Topper-Style Notes

Python
Basics of Python

 Data Types:
o Integer: Whole numbers, e.g., 1, 2, 3.
o Float: Decimal numbers, e.g., 1.5, 2.75.
o String: Sequence of characters, e.g., "hello".
o Boolean: Represents True or False values.
o Mutable: Data types that can be modified after creation, such as Lists and
Dictionaries.
o Immutable: Data types that cannot be modified after creation, such as Tuples and
Strings.
 List Slicing and Replication:
o Slicing: Used to extract parts of a list using the syntax list[start:stop:step].
Example: list[1:5:2].
o Replication: Duplicates the list elements using list * n. Example: [1, 2, 3]
* 2 results in [1, 2, 3, 1, 2, 3].
 Dictionaries:
o A collection of key-value pairs defined using curly braces {}. Example: {'name':
'John', 'age': 30}.
o Access values by key: dict['name'] returns 'John'.
 For Loop:
o Iterates over a sequence (like a list, tuple, or string). Example:
o for i in range(5):
print(i)

This prints numbers from 0 to 4.

DataFrames and Its Attributes

 Attributes:
o shape: Returns a tuple (number of rows, number of columns).
o size: Total number of elements (rows * columns).
o columns: Lists all column labels.
o index: Lists all row labels.
o dtypes: Data types of each column.
 Manipulating DataFrames:
o Adding Rows/Columns: Add a new column using df['new_col'] = values.
o Removing Rows/Columns: Remove using df.drop(labels, axis) where axis
is 0 for rows and 1 for columns.
o Renaming Columns: Use df.rename(columns={'old_name': 'new_name'}).
o loc and iloc:
  loc: Access rows/columns using labels. Example: df.loc[1,
'column'].
 iloc: Access rows/columns using integer positions. Example:
df.iloc[0, 1].
o Boolean Indexing: Filter DataFrame rows based on conditions. Example:
df[df['age'] > 30].

Slice vs DataFrame

 Slice: A subset of the DataFrame that reflects changes in the original DataFrame.
 DataFrame: A standalone object that can be modified independently.

CSV Operations

 to_csv(): Exports DataFrame to a CSV file. Syntax: df.to_csv('filename.csv').

 read_csv(): Imports a CSV file into a DataFrame. Syntax:
pd.read_csv('filename.csv').
 Basics of CSV:
o CSV stands for Comma Separated Values.
o The default separator is a comma ,, but it can be customized using the sep
parameter.

DBMS and SQL

Keys

 Primary Key: A unique identifier for each record in a table. It cannot have NULL
values.
 Foreign Key: A field in a table that links to the primary key of another table, ensuring
referential integrity.
 Candidate Key: A set of fields that uniquely identify a record. One candidate key is
chosen as the primary key.

DataTypes of MySQL

 String: Used for text data.

o CHAR: Fixed length.
o VARCHAR: Variable length.
o TEXT: Large text data.
 Numeric:
o INT: Integer numbers.
o FLOAT: Floating-point numbers.
o DOUBLE: Double-precision floating-point numbers.
 Date/Time:
o DATE: Stores date in YYYY-MM-DD format.
 o TIME: Stores time in HH:MM:SS format.
o DATETIME: Combines date and time.
o TIMESTAMP: Stores date and time, automatically updated.

Data Constraints

 Unique: Ensures all values in a column are distinct.

 NOT NULL: Prevents NULL values in a column.
 Default: Assigns a default value to a column if no value is provided.

RDBMS Terminologies

 Tuple: A single row in a table.

 Attribute: A column in a table.
 Relation: Another term for a table.
 Degree: The number of attributes (columns) in a table.
 Cardinality: The number of tuples (rows) in a table.

SQL Commands

 DML (Data Manipulation Language):

o INSERT: Adds new records to a table.
o UPDATE: Modifies existing records in a table.
o DELETE: Removes records from a table.
 DCL (Data Control Language):
o GRANT: Provides specific privileges to users.
o REVOKE: Removes user privileges.
 WHERE vs HAVING:
o WHERE: Filters records before grouping.
o HAVING: Filters groups after aggregation.

Functions in SQL

 String Functions:
o CONCAT(): Combines two or more strings.
o LENGTH(): Returns the length of a string.
o SUBSTR(): Extracts a substring from a string.
 ROUND(): Rounds a number to a specified number of decimal places.
 Aggregate Functions:
o SUM(): Calculates the sum of a set of values.
o AVG(): Calculates the average value.
o MAX(): Finds the maximum value.
o MIN(): Finds the minimum value.
o COUNT(): Counts the number of rows.
 Date and Time Functions:
 o NOW(): Returns the current date and time.
o CURDATE(): Returns the current date.
o YEAR(), MONTH(): Extracts the year or month from a date.
 ORDER BY: Sorts the result set in ascending or descending order.
 GROUP BY: Groups rows that have the same values in specified columns.

Networking and Internet

Favourite Topology

 Star Topology:
o Features a central hub or switch to which all devices are connected.
o Easy to manage and troubleshoot.
o Real-life example: Home networks where all devices connect to a central router.

Networking Devices

 Hub vs Switch:
o Hub: Broadcasts data to all devices in the network.
o Switch: Directs data to the specific device based on MAC address, more efficient
than a hub.
 Router: Connects different networks and directs data packets to their destination.
Commonly used in homes and offices for internet access.
 Repeater: Amplifies and retransmits signals to extend the range of a network.
 Modem: Converts digital signals from a computer to analog for telephone lines and vice
versa.

LAN, MAN, WAN

 LAN (Local Area Network): Covers a small geographic area like an office or home.
 MAN (Metropolitan Area Network): Covers a larger area such as a city.
 WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large geographical areas, often consisting of
multiple LANs. The internet is the largest WAN.

Hacking vs Cracking

 Hacking: Involves identifying weaknesses in systems to improve security. Ethical

hackers work to secure systems.
 Cracking: Malicious activity aimed at unauthorized access to systems, often for data
theft or disruption.

Intellectual Property

 Trademark: Protects brand names, logos, and slogans.

 Patent: Protects inventions, granting exclusive rights to the inventor.
  Copyright: Protects creative works like books, music, software, and films.

Cyber Crime

 Refers to criminal activities carried out using computers and the internet. Examples
include identity theft, phishing, and ransomware attacks.

Website Concepts

 Website: A collection of related web pages hosted on a web server.

 Web Server: A computer system that hosts websites and serves web pages to users.
 Web Page: A single document on the web, usually part of a website.

Full Forms

 URL: Uniform Resource Locator

 HTTP: Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 HTTPS: Secure Hypertext Transfer Protocol
 FTP: File Transfer Protocol
 WWW: World Wide Web
 Email: Electronic Mail
 Cc: Carbon Copy
 Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy
 VoIP: Voice over Internet Protocol