1

INTRODUCTION TO THE
INTERNET
AND WEB

10/20/15
 Internet
2

 It is the largest network in the world that

connects hundreds of thousands of individual
networks all over the world.
 The popular term for the Internet is the
“information highway”.
 Rather than moving through geographical
space, it moves your ideas and information
through cyberspace – the space of electronic
movement of ideas and information.

10/20/15
 Internet
3

 Key Definitions:
 Internet: The internet is a global network of
interconnected networks, connecting private, public and
university networks in one cohesive unit.
 Intranet: An intranet is a private enterprise network
that uses internet and web technologies for information
gathering and distribution within an organization.
 Extranet: An extranet is a community of interest
created by extending an intranet to selected entities
external to an organization.

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 Internet
4

 No one owns it
 It has no formal management organization.
 As it was originally developed by the
Department of defense, this lack of
centralization made it less vulnerable to
wartime or terrorist attacks.
 To access the Internet, an existing network
need to pay a small registration fee and agree
to certain standards based on the TCP/IP
(Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) .

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5
The uses of the
Internet
Send e-mail messages.
 Send (upload) or receive (down load)
files between computers.
 Participate in discussion groups, such as
mailing lists and newsgroups.
 Surfing the web.

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 What is Web?
6

 The Web (World Wide Web) consists of

information organized into Web pages
containing text and graphic images.
 It contains hypertext links, or highlighted
keywords and images that lead to related
information.
 A collection of linked Web pages that has a
common theme or focus is called a Web site.
 The main page that all of the pages on a
particular Web site are organized around and
link back to is called the site’s home page.
10/20/15
 How to access the
Internet?
7

 Many schools and businesses have

direct access to the Internet using
special high-speed communication
lines and equipment.
 Students and employees can access
through the organization’s local area
networks (LAN) or through their own
personal computers.
 Another way to access the Internet is
through Internet Service Provider (ISP).

10/20/15
 How to access the
8 Internet?
 To access the Internet, an existing network
need to pay a small registration fee and
agree to certain standards based on the
TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) reference model.
 Each organization pays for its own networks
and its own telephone bills, but those costs
usually exist independent of the internet.
 The regional Internet companies route and
forward all traffic, and the cost is still only
that of a local telephone call.

10/20/15
 Internet Service Provider
9
(ISP)
 A commercial organization with
permanent connection to the Internet
that sells temporary connections to
subscribers.
 Examples:
 Prodigy, America Online, Microsoft
network, AT&T Networks.

10/20/15
 How to access the Web?
10

 Once you have your Internet connection,

then you need special software called a
browser to access the Web.
 Web browsers are used to connect you to
remote computers, open and transfer files,
display text and images.
 Web browsers are specialized programs.
 Examples of Web browser: Netscape
Navigator (Navigator) and Internet Explorer.

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 Client/Server Structure of the
11 Web
 Web is a collection of files that reside on
computers, called Web servers, that are
located all over the world and are connected to
each other through the Internet.
 When you use your Internet connection to
become part of the Web, your computer
becomes a Web client in a worldwide
client/server network.
 A Web browser is the software that you run on
your computer to make it work as a web client.

10/20/15
 Hypertext Markup Language
12
(HTML)
 The public files on the web servers are
ordinary text files, much like the files used
by word-processing software.
 To allow Web browser software to read
them, the text must be formatted
according to a generally accepted
standard.
 The standard used on the web is
Hypertext markup language (HTML).
10/20/15
 Hypertext Markup Language
13 (HTML)
 HTML uses codes, or tags, to tell the Web
browser software how to display the text
contained in the document.
 For example, a Web browser reading the
following line of text:
<B> A Review of the Book<I>Wind Instruments
of the 18th Century</I></B>
 recognizes the <B> and </B> tags as
instructions to display the entire line of text in
bold and the <I> and </I> tags as instructions to
display the text enclosed by those tags in italics.

10/20/15
 Purpose of the IP Address
14

 A host needs an IP address to participate on the Internet.

 The IP address is a logical network address that identifies a
particular host.
 It must be properly configured and unique in order to
communicate with other devices on the Internet.
 An IP address is assigned to the Network interface
connection for a host. This connection is usually a NIC
installed in the device.
 Examples of end-user devices with network interfaces
include workstations, servers, network printers, IP phones
and router interfaces.
 Some servers can have more than one NIC and each of
these has its own IP address.
 Every packet sent across the Internet has a source and
destination IP address.
 This information is required by networking devices to insure
the information gets to the destination and any replies are
returned to the source.
10/20/15
 IP Address Structure
15

 An IP address is a series of 32 binary bits (ones and

zeros).
 It is very difficult for humans to read a binary IP address.
 For this reason, the 32 bits are grouped into four 8-bit
bytes called octets and each octet is presented as its
decimal value, separated by a decimal point or period.
 This is referred to as dotted-decimal notation.
 When a host is configured with an IP address, it is entered
as a dotted decimal number such as 192.168.1.5.
 Imagine if you had to enter the 32-bit binary equivalent of
this- 11000000101010000000000100000101.
 If just one bit was mistyped, the address would be
different and the host may not be able to communicate
on the network.
 The 32-bit IP address is defined with IP version 4 (IPv4)..
 There are over 4 billion possible IP addresses using a 32-
bit addressing scheme.
10/20/15
 IP Address Structure
16

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 IP Address Structure
17

 When a host receives an IP address, it looks at all 32 bits

as they are received by the NIC.
 Humans, on the other hand, need to convert those 32
bits into their four octet decimal equivalent.
 Each octet is made up of 8 bits and each bit has a value.
 The four groups of 8 bits have the same set of values.
 The rightmost bit in an octet has a value of 1 and the
values of the remaining bits, from right to left, are 2, 4, 8,
16, 32, 64 and 128.
 Determine the value of the octet by adding the values of
positions wherever there is a binary 1 present.
 So the value of each of the four octets can range from 0
to a maximum of 255.
10/20/15
 Parts an IP Address
18

 The logical 32-bit IP address is hierarchical and is made

up of two parts.
 The first part identifies the network and the second part
identifies a host on that network. Both parts are required
in an IP address.
 As an example, if a host has IP address 192.168.18.57 the
first three octets, (192.168.18), identify the network
portion of the address, and the last octet, (57) identifies
the host.
 This is known as hierarchical addressing because the
network portion indicates the network on which each
unique host address is located.
 Routers only need to know how to reach each network,
rather than needing to know the location of each
individual host.
10/20/15
 How IP Addresses and Subnet masks
interact
19

 When an IP host is configured, a subnet mask is assigned

along with an IP address.
 Like the IP address, the subnet mask is 32 bits long.
 The subnet mask signifies which part of the IP address is
network and which part is host.
 The subnet mask is compared to the IP address from left
to right, bit for bit.
 The 1s in the subnet mask represent the network portion;
the 0s represent the host portion.
 When a host sends a packet, it compares its subnet mask
to its own IP address and the destination IP address.
 If the network bits match, both the source and destination
host are on the same network and the packet can be
delivered locally.
 If they do not match, the sending host forwards the
packet to the local router interface to be sent on to the
other network. 10/20/15
 How IP Addresses and Subnet masks
interact
20

10/20/15
 How IP Addresses and Subnet masks
interact
21

 The subnet masks we see most often with home and

small business networking are: 255.0.0.0 (8-bits),
255.255.0.0 (16 bits) and 255.255.255.0 (24 bits).
 A subnet mask of 255.255.255.0 (decimal) or
11111111.11111111.1111111.00000000 (binary) uses 24
bits to identify the network number which leaves 8 bits to
number the hosts on that network.
 To calculate the number of hosts that can be on that
network, take the number 2 to the power of the number
of host bits (2 ^ 8 = 256).
 From this number, we must subtract 2 (256-2).
 The reason we subtract 2 is because all 1s within the host
portion of an IP address is a broadcast address for that
network and cannot be assigned to a specific host.
 All 0s within the host portion indicates the network ID
and again, cannot be assigned to a specific host.
10/20/15
 classes of IP address and the default subnet
mask
22
 IP addresses are grouped into 5 classes.
 Classes A, B and C are commercial addresses and are
assigned to hosts. Class D is reserved for multicast use
and Class E is for experimental use.

10/20/15
 classes of IP address and the default
subnet mask
23

 Class C addresses have three octets for the network

portion and one for the hosts. The default subnet mask is
24 bits (255.255.255.0). Class C addresses are usually
assigned to small networks.
 Class B addresses have two octets to represent the
network portion and two for the hosts. The default subnet
mask is 16 bits (255.255.0.0). These addresses are
typically used for medium-sized networks.
 Class A addresses have only one octet to represent the
network portion and three to represent the hosts. The
default subnet mask is 8 bits (255.0.0.0). These
addresses are typically assigned to large organizations.
 The class of an address can be determined by the value
of the first octet.
 For instance, if the first octet of an IP address has a value
in the range 192-223, it is classified as a Class C address.
 As an example, 200.14.193.67 is a Class C address.
10/20/15
 Public and Private IP
24 Addresses
 All hosts that connect directly to the Internet require a
unique public IP address.
 Because of the finite number of 32-bit addresses available,
there is a risk of running out of IP addresses.
 One solution to this problem was to reserve some private
addresses for use exclusively inside an organization.
 This allows hosts within an organization to communicate
with one another without the need of a unique public IP
address.
 RFC 1918 is a standard that reserves several ranges of
addresses within each of the classes A, B and C.
 The private address ranges consist of:
 A single Class A network (10.0.0.0) for large networks
 16 Class B networks (172.16.0.0 - 172.31.0.0)for medium
networks.
 256 Class C networks. (192.168.0.0 - 192.168.255.0)for small
NWs.
 This gives a network administrator considerable flexibility
in assigning internal addresses. 10/20/15
 Public and Private IP
25 Addresses
 Private addresses can be used internally by hosts in an
organization as long as the hosts do not connect directly to
the Internet.
 Therefore, the same set of private addresses can be used
by multiple organizations.
 Private addresses are not routed on the Internet and will
be quickly blocked by an ISP router.
 The use of private addresses can provide a measure of
security since they are only visible on the local network,
and outsiders cannot gain direct access to the private IP
addresses.
 There are also private addresses that can be used for the
diagnostic testing of devices.
 This type of private address is known as a loopback
address.
 The class A, 127.0.0.0 network, is reserved for loopback
addresses. 10/20/15
 Unicast, Multicast and Broadcast addresses
26
 Differentiate between Unicast,
Broadcast, Multicast Addresses

10/20/15
 Unicast, Bulticast and Broadcast
addresses
27

 In addition to address classes, we also categorize IP

addresses as unicast, broadcast, or multicast.
 Hosts can use IP addresses to communicate one-to-one
(unicast), one-to-many (multicast) or one-to-all
(broadcast).
Unicast
 A packet with a unicast destination address is intended
for a specific host.
 An example is a host with IP address 192.168.1.5 (source)
requesting a web page from a server at IP address
192.168.1.200 (destination).
 For a unicast packet to be sent and received, a
destination IP address must be in the IP packet header.
 A corresponding destination MAC address must also be
present in the Ethernet frame header.
 The IP address and MAC address combine to deliver data
to one specific destination host.
10/20/15
 Broadcast
28

 With a broadcast, the packet contains a destination IP

address with all ones (1s) in the host portion.
 This means that all hosts on that local network (broadcast
domain) will receive and look at the packet.
 Many network protocols, such as ARP and DHCP use
broadcasts.
 A Class C network 192.168.1.0 with a default subnet mask
of 255.255.255.0 has a broadcast address of
192.168.1.255. The host portion is decimal 255 or binary
11111111 (all 1s).
 A Class B network of 172.16.0.0, with a default mask of
255.255.0.0, has a broadcast of 172.16.255.255.
 A Class A network of 10.0.0.0, with a default mask of
255.0.0.0, has a broadcast of 10.255.255.255..
 A broadcast IP address for a network needs a
corresponding broadcast MAC address in the Ethernet
frame and that is a Hexadecimal FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF.
10/20/15
 Broadcast
29

10/20/15
 Multicast
30

 Multicast addresses allow a source device to send a packet to a

group of devices.
 Devices that belong to a multicast group are assigned a multicast
group IP address.
 The range of multicast addresses is from 224.0.0.0 to
239.255.255.255.
 Since multicast addresses represent a group of addresses
(sometimes called a host group), they can only be used as the
destination of a packet.
 The source will always have a unicast address.
 Examples of where multicast addresses would be used are in
remote gaming, where many players are connected remotely but
playing the same game.
 As with a unicast or broadcast address, multicast IP addresses
need a corresponding multicast MAC address to actually deliver
frames on a local network.
 The multicast MAC address is a special value that begins with 01-
00-5E in hexadecimal.
10/20/15
 Multicast
31

10/20/15
 Methods of Obtaining an IP Address
32
 How a computer obtains an IP Address
 There are two methods of assigning an IP Address
1. Static Assignment
2. Dynamic Assignment

10/20/15
 Static Address Assignment
33
 With a static assignment, the network administrator must
manually configure the network information for a host.
 At a minimum, this includes the host IP address, subnet mask
and default gateway.
 Static addresses have some advantages. For instance, they
are useful for printers, servers and other networking devices
that need to be accessible to clients on the network.
 Static assignment of addressing information can provide
increased control of network resources, but it can be time
consuming to enter the information on each host.
 When using static IP addressing, it is important to maintain
an accurate list of which IP addresses are assigned to which
devices.
 Additionally, these are permanent addresses and are not
normally reused.
10/20/15
 Dynamic Address
34 Assignment
 On local networks it is often the case that the user population
changes frequently.
 New users arrive with laptops and need a connection.
 Others have new workstations that need to be connected.
 Rather than have the network administrator assign IP addresses
for each workstation, it is easier to have IP addresses assigned
automatically.
 This is done using a protocol known as Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP).
 DHCP provides a mechanism for the automatic assignment of
addressing information such as IP address, subnet mask, default
gateway, and other configuration information.
 DHCP reduces the burden on network staff and virtually
eliminates entry errors.
 Another benefit of DHCP is that an address is not permanently
assigned to a host but is only leased for a period of time.
 If the host is powered down or taken off the network, the
address is returned to the pool for reuse.
 This is especially helpful with mobile users that come and go on
a network. 10/20/15
 DHCP Servers
35

 Various types of devices can be DHCP servers as long as

they are running DHCP service software.
 With most medium to large networks, the DHCP server is
usually a local dedicated PC-based server.
 With home networks the DHCP server is usually located at
the ISP and a host on the home network receives its IP
configuration directly from the ISP.
 Many home networks and small businesses use an
integrated router to connect to the ISP modem.
 In this case, the integrated router is both a DHCP client
and a server.
 The integrated router acts as a client to receive its IP
configuration from the ISP and then acts a DHCP server for
internal hosts on the local network.
 In addition to PC-based servers and integrated routers,
other types of networking devices such as dedicated
routers can provide DHCP services to clients, although
this is not as common.
10/20/15
 Network Boundaries and address spaces

36
 The router provides a gateway through which hosts on
one network can communicate with hosts on different
networks. Each interface on a router is connected to a
separate network.
 The IP address assigned to the interface identifies which
local network is connected directly to it.

10/20/15
 Network Boundaries and
37 address spaces
 Every host on a network must use the router as a
gateway to other networks.
 Therefore, each host must know the IP address of the
router interface connected to the network where the host
is attached.
 This address is known as the default gateway address.
 It can be either statically configured on the host, or
received dynamically by DHCP.
 When an integrated router is configured to be a DHCP
server for the local network, it automatically sends the
correct interface IP address to the hosts as the default
gateway address.
 When an integrated router is configured as a DHCP
server, it provides its own internal IP address as the
default gateway to DHCP clients.
 It also provides them with their respective IP address and
subnet mask.
10/20/15
 Network Address Translation
38
 The integrated router receives a public address from the
ISP, which allows it to send and receive packets on the
Internet.
 It, in turn, provides private addresses to local network
clients.
 Since private addresses are not allowed on the Internet, a
process is needed for translating private addresses into
unique public addresses to allow local clients to
communicate on the Internet.

10/20/15
 Network Address Translation
39

 The process used to convert private addresses to Internet-

routable addresses is called Network Address Translation
(NAT).
 With NAT, a private (local) source IP address is translated
to a public (global) address.
 The process is reversed for incoming packets.
 The integrated router is able to translate many internal IP
addresses to the same public address, by using NAT.
 Only packets destined for other networks need to be
translated.
 These packets must pass through the gateway, where the
integrated router replaces the source host's private IP
address with its own public IP address.
 Although each host on the internal network has a unique
private IP address assigned to it, the hosts must share the
single Internet routable addressed assigned to the
integrated router. 10/20/15
 IPv4 Issues

The Need for IPv6

 IPv6 is designed to be the successor to IPv4
 Depletion of IPv4 address space has been
the motivating factor for moving to IPv6
 Projections show that all five RIRs will run
out of IPv4 addresses between 2015 and
2020
 With an increasing Internet population, a
limited IPv4 address space, issues with NAT
and an Internet of things, the time has
come to begin the transition to IPv6!
 IPv4 Issues

The Need for IPv6

 IPv4 has theoretical maximum of 4.3 billion
addresses plus private addresses in
combination with NAT
 IPv6 larger 128-bit address space providing
for 340 undecillion addresses
 IPv6 fixes the limitations of IPv4 and include
additional enhancements such as ICMPv6
 IPv4 Issues

IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence

The migration techniques can be divided into three categories:

#1

Dual-stack: Allows IPv4 and IPv6 to coexist

on the same network. Devices run both IPv4
and IPv6 protocol stacks simultaneously.
 IPv4 Issues

IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence

The migration techniques can be divided into three categories:

#2

Tunnelling: A method of transporting an IPv6

packet over an IPv4 network. The IPv6 packet is
encapsulated inside an IPv4 packet.
 IPv4 Issues

IPv4 and IPv6 Coexistence

The migration techniques can be divided into three categories:

#3

Translation: Network Address Translation 64 (NAT64) allows

IPv6-enabled devices to communicate with IPv4-enabled
devices using a translation technique similar to NAT for IPv4.
An IPv6 packet is translated to an IPv4 packet, and vice versa.
 IPv6 Addressing

Hexadecimal Number System

 Hexadecimal is a
base sixteen
system
 Base 16 numbering
system uses the
numbers 0 to 9 and
the letters A to F
 Four bits (half of a
byte) can be
represented with a
single hexadecimal
value
 IPv6 Addressing

IPv6 Address Representation

 Look at the
binary bit
patterns that
match the
decimal and
hexadecimal
values
IPv6 Addressing

IPv6 Address Representation

 128 bits in length and written as a string of
hexadecimal values
 In IPv6, 4 bits represents a single hexadecimal
digit, 32 hexadecimal values = IPv6 address

2001:0DB8:0000:1111:0000:0000:0000:0200

FE80:0000:0000:0000:0123:4567:89AB:CDEF

 Hextet used to refer to a segment of 16 bits or

four hexadecimals
 Can be written in either lowercase or uppercase
IPv6 Addressing

Rule 1- Omitting Leading 0s

 The first rule to help reduce the notation
of IPv6 addresses is any leading 0s
(zeros) in any 16-bit section or hextet
can be omitted
 01AB can be represented as 1AB
 09F0 can be represented as 9F0
 0A00 can be represented as A00
 00AB can be represented as AB
 IPv6 Addressing

Rule 2- Omitting All 0 Segments

 A double colon (::) can replace any single,
contiguous string of one or more 16-bit
segments (hextets) consisting of all 0’s
 Double colon (::) can only be used once
within an address otherwise the address will
be ambiguous
 Known as the compressed format
 Incorrect address - 2001:0DB8::ABCD::1234
 IPv6 Addressing

Rule 2- Omitting All 0 Segments

 Examples

#1

#2
 Types of IPv6 Addresses

IPv6 Address Types

There are three types of IPv6 addresses:

•Unicast

•Multicast

•Anycast.

Note: IPv6 does not have broadcast addresses.

 Types of IPv6 Addresses

IPv6 Prefix Length

 IPv6 does not use the dotted-decimal
subnet mask notation
 Prefix length indicates the network portion
of an IPv6 address using the following
format:
• IPv6 address/prefix length
• Prefix length can range from 0 to 128
• Typical prefix length is /64
Testing and Verification

Ping - Testing the Local Stack

Testing and Verification

Ping – Testing Connectivity to the Local

LAN
Testing and Verification

Ping – Testing Connectivity to Remote

Testing and Verification

Traceroute – Testing the Path

Traceroute (tracert)
•Generates a list of hops that were successfully reached along the
path
•Provides important verification and troubleshooting information
•If the data reaches the destination, then the trace lists the interface
of every router in the path between the hosts
•If the data fails at some hop along the way, the address of the last
router that responded to the trace can provide an indication of
where the problem or security restrictions are found
•Provides round trip time for each hop along the path and indicates
if a hop fails to respond
IP Addressing

Summary
 IP addresses are hierarchical with network,
subnetwork, and host portions. An IP address
can represent a complete network, a specific
host, or the broadcast address of the network.
 The subnet mask or prefix is used to determine
the network portion of an IP address. Once
implemented, an IP network needs to be tested
to verify its connectivity and operational
performance.
 DHCP enables the automatic assignment of
addressing information such as IP address,
subnet mask, default gateway, and other
configuration information.
IP Addressing

Summary
 IPv4 hosts can communicate one of three
different ways: unicast, broadcast, and multicast.
 The private IPv4 address blocks are: 10.0.0.0/8,
172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16.
 The depletion of IPv4 address space is the
motivating factor for moving to IPv6. Each IPv6
address has 128 bits verses the 32 bits in an IPv4
address. The prefix length is used to indicate the
network portion of an IPv6 address using the
following format: IPv6 address/prefix length.
Network Segmentation

Reasons for Subnetting

Large networks need to be segmented into smaller
sub-networks, creating smaller groups of devices and
services in order to:
 Control traffic by containing broadcast traffic within
subnetwork
 Reduce overall network traffic and improve network
performance
Subnetting - process of segmenting a network into multiple
smaller network spaces called subnetworks or Subnets.

Communication Between Subnets

 A router is necessary for devices on different networks and
subnets to communicate.
 Each router interface must have an IPv4 host address that
belongs to the network or subnet that the router interface is
connected to.
 Devices on a network and subnet use the router interface
attached to their LAN as their default gateway.
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

IP Subnetting is
FUNdamental
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Basic Subnetting
 Borrowing Bits to Create Subnets
 Borrowing 1 bit 21 = 2 subnets

Borrowing 1 Bit from the host portion creates 2 subnets with the same subnet mask

Subnet 0 Subnet 1
Network 192.168.1.0-127/25 Network 192.168.1.128-255/25
Mask: 255.255.255.128 Mask: 255.255.255.128
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Subnets in Use

Subnet 0
Network 192.168.1.0-127/25

Subnet 1
Network 192.168.1.128-255/25
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Subnetting Formulas
 Calculate Number of Subnets

 Calculate Number of Hosts

Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Creating 4 Subnets
Borrowing 2 bits to create 4 subnets. 22
= 4 subnets
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Creating 8 Subnets
Borrowing 3 bits to Create 8 Subnets. 23
= 8 subnets
Subnetting an IPv4 Network

Creating 8
Subnets(continued)
Determining the Subnet Mask

Subnetting Based on Host

Requirements
There are two considerations when
planning subnets:
 Number of Subnets required
 Number of Host addresses required
Formula to determine number of useable
hosts
 2^n-2
2^n (where n is the number of host bits
remaining) is used to calculate the number of
hosts
-2 Subnetwork ID and broadcast address
cannot be used on each subnet
Determining the Subnet Mask
Subnetting Network-Based Requirements
Calculate number of subnets
Formula 2^n (where n is the number of
bits borrowed)
Subnet needed
for each
department in
graphic
Determining the Subnet Mask
Subnetting To Meet Network Requirements
It is important to balance the number of
subnets needed and the number of hosts
required for the largest subnet.
 Design the addressing scheme to
accommodate the maximum number of
hosts for each subnet.
Allow for growth in
each subnet.