Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering

CN5206 Advanced Fluid Mechanics with Artificial Intelligence

Fluid Mechanics
Fundamentals

Dr. Lim Chia Wei

Semester 2, AY2024-25
 2

Chapter Outline
• Introduction to Fluid Mechanics
• Fluid Statics
• Upthrust
• Shear Stress and Viscosity
• Laminar Flows between Parallel Plates, through Circular Pipes and down Vertical
Plates
• Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids
• Laminar and Turbulent Flows
• Continuity Equation
• Bernoulli’s Equation
• Energy Loss in Turbulent Flows
• Momentum Equation
 3

Fluid Mechanics
• In Chemical Engineering, fluid mechanics is important in the design and
optimisation of virtually all unit operations.

Reactors Heat exchangers Distillation columns

Packed beds Combustion furnaces

Hydrocyclones
 4

Fluid Mechanics
• Fluid mechanics also has extensive applications in other disciplines:
• Mechanical Engineering: pumps, turbines, power generation, aeronautics
• Civil Engineering: wind forces on built structures
• Physics and Materials Science: solid suspensions, rheology
 5

Fluid Mechanics
• Fluid mechanics also has extensive applications in other disciplines:
• Geography: rivers, oceans, Earth’s atmosphere, weather forecasting, contaminant
dispersion
• Geology: magma, flows through porous rocks
• Medical Sciences: blood flow, breathing
 6

Fluid Mechanics
• Gases and liquids are fluids as they flow when a force is applied to them.
• A fluid has no definite shape and takes the shape of its container.
• Formally: A fluid is unable to resist shearing forces while remaining in
static equilibrium.
• Shearing forces: unaligned forces that push one part of a body in one direction, and
another part in the opposite direction
• Static equilibrium: The net force on each particle is zero.

• Pressure 𝑃 is the normal force per unit area on a surface [Pa ≡ N m−2]:
𝐹
𝑃=
𝐴
• where 𝐹 is the total normal force [N] and 𝐴 is the surface area [m2].
 7

Fluid Statics
area A
• Consider a static (non-flowing) liquid in a container.
• Force balance on a small element in the vertical direction:
Sum of upward forces = Sum of downward forces
𝑃𝐴 = 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝐴 + 𝜌L 𝐴𝑑ℎ 𝑔
• where 𝜌L is the liquid density and 𝑔 is the gravitational acceleration.
• Simplifying gives:
𝑑𝑃
= −𝜌L 𝑔
𝑑ℎ
• Integrate using ℎ = 0, where 𝑃 = 𝑃0 , as the lower limit:
𝑃 ℎ
න 𝑑𝑃 = −𝜌L 𝑔 න 𝑑ℎ
𝑃0 0
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃 − 𝑃0 = −𝜌L 𝑔ℎ
• where 𝜌L has been assumed to be constant. Is this justifiable?
 8

Example 1: Absolute and Gauge Pressures

A barometer can be used to measure the pressure inside a vessel containing
a gas. Express 𝑃gas in terms of 𝑃atm and ℎL . 1
 9

Fluid Statics
• The Earth’s atmosphere consists of (almost) stagnant air.
• Vertical force balance on a small element:
𝑑𝑃
= −𝜌G 𝑔
𝑑ℎ
• Due to the Earth’s gravitational force, 𝜌G decreases as ℎ increases.
𝑃𝑀r
• Using the ideal gas law, 𝜌G = :
𝑅G 𝑇
𝑑𝑃 𝑃𝑀r
=− 𝑔
𝑑ℎ 𝑅G 𝑇
• Integrate using ℎ = 0, where 𝑃 = 𝑃0 , as the lower limit:
𝑃
1 𝑀r 𝑔 ℎ
න 𝑑𝑃 = − න 𝑑ℎ
𝑃0 𝑃 𝑅G 𝑇 0
𝑇 has been assumed to be
𝑃 𝑀r 𝑔 constant, which is valid for
ln = − ℎ
𝑃0 𝑅G 𝑇 relatively small changes in ℎ.
 10

Uptrust
• Archimedes’ principle: The upward buoyant force (upthrust) exerted on a
body fully or partially submerged in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid
displaced by the body.
• Consider a solid object (density 𝜌S ) floating in a fluid (density 𝜌L ).
• Vertical force balance on the object:
Sum of upward forces = Sum of downward forces
What if the object Upthrust on object = Weight of object
sinks to the bottom? 𝜌L 𝐴ℎ 𝑔 = 𝜌S 𝐴𝐻 𝑔
• Rearranging gives:
ℎ 𝜌S
=
𝐻 𝜌L
 11

Example 2: Floating Iceberg

Given that densities of ice and water are 920 kg m−3 and 1003 kg m−3,
respectively, estimate the ratio of the heights of a floating iceberg above and
below the water surface.
 12

Shear Stress and Viscosity

• Shear stress (𝜏) [Pa] is the tangential force per unit area on a surface.
• A flowing fluid can sustain shear stresses.
• Consider two parallel plates, where the bottom plate is stationary and the
top plate moves with a velocity 𝑢u , and a fluid flowing between them:

More on laminar vs. turbulent flows later…

𝐹
• Here, 𝜏 is given by 𝜏 = .
𝐴
 13

Shear Stress and Viscosity

• Newton’s Law of Viscosity defines the absolute viscosity (𝜇) [Pa s]:
𝑑𝑢
𝜏=𝜇
𝑑𝑦

• A more general form of Newton’s Law of Viscosity is given by:

𝜏 = 𝜇𝛾ሶ
• where 𝛾ሶ is the strain rate [s−1].

• For Newtonian fluids, 𝜇 is independent of 𝛾.ሶ

More on non-Newtonian fluids later…
 14

Shear Stress and Viscosity

• Viscosity is related to the ‘stickiness’ of the fluid and indicates how well the
fluid resists shear stresses.
• Viscosity leads to energy loss in a flowing fluid.
• Viscosity of liquids:
• decreases with increasing temperature
• increases with increasing molecular weight
• increases with increasing strength of intermolecular interactions
• is independent of pressure
• Typical value: 1 × 10−3 Pa s (water at 20°C, 1 bar)
• Viscosity of gases:
• increases with increasing temperature
• is independent of pressure, unless close to critical point
• Typical value: 1.8 × 10−5 Pa s (air at 20°C, 1 bar)
 15

Laminar Flows between Parallel Plates

• Consider an element of Newtonian fluid of unit depth (into the page) flowing
between two flat plates at steady state (i.e. fully developed flow):

stationary
plate
• Force balance on the element:
Sum of rightward forces = Sum of leftward forces
𝜏 + 𝛿𝜏 𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃𝑑𝑦 = 𝜏𝑑𝑥 + 𝑃 + 𝛿𝑃 𝑑𝑦
• Simplifying gives:
𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝑃
=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
 16

Laminar Flows between Parallel Plates

𝑑𝑢
• Using Newton’s Law, 𝜏 = 𝜇 :
𝑑𝑦
𝑑2 𝑢 𝑑𝑃
𝜇 2=
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑥
• Integrate twice:
𝑑𝑢 1 𝑑𝑃
= 𝑦 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑦 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑃 2
𝑢= 𝑦 + 𝐶1 𝑦 + 𝐶2
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥
• At 𝑦 = 0, 𝑢 = 0 (no-slip boundary condition): 𝐶2 = 0
2𝑎2 𝑑𝑃 𝑢u 𝑎 𝑑𝑃
• At 𝑦 = 2𝑎, 𝑢 = 𝑢u : 𝑢u = + 2𝑎𝐶1 ⇒ 𝐶1 = −
𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
 17

Laminar Flows between Parallel Plates

• Therefore:
1 𝑑𝑃 2 𝑢u 𝑎 𝑑𝑃 𝑢u 2𝑎𝑦 − 𝑦 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢= 𝑦 + − 𝑦= 𝑦+ −
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑃
is negative
𝑑𝑥

• The volumetric flow rate (𝑄) [m3 s−1] can be derived:

2𝑎 2𝑎
1 𝑑𝑃 2 𝑢u 𝑎 𝑑𝑃
𝑄 = න 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = න 𝑦 + − 𝑦𝑑𝑦
0 0 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2𝑎 𝜇 𝑑𝑥
1 𝑑𝑃 (2𝑎)3 𝑢u 𝑎 𝑑𝑃 (2𝑎)2 2𝑎3 𝑑𝑃
= + − = 𝑢u 𝑎 + −
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 3 2𝑎 𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2 3𝜇 𝑑𝑥
• The mean velocity (𝑢mean ) [m s−1] can be determined:
𝑄 𝑢u 𝑎 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢mean = = + −
2𝑎 2 3𝜇 𝑑𝑥
 18

Example 3: Flow between Two Stationary Plates

Now, consider the case where both plates are stationary. Using the following
𝑑𝑢
redefined set of axes, derive the expressions for 𝑢 and 𝑄. Hint: = 0 at 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑦
 19

Laminar Flows through Circular Pipes

• Consider a cylindrical element of Newtonian fluid flowing through a circular
pipe at steady state:

• Force balance on the element:

Sum of rightward forces = Sum of leftward forces
𝑃𝜋𝑟 2 + 𝜏 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑥 = 𝑃 + 𝑑𝑃 𝜋𝑟 2
• Simplifying gives:
𝑟 𝑑𝑃
𝜏=
2 𝑑𝑥
 20

Laminar Flows through Circular Pipes

𝑑𝑢
• Using Newton’s Law, 𝜏 = 𝜇 :
𝑑𝑟
𝑑𝑢 𝑟 𝑑𝑃
𝜇 =
𝑑𝑟 2 𝑑𝑥
• Integrate:
𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢= + 𝐶1
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝑑𝑃
• At 𝑟 = 𝑎, 𝑢 = 0 (no-slip boundary condition): 𝐶1 = −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥

• Therefore:
𝑎2 − 𝑟 2 𝑑𝑃
𝑢= −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝑑𝑃
• 𝑢max occurs at 𝑟 = 0: 𝑢max = −
4𝜇 𝑑𝑥
 21

Laminar Flows through Circular Pipes

• The volumetric flow rate can be derived:
𝑎 𝑎 2 𝑎
𝑎 − 𝑟2 𝑑𝑃 𝜋 𝑑𝑃
𝑄 = න 𝑢 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 = න − 2𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 = − න 𝑎2 𝑟 − 𝑟 3 𝑑𝑟
0 0 4𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 0
𝜋 𝑑𝑃 𝑎4 𝑎4 𝜋𝑎4 𝑑𝑃
= − − = − 𝜋𝑑 4 Δ𝑃
2𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2 4 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 𝑄=
128𝜇𝐿
can be used for
calculating fluid viscosity, since all
other quantities can be measured.
• The mean velocity can be determined:
𝑄 𝑎2 𝑑𝑃 𝑢max
𝑢mean = 2 = − =
𝜋𝑎 8𝜇 𝑑𝑥 2
 22

Laminar Flows down Vertical Plates

• Consider a small element of Newtonian fluid of unit depth
(into the page) flowing down a vertical plate.
• Force balance on the element:
Sum of upward forces = Sum of downward forces
𝜏𝑙 = 𝜌 ℎ − 𝑦 𝑙 𝑔
• Simplifying gives:
𝜏 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑦
𝑑𝑢
• Using Newton’s Law, 𝜏 = 𝜇 :
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜇 = 𝜌𝑔 ℎ − 𝑦
𝑑𝑦
• Integrate:
𝜌𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= ℎ𝑦 − + 𝐶1
𝜇 2
 23

Laminar Flows down Vertical Plates

• At 𝑦 = 0, 𝑢 = 0 (no-slip boundary condition): 𝐶1 = 0
• Therefore:
𝜌𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= ℎ𝑦 −
𝜇 2
𝜌𝑔 ℎ2 𝜌𝑔ℎ2
• 𝑢max occurs at 𝑦 = ℎ: 𝑢max = ℎ2 − =
𝜇 2 2𝜇

• The volumetric flow rate can be derived:

ℎ ℎ
𝜌𝑔 𝑦2 𝜌𝑔 ℎ3 ℎ3 𝜌𝑔ℎ3
𝑄 = න 𝑢𝑑𝑦 = න ℎ𝑦 − 𝑑𝑦 = − =
0 0 𝜇 2 𝜇 2 6 3𝜇
• The mean velocity can be determined:
𝑄 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 2
𝑢mean = = = 𝑢max
ℎ 3𝜇 3
 24

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Newtonian fluids: liquids with low molecular weights and simple chemical
structures
• E.g. water 𝜇 is independent of 𝛾ሶ

• Non-Newtonian fluids: liquids with high molecular weights or complex

chemical structures, dispersions of particulates
• E.g. ketchup, mayonnaise, paint, polymer melts and solutions, blood
 25

Newtonian and Non-Newtonian Fluids

• Newtonian fluids:
𝜏 = 𝜇𝛾ሶ
n>1

• Non-Newtonian fluids (power-law):

𝜏 = 𝑘 𝛾ሶ 𝑛
• 𝑛 > 1: shear thickening
• 𝑛 < 1: shear thinning
n<1

• Non-Newtonian fluids (Bingham):

𝜏 = 𝜏y + 𝜇B 𝛾ሶ for 𝜏 ≥ 𝜏y
𝛾ሶ = 0 for 𝜏 < 𝜏y
And more…
 26

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• In 1883, Professor Osborne Reynolds demonstrated two types of
flows, the laminar and turbulent flows:
1. Laminar flows
• Low average fluid velocity
• No mixing, no eddies
• The fluid velocity at any position is constant.
2. Turbulent flows
• High average fluid velocity
• Significant mixing, random eddies
• The fluid velocity at any point has a well-defined temporal
average, but there are fluctuations around that average.
 27

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• The transition between laminar and turbulent flows can be predicted by the
Reynolds number (𝑅𝑒), a dimensionless number defined as:
𝜌𝑢𝑑 intertial forces
𝑅𝑒 ≡ =
𝜇 viscous forces
• where 𝑢 is a characteristic velocity and 𝑑 is a characteristic length.
• At low 𝑅𝑒, the viscous forces are sufficiently large to suppress fluctuations,
i.e. the flow is laminar.
• At high 𝑅𝑒, the inertial forces are comparatively large, so random and rapid
fluctuations occur within the fluid, i.e. the flow is turbulent.
• The 𝑹𝒆𝐜𝐫𝐢𝐭𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥 at which the flow regime changes from laminar to turbulent
depends on the system geometry, surface smoothness and vibrations.
• For flows in a smooth circular pipe, 𝑅𝑒critical ≈ 2200, where 𝑢 is the mean velocity and
𝑑 is the pipe diameter.
 28

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• The Fanning friction factor (𝐶F ) is a dimensionless number defined as:
𝜏wall
𝐶F ≡
1 2
𝜌𝑢
2
• A Moody diagram plots 𝐶F as a function of 𝑅𝑒 for both laminar and turbulent
flows:
Laminar Turbulent
 29

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• Force balance on a fluid element in a pipe:

Sum of rightward forces = Sum of leftward forces
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑 4
𝑃 + Δ𝑃 = 𝜏wall 𝜋𝑑𝑙 + 𝑃
4 4
• Simplifying gives:
4𝑙𝜏wall
Δ𝑃 =
𝑑
𝜌𝑢2
• Using the definition of 𝐶F , 𝜏wall = 𝐶F :
2
𝑙 𝜌𝑢2
Δ𝑃 = 4𝐶F
𝑑 2
 30

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

• The laminar region of the Moody diagram can be predicted using the earlier
𝜋𝑑 4 𝑑𝑃
result for laminar flows through circular pipes, 𝑄 = − :
128𝜇 𝑑𝑥
𝜋𝑑2 𝜋𝑑 4 Δ𝑃 𝑑 2 Δ𝑃
𝑢 = ⇒𝑢=
4 128𝜇 𝑙 32𝜇 𝑙
𝑙 𝜌𝑢2
• Using Δ𝑃 = 4𝐶F :
𝑑 2
𝑑2 2𝐶F 2
𝐶F 𝜌𝑢 2𝑑 16𝜇 16
𝑢= × 𝜌𝑢 = ⇒ 𝐶F = =
32𝜇 𝑑 16𝜇 𝜌𝑢𝑑 𝑅𝑒

• For the turbulent region, the Blasius correlation can be used for smooth
pipes with 2200 < 𝑅𝑒 < 500000:
0.079
𝐶F = 0.25
𝑅𝑒
 31

Continuity Equation
• Consider a fluid flowing through a pipe with varying cross-sectional area:

• Mass conservation between planes 1 and 2 gives:

𝑚ሶ 1 = 𝑚ሶ 2
𝜌1 𝑄1 = 𝜌2 𝑄2
𝜌1 𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝜌2 𝐴2 𝑢2 Assume uniform velocity,
or use mean velocity.
• where 𝑚ሶ 𝑖 is the mass flow rate [kg s−1].
• If the fluid density is constant (𝜌1 = 𝜌2 ), e.g. liquids or isothermal gases:
𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝐴2 𝑢2
 32

Bernoulli’s Equation
• Bernoulli’s equation is a statement of energy conservation (per unit volume
of fluid):
𝜌𝑢2
𝑃+ + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = constant
2
• where the terms represent ‘pressure energy’, kinetic energy and
gravitational potential energy, respectively.

• To apply Bernoulli’s equation to a flow, the following must be satisfied:

• The flow is steady.
• The fluid viscosity is very low, i.e. (almost) inviscid.
• The fluid density is constant, i.e. incompressible.
• In addition, Bernoulli’s equation can only be applied along a fluid path, i.e.
a streamline.
 33

Bernoulli’s Equation
• A venturi meter is used to measure the fluid velocity in a duct:

• Bernoulli’s equation between planes 1 and 2 (Δℎ = 0):

𝜌𝑢12 𝜌𝑢22
𝑃1 + = 𝑃2 +
2 2
• Continuity equation between planes 1 and 2 (constant 𝜌):
𝐴1 𝑢1 = 𝐴2 𝑢2
2 2 2
𝜋𝑑1 𝜋𝑑2 𝑑1
𝑢1 = 𝑢2 ⇒ 𝑢2 = 𝑢1
4 4 𝑑2
 34

Bernoulli’s Equation
• Substitute into Bernoulli’s equation:
4
𝜌𝑢12 𝜌𝑢12 𝑑1
𝑃1 + = 𝑃2 +
2 2 𝑑2
• Rearranging gives:
4
𝜌𝑢12 𝑑1
Δ𝑃 = 𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = −1
2 𝑑2
• Determine the mass flow rate:
𝜋𝑑12 2𝜌Δ𝑃
𝑚ሶ = 𝜌𝐴1 𝑢1 = 4
4 𝑑1
−1
𝑑2
 35

Example 4: Pitot Tube

A pitot tube is a device for measuring gas velocity in a duct. Derive an
expression for 𝑢 in terms of Δ𝑃.
 36

Energy Loss in Turbulent Flows

• Consider the turbulent flow of water from a large reservoir down a long
smooth pipe, discharging to the atmosphere:

• Bernoulli’s equation with energy loss (𝐸L ) [Pa ≡ J m−3] between points 1
and 2 (𝑢1 ≈ 0, ℎ2 = 0):
𝜌𝑢2
𝑃atm + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = 𝑃atm + + 𝐸L
2
 37

Energy Loss in Turbulent Flows

𝑙 𝜌𝑢2 0.079
• 𝐸L is given by Δ𝑃 = 4𝐶F , and 𝐶F = (2200 < 𝑅𝑒 < 500000):
𝑑 2 𝑅𝑒 0.25
2
𝜌𝑢 0.079 𝑙 𝜌𝑢2
𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = +4
2 𝑅𝑒 0.25 𝑑 2
𝜌𝑢𝑑
• Using the definition 𝑅𝑒 = :
𝜇
0.25
𝜌𝑢2 𝜇 𝑙 𝜌𝑢2
𝜌𝑔ℎ1 = + 4 × 0.079
2 𝜌𝑢𝑑 𝑑 2
• Substitute values and solve for 𝑢:
0.25
𝑢2 1 × 10−3 3000 1 1.75
9.81 × 50 = + 4 × 0.079 𝑢
2 1000 × 0.150 0.150 2
𝑢 = 1.89 m s−1 Alternatively, you may assume that
1000×1.89 ×0.150 RHS 1st term << 2nd term before
• Check: 𝑅𝑒 = = 2.84 × 105 solving, and then verify this assumption.
1×10−3
 38

Momentum Equation
• Consider the forces acting on a flowing fluid:

• By Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion (taking rightward as the positive direction):

Rate of change of fluid momentum = Net force on fluid
𝑚ሶ 2 𝑢2 − 𝑚ሶ 1 𝑢1 = 𝑃1 𝐴1 − 𝑃2 𝐴2 − 𝑅
𝑚ሶ 1 𝑢1 + 𝑃1 𝐴1 = 𝑚ሶ 2 𝑢2 + 𝑃2 𝐴2 + 𝑅
 39

Momentum Equation
• Consider the flow through an orifice plate:

• Momentum equation between planes 2 and 3 (𝑅 = 0):

𝑚𝑢ሶ 2 + 𝑃2 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑢
ሶ 3 + 𝑃3 𝐴
• Rearranging gives:
𝑚ሶ
𝑃3 − 𝑃2 = 𝑢2 − 𝑢3
𝐴
 40

Example 5: Orifice Plate

In the flow through an orifice plate, is 𝑃3 higher than, equal to or lower than
𝑃1 ? What is the force on the fluid by the orifice plate?