Principles of Computing

CSE 101

By Dawit Zenebe
Mekelle Institute of Technology
2014/2015
By Dawit Zenebe
 Chapter 3
Introduction to CPU
CPU
Central processing unit etched on silicon chip
called microprocessor.
A microprocessor incorporates the functions of

By Dawit Zenebe
a computer's central processing unit (CPU) on a
single integrated circuit (IC).
The microprocessor is
multipurpose, programmable device that
accepts digital data as input, processes it according
to instructions stored in its memory, and provides 2
results as output.
Microprocessors operate on numbers and symbols
represented in the binary numeral system.
 It is an example of sequential digital logic, as it has
internal memory. Microprocessors operate on
numbers and symbols represented in the binary
numeral system.

By Dawit Zenebe
Before microprocessors, small computers had
been implemented using racks of circuit boards
with many medium- and small-scale integrated
circuits.
Microprocessors integrated this into one or a
few large-scale ICs. 3
 Types of Processors
The most common type of processors are
common desktop processors, such as Intel's
Pentium or AMD's Athlon.
Less common are the extremely powerful

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processors used in high-end servers, such as
Sun's SPARC, IBM's Power, or Intel's Itanium.
microprocessors have come in "standard sizes"
of 8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits, and 64 bits.
The number of bits represent how much
4
physical memory can be directly addressed by
the CPU.
 Continued--
 It also represents the amount of bits that can be
read by one read/write operation.
8 bit processors can read/write 1 byte at a time and
can directly address 256 bytes
16 bit processors can read/write 2 bytes at a time,

By Dawit Zenebe
and can address 65,536 bytes (64 Kilobytes)
32 bit processors can read/write 4 bytes at a time,
and can address 4,294,967,295 bytes (4 Gigabytes)
64 bit processors can read/write 8 bytes at a time,
and can address 18,446,744,073,709,551,616 bytes
5
(16 Exabytes)
 Bits and Bytes
What is a "bit"?
A bit is the smallest possible piece of information.
If you have heard someone say that "everything in
the computer is all one's and zero's," they are
actually referring to bits.

By Dawit Zenebe
A bit can have only two possible states: 1 or 0.
As humans, we may find it useful to think of this in
terms of "yes or no," "true or false," "on or off,"
and so on.
They all mean the same thing. The key is that
6
there are only two possibilities, and nothing in
between.
What is a "byte"?
Although a single bit can have only one of two
possible values, by gathering groups of bits
together, we can make much more complicated
(and interesting) information.
A byte is simply a group of 8 bits. How many
different possible values can a byte have? There

By Dawit Zenebe
turns out to be a simple way of calculating this:
1 bit --> 2^1 = 2 different possible values
2 bits --> 2^2 (2x2) = 4 different possible values
3 bits --> 2^3 (2x2x2) = 8 different possible
values
8 bits (one byte) --> 2^8 (2x2x2x2x2x2x2x2) 7
= 256 possibilities
 CPU Registers
A processor register is a very fast computer
memory used to speed the execution of computer
programs by providing quick access to commonly
used values-typically, the values being in the midst

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of a calculation at a given point in time.
These registers are the top of the memory
hierarchy, and are the fastest way for the system to
manipulate data.

8
 By Dawit Zenebe
9
 Types of registers:
(a) Accumulator: It is most frequently used register
used to store data taken from memory. Its number
varies from microprocessor to microprocessor.
(b) General Purpose registers: General purpose
registers are used to store data and intermediate

By Dawit Zenebe
results during program execution. Its contents can be
accessed through assembly programming.
(c) Special purpose Registers: Users do not access
these registers. These are used by computer system
at the time of program execution. :
10
 Some types of special purpose registers
1. Memory Address Register (MAR): It stores address
of data or instructions to be fetched from memory.
2. Memory Buffer Register (MBR): It stores
instruction and data received from the memory and

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sent from the memory.
3. Instruction Register (IR): Instructions are stored in
instruction register. When one instruction is
completed, next instruction is fetched in memory for
processing.
4. Program Counter (PC): It counts instructions. 11
 The instruction cycle is completed into two phases:
(a) Fetch Cycle and (b) Execute Cycle.

Fetch cycle CPU:

• Fetches an instruction from primary storage
• Increments a pointer to location of next instruction
• Separates instruction into components (instruction code
and data inputs)
• Stores each component in a separate register
Execution ALU:
cycle • Retrieves instruction code from a register
• Retrieves data inputs from registers
• Passes data inputs through internal circuits to perform
data transformation
• Stores results in a register
 Question?

1. What is the difference b/n

By Dawit Zenebe
Registers and Cache memory?

13
Answer
The registers are the places where the
values that the CPU is actually working on
are located.
The CPU design is such that it is only able to
actually modify or otherwise act on a value

By Dawit Zenebe
when it is in a register. So registers can work
logic, whereas Cache memory can only hold
values the CPU reads from and writes to.

14
 Example: how register logic works.
Let's imagine we have four registers named R1..R4. If you
compile a statement that looks like this:

X = Y + Z * 3;
The compiler would output machine code that looks something
like this:

BDawit Zenebe
1. LOAD R1, ADDRESS_Z // move the value of z into register 1
2. MUL R1, 3 // multiply the value of register 1 by 3
3. LOAD R2, ADDRESS_Y // move the value of y into register 2
4. ADD R1, R2 // adds the value in R2 to the value in R1
5. STORE R1, ADDRESS_X // move the value of register 1 into
x
15
 Microprocessor Speeds
Measure of system clock speed
• How many electronic pulses the clock produces per
second
• Usually expressed in gigahertz (GHz)

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• Billions of machine cycles per second
• Some old PCs measured in megahertz (MHz)
Comparison of clock speed only meaningful
between identical microprocessors
CPU cycle time – inverse of clock rate
16
 Clock Rates
Microprocessors are typically discussed in terms of
their clock speed.
The clock speed is measured in hertz (or
megahertz, or gigahertz).
A hertz is a "cycle per second".

By Dawit Zenebe
Each cycle, a microprocessor will perform certain
tasks, although the amount of work performed in a
single cycle will be different for different types of
processors.
The amount of work that a processor can complete
17
in a single cycle is measured in "cycles per
instruction".
The clock rate is equated as such:

This means that the amount of time for a cycle is

inversely proportional to the clock rate.

By Dawit Zenebe
A computer with a 1MHz clock rate will have a
clock time of 1 microsecond.
A modern desktop computer with a 3.2 GHz
processor will have a clock time of approximately
3× 10-10 seconds, or 300 picoseconds.
300 picoseconds is an incredibly small amount of 18
time, and there is a lot that needs to happen inside
the processor in each clock cycle.
Current Technology Capabilities
and Limitations
• Moore’s Law
• Rate of increase in transistor density on
microchips doubles every 18-24 months with

By Dawit Zenebe
no increase in unit cost
• Rock’s Law
• Cost of fabrication facilities for chip generation
doubles every four years
19
Introduction to Numbering Systems

A set of values used to represent different

quantities is known as Number System.
The digital computer represents all kinds of
data and information in binary numbers.
It includes audio, graphics, video, text and
numbers.
The total number of digits used in a number
system is called its base or radix.
• We are all familiar with the decimal number
system (Base 10). Some other number systems
that we will work with are:

– Binary  Base 2
– Octal  Base 8
– Hexadecimal  Base 16
 Significant Digits
Binary: 11101101

Most significant digit Least significant digit

Hexadecimal: 1D63A7A

Most significant digit Least significant digit

 Binary Number System
• Also called the “Base 2 system”
• The binary number system is used to model the
series of electrical signals computers use to
represent information
• 0 represents the no voltage or an off state
• 1 represents the presence of voltage or an
on state
Binary Numbering Scale
Base 2 Base 10 Positional
Power
Number Equivalent Value

000 0 20 1
001 1 21 2
010 2 22 4
011 3 23 8
100 4 24 16
101 5 25 32
110 6 26 64
111 7 27 128
 Binary Addition
4 Possible Binary Addition Combinations:
(1) 0 (2) 0
+0 +1 Note that leading
zeroes are frequently
Carry 00 Sum 01 dropped.

(3) 1 (4) 1
+0 +1
01 10
 Decimal to Binary Conversion
• The easiest way to convert a decimal number to its
binary equivalent is to use the Division Algorithm
• This method repeatedly divides a decimal number
by 2 and records the quotient and remainder
– The remainder digits (a sequence of zeros and ones)
form the binary equivalent in least significant to most
significant digit sequence
 Division Algorithm
Convert 67 to its binary equivalent:
6710 = x2
Step 1: 67 / 2 = 33 R 1 Divide 67 by 2. Record quotient in next row

Step 2: 33 / 2 = 16 R 1 Again divide by 2; record quotient in next row

Step 3: 16 / 2 = 8 R 0 Repeat again

Step 4: 8 / 2 = 4 R 0 Repeat again

Step 5: 4 / 2 = 2 R 0 Repeat again

Step 6: 2 / 2 = 1 R 0 Repeat again

Step 7: 1 / 2 = 0 R 1 STOP when quotient equals 0

1 0 0 0 0 1 12
 Binary to Decimal Conversion
• The easiest method for converting a binary
number to its decimal equivalent is to use
the Multiplication Algorithm
• Multiply the binary digits by increasing
powers of two, starting from the right
• Then, to find the decimal number
equivalent, sum those products
 Multiplication Algorithm
Convert (10101101)2 to its decimal equivalent:

Binary 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
x x x x x x x x
Positional Values 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20
Products 128 + 32 + 8 + 4 + 1

17310
 Octal Number System
• Also known as the Base 8 System
• Uses digits 0 - 7
• Readily converts to binary
• Groups of three (binary) digits can be used
to represent each octal digit
• Also uses multiplication and division
algorithms for conversion to and from base
10
 Decimal to Octal Conversion
Convert 42710 to its octal equivalent:

427 / 8 = 53 R3 Divide by 8; R is LSD

53 / 8 = 6 R5 Divide Q by 8; R is next digit
6 / 8 = 0 R6 Repeat until Q = 0

6538
Octal to Decimal Conversion
Convert 6538 to its decimal equivalent:

Octal Digits 6 5 3
x x x
Positional Values
82 81 80
Products 384 + 40 + 3

42710
 Octal to Binary Conversion
Each octal number converts to 3 binary digits

To convert 6538 to binary, just

substitute code:

6 5 3

110 101 011

 Hexadecimal Number System
• Base 16 system
• Uses digits 0-9 &
letters A,B,C,D,E,F
• Groups of four bits
represent each
base 16 digit
Decimal to Hexadecimal Conversion
Convert 83010 to its hexadecimal equivalent:

830 / 16 = 51 R14 = E in Hex

51 / 16 = 3 R3
3 / 16 = 0 R3

33E16
Hexadecimal to Decimal Conversion
Convert 3B4F16 to its decimal equivalent:

Hex Digits 3 B 4 F
x x x x
Positional Values
163 162 161 160
Products 12288 +2816 + 64 +15

15,18310
 Binary to Hexadecimal Conversion
• The easiest method for converting binary to
hexadecimal is to use a substitution code
• Each hex number converts to 4 binary digits
 Substitution Code
Convert 0101011010101110011010102 to hex using
the 4-bit substitution code :

5 6 A E 6 A

0101 0110 1010 1110 0110 1010

56AE6A16
 Substitution Code
Substitution code can also be used to convert binary to
octal by using 3-bit groupings:

2 5 5 2 7 1 5 2
010 101 101 010 111 001 101 010

255271528
 Complementary Arithmetic
• 1’s complement
– Switch all 0’s to 1’s and 1’s to 0’s

Binary # 10110011
1’s complement 01001100
 Complementary Arithmetic
• 2’s complement
– Step 1: Find 1’s complement of the number
Binary # 11000110
1’s complement 00111001
– Step 2: Add 1 to the 1’s complement
00111001
+ 00000001
00111010
Signed Magnitude Numbers

110010.. …00101110010101

Sign bit 31 bits for magnitude

0 = positive
1 = negative This is your basic
Integer format
 Floating Point Numbers
• Real numbers must be normalized using
scientific notation:

0.1…× 2n where n is an integer

• Note that the whole number part is always 0

and the most significant digit of the fraction
is a 1 – ALWAYS!
 Floating Point Operations
• Before two floating point numbers can be
added, the exponents for both numbers must
be made equal – hence the term “floating
point”
• NIST Standard Format (32-bit word)
± 8-bit
23-bit fraction field
exponent
 Bias Notation
• The exponent field (8 bits) can be used to
represent integers from 0-255
• Because of the need for negative exponents
to be represented as well, the range is offset
or biased from – 128 to + 127
• In this way, both very large and very small
numbers can be represented
 Double Precision
• Double word format that increases both the
length of the fraction (precision) but also
the size of the bias (magnitude)

• NIST Standard format (64 bits)

± 10-bit
53-bit fraction field
exponent
 Error Considerations
• The “Hole at Zero” Problem
– Regardless of how large an exponent field is,
there are still smaller positive and negative
numbers about zero that cannot be represented
– In bias notation, +2-129 and - 2-129 are beyond
the acceptable range
– The “Hole at Zero” defines the range of values
near zero that cannot be stored
 Computational Errors
• When converting base 10 fractions to binary,
only those fractions whose values can be
expressed as a sum of base 2 fractions will
convert evenly
• All other base 10 fractions feature a least
significant bit that is either rounded or
truncated – an approximation
• When two such numbers are multiplied, the
rounding error is compounded
 Unsigned Integers
• Represents positive integers only
• Not necessary to indicate a sign, so all bits
can be used for the magnitude:
– 1 byte = 8 bits = 28 = 256 (0 to 255)
• 255 decimal = 1111 1111 binary
– 2 bytes = 16 bits = 216 = 65,536 (0 to 65,535)
– 4 bytes = 32 bits = 232
= 4,294,967,296 (0 to 4,294,967,295)
 Signed Integers
• Represents positive and negative integers
• MSB (Most Significant Bit – leftmost bit) used to
indicate sign
– 0 = positive, 1 = negative
• One less bit is used for the magnitude, with one
extra negative value
– 1 byte = 8-1 bits = 27 (-128 to +127)
• -128 decimal = 1000 0000 binary
• -1 decimal = 1111 1111 binary
• 127 decimal = 0111 1111 binary
– 2 bytes = 16-1 bits = 215 (-32,768 to +32,767)
– 4 bytes = 32-1 bits = 231 (-2,147,483,648 to
+2,147,483,647 )
 1’s & 2’s Complement
• 1’s complement form
– Formed by reversing (complementing) each bit
• 2’s complement form
– Formed by adding 1 to 1's complement
– Negative numbers are stored this way
– Additive inverse of a number
– Computer never has to subtract
• A – B = A + (-B)
 Binary to Decimal Conversion
• Unsigned Integers
– Convert binary directly to decimal form
• Signed Integers
– If MSB = 0, convert directly to decimal
– If MSB = 1, convert to 2's complement form
(reverse the bits & add 1), then to decimal form
 Signed Integers (8-bit)
• Example: -9 • Convert to decimal
1. 0000 1001b = +9 1. 1111 0111b = -9
2. 1111 0110b 2. 0000 1000b
+1b +1b
1111 0111b = -9 0000 1001b = +9

• Example: -32 • Convert to decimal

1. 0010 0000b = +32 1. 1110 0000b = -32
2. 1101 1111b 2. 0001 1111b
+1b +1b
1110 0000b = -32 0010 0000b = +32
 Class Exercise
• Convert the following negative decimal
numbers to 8 bit binary using the 2’s
complement
– -1, -3, -8, -127
 Class Exercise
• Evaluate 32 + (- 5) in 8 bit binary
– Convert 32 to binary
– Convert -5 to 2’s complement
– Add together
– Check your answer by converting back to
decimal
 Character Representation
• ASCII (See link to ASCII Codes)
– American Standard Code for Information Interchange
– Standard encoding scheme used to represent
characters in binary format on computers
– 7-bit encoding, so 128 characters can be represented
– 0 to 31 (& 127) are "control characters" (cannot print)
• Ctrl-A or ^A is 1, ^B is 2, etc.
• Used for screen formatting & data communication
– 32 to 126 are printable
 Binary Data
• Decimal, hex & character representations are
easier for humans to understand; however…
• All the data in the computer is binary
• An int is typically 32 binary digits
– int y = 5; (y = 0x00000005;)
• In computer y = 00000000 00000000 00000000 00000101
– int z = -5; (y = 0xFFFFFFFB;)
• In computer, z = 11111111 11111111 11111111 11111011
 Binary Data
• A char is typically 8 binary digits
– char x = '5'; (or char x = 53, or char x = 0x35)
• In computer, x = 00110101
– char x = 5; (or char x = 0x05;)
• In computer, x = 00000101
• Note that the ASCII character 5 has a different
binary value than the numeral 5
• Also note that 1 ASCII character = 2 hex
numbers
 Introduction- Data Formats
• Examples
Real World Computer
Data Input device Data

Dear Mom: Keyboard 10110010…

Digital
10110010…
camera
 Examples of Standards
Type of Data Standards
Alphanumeric ASCII, EBCDIC, Unicode

Image JPEG, GIF, PCX, TIFF

Motion picture MPEG-2, Quick Time

Sound Sound Blaster, WAV, AU

Outline graphics/fonts PostScript, TrueType, PDF

 Why Standards?
• Standard are “arbitrary”
• They exist because they are
– Convenient
– Efficient
– Flexible
– Appropriate
– Etc.
 Alphanumeric Data
• Problem: Distinguishing between the number 123
(one hundred and twenty-three) and the characters
“123” (one, two, three)
• Four standards for representing letters (alpha) and
numbers
– BCD – Binary-coded decimal
– ASCII – American standard code for information
interchange
– EBCDIC – Extended binary-coded decimal interchange
code
– Unicode
 Binary-Coded Decimal (BCD)
Digit Bit pattern
0 0000
• Four bits per digit 1 0001
Note: the following 2 0010
bit patterns are not 3 0011
used: 4 0100
5 0101
1010
1011 6 0110
1100 7 0111
1101 8 1000
1110 9 1001
1111
 Example
• 709310 = ? (in BCD)
7 0 9 3

0111 0000 1001 0011

 The Problem
• Representing text strings, such as
“Hello, world”, in a computer
• Solution: Codes and characters
– Each character is coded as a byte
– Most coding system is ASCII(American
National Standard Code for Information
Interchange)
– It is a 7-bit code 8th bit is unused( or used for a
parity bit)
– The following is the ASCII chart
 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 Most$significant
4 bit D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC
Least significant bit + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 e.g., ‘a’ = 1100001

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 95 Graphic codes
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 33 Control codes
000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 Alphabetic codes

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 Numeric codes

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 Punctuation, etc.

000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111

0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 “Hello, world” Example
Binary Hexadecimal Decimal
H = 01001000 = 48 = 72
e = 01100101 = 65 = 101
l = 01101100 = 6C = 108
l = 01101100 = 6C = 108
o = 01101111 = 6F = 111
, = 00101100 = 2C = 44
= 00100000 = 20 = 32
w = 01110111 = 77 = 119
o = 01100111 = 67 = 103
r = 01110010 = 72 = 114
l = 01101100 = 6C = 108
d = 01100100 = 64 = 100
 Common Control Codes
• CR 0D carriage return
• LF 0A line feed
• HT 09 horizontal tab
• DEL 7F delete
• NULL 00 null
Hexadecimal code
 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 Terminology
• Learn the names of the special symbols
– [] brackets
– {} braces
– () parentheses
– @ commercial ‘at’ sign
– & ampersand
– ~ tilde
 000 001 010 011 100 101 110 111
0000 NULL DLE 0 @ P ` p
0001 SOH DC1 ! 1 A Q a q
0010 STX DC2 " 2 B R b r
0011 ETX DC3 # 3 C S c s
0100 EDT DC4 $ 4 D T d t
0101 ENQ NAK % 5 E U e u
0110 ACK SYN & 6 F V f v
0111 BEL ETB ' 7 G W g w
1000 BS CAN ( 8 H X h x
1001 HT EM ) 9 I Y i y
1010 LF SUB * : J Z j z
1011 VT ESC + ; K [ k {
1100 FF FS , < L \ l |
1101 CR GS - = M ] m }
1110 SO RS . > N ^ n ~
1111 SI US / ? O _ o DEL
 EBCDIC
• Extended BCD Interchange Code
(pronounced ebb’-se-dick)
• 8-bit code
• Developed by IBM
• Rarely used today
• IBM mainframes only
 Unicode
• 16-bit standard
• Developed by a consortia
• Intended to supercede older 7- and 8-bit
codes
 Unicode Version 2.1
• 1998
• Improves on version 2.0
• Includes the Euro sign (20AC16 = )
• From the standard:
…contains 38,887 distinct coded characters derived
from the supported scripts. These characters cover the
principal written languages of the Americas, Europe,
the Middle East, Africa, India, Asia, and Pacifica.
http://www.unicode.org
 Keyboard Input
• Key (“scan”) codes are converted to ASCII
• ASCII code sent to host computer
• Received by the host as a “stream” of data
• Stored in buffer
• Processed
• Etc.