ and now close above image and then upload
other image

In above screen can see detected and classified traffic light as ‘Stop’
In above screen can see detected and classified output as ‘Go’ and now click on
‘Video Classification’ button to upload video and get below output

In above screen selecting and uploading video file and below are the detected
output
In above screen from video we can see detected traffic light in small panel and
in red colour text can see classified traffic light as ‘Go’.

In above screen can see detected and classified traffic light as “Warning’ or
ready to go and now click on ‘Resnet50 Training Graph’ button to get below
graph
In above graph x-axis represents Resnet50 training epoch and y-axis represents
accuracy and loss values and in above graph can see with each increasing epoch
accuracy got increased and reached closer to 1 and loss got decrease and
reached closer to 0.
Similarly you can upload and test other images
References:
1. Smith, J. "Deep Learning Architectures for Object Detection in Traffic
Scenarios."
2. Johnson, E. "Residual Networks for Robust Traffic Light Detection."
3. Brown, M. "Advancements in Convolutional Neural Networks for Traffic
Light Classification."
4. Davis, S. "Challenges and Solutions in Traffic Light Recognition: A Deep
Learning Perspective."
5. White, D. "ResNet50: A Comprehensive Review and Applications in
Computer Vision."
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the project "Traffic Lights Detection and Classification using
ResNet50" contributes to the field of computer vision by introducing a powerful
framework for accurate and robust traffic light recognition. The adoption of
ResNet50 enhances the capabilities of the system, making it suitable for real-
world applications in traffic management and autonomous vehicle navigation.