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Explain the OSI reference model with a diagram and describe its layers

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Model is a set of rules that explains
how different computer systems communicate over a network. OSI Model was
developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO). The OSI
Model consists of 7 layers and each layer has specific functions and
responsibilities.
This layered approach makes it easier for different devices and technologies to
work together. OSI Model provides a clear structure for data transmission and
managing network issues. The OSI Model is widely used as a reference to
understand how network systems function.
In this article, we will discuss the OSI Model and each layer of the OSI Model in
detail. We will also discuss the flow of data in the OSI Model and how the OSI
Model is different from the TCP/IP Model.

OSI Model

Layers of the OSI Model

There are 7 layers in the OSI Model and each layer has its specific role in handling
data. All the layers are mentioned below:
 Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
 Network Layer
 Transport Layer
 Session Layer
 Presentation Layer
 Application Layer
Layer 1 – Physical Layer
The lowest layer of the OSI reference model is the Physical Layer. It is
responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices. The physical
layer contains information in the form of bits. Physical Layer is responsible for
transmitting individual bits from one node to the next. When receiving data, this
layer will get the signal received and convert it into 0s and 1s and send them to the
Data Link layer, which will put the frame back together. Common physical layer
devices are Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables.

Physical Layer

Functions of the Physical Layer

 Bit Synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the
bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus
providing synchronization at the bit level.
 Bit Rate Control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the
number of bits sent per second.
 Physical Topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes
are arranged in a network i.e. bus topology , star topology , or mesh topology .
 Transmission Mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between
the two connected devices. The various transmission modes possible
are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex .

Layer 2 – Data Link Layer (DLL)

The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one
node to another, over the physical layer. When a packet arrives in a network, it is
the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host using its MAC address.
Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame. Switches and Bridges are
common Data Link Layer devices.
The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:
 Logical Link Control (LLC)
 Media Access Control (MAC)
The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames
depending on the frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card) . DLL also
encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s MAC address in the header.
The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution
Protocol) request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the
destination host will reply with its MAC address.
Functions of the Data Link Layer
 Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a
sender to transmit a set of bits that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be
accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning and end of the
frame.
 Physical Addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical
addresses ( MAC addresses ) of the sender and/or receiver in the header of
each frame.
 Error Control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in
which it detects and retransmits damaged or lost frames.
 Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may
get corrupted thus, flow control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent
before receiving an acknowledgment.
 Access Control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple
devices, the MAC sub-layer of the data link layer helps to determine which
device has control over the channel at a given time.

Layer 3 – Network Layer
The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other
located in different networks. It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the
shortest path to transmit the packet, from the number of routes available. The
sender and receiver’s IP address are placed in the header by the network layer.
Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet. Network layer is
implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.
Functions of the Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from
source to destination. This function of the network layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: To identify each device inter-network uniquely, the
network layer defines an addressing scheme. The sender and receiver’s IP
addresses are placed in the header by the network layer. Such an address
distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Layer 4 – Transport Layer
The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services
from the network layer. The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
It is responsible for the end-to-end delivery of the complete message. The transport
layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and
re-transmits the data if an error is found. Protocols used in Transport Layer
are TCP, UDP NetBIOS, PPTP.
At the sender’s side, the transport layer receives the formatted data from the
upper layers, performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow and error
control to ensure proper data transmission. It also adds Source and
Destination port number in its header and forwards the segmented data to the
Network Layer.
 Generally, this destination port number is configured, either by default or
manually. For example, when a web application requests a web server, it
typically uses port number 80, because this is the default port assigned to web
applications. Many applications have default ports assigned.
At the Receiver’s side, Transport Layer reads the port number from its header
and forwards the Data which it has received to the respective application. It also
performs sequencing and reassembling of the segmented data.
Functions of the Transport Layer
 Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the
(session) layer, and breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the
segments produced has a header associated with it. The transport layer at the
destination station reassembles the message.
 Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the
transport layer header includes a type of address called service point address
or port address. Thus by specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure
that the message is delivered to the correct process.
Services Provided by Transport Layer
 Connection-Oriented Service
 Connectionless Service
Layer 5 – Session Layer
Session Layer in the OSI Model is responsible for the establishment of
connections, management of connections, terminations of sessions between two
devices. It also provides authentication and security. Protocols used in the Session
Layer are NetBIOS, PPTP.
Functions of the Session Layer
 Session Establishment, Maintenance, and Termination: The layer allows the
two processes to establish, use, and terminate a connection.
 Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are
considered synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points
help to identify the error so that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends
of the messages are not cut prematurely and data loss is avoided.
 Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start
communication with each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
Example
Let us consider a scenario where a user wants to send a message through some
Messenger application running in their browser. The “Messenger” here acts as the
application layer which provides the user with an interface to create the data. This
message or so-called Data is compressed, optionally encrypted (if the data is
sensitive), and converted into bits (0’s and 1’s) so that it can be transmitted.

Communication in Session Layer

Layer 6 – Presentation Layer

The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer. The data from the
application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required format to
transmit over the network. Protocols used in the Presentation Layer
are JPEG, MPEG, GIF, TLS/SSL, etc.
Functions of the Presentation Layer
 Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC .
 Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form
or code. The encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data
is known as plain text. A key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting
data.
 Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the
network.

Layer 7 – Application Layer

At the very top of the OSI Reference Model stack of layers, we find the Application
layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications
produce the data to be transferred over the network. This layer also serves as a
window for the application services to access the network and for displaying the
received information to the user. Protocols used in the Application layer
are SMTP, FTP, DNS, etc.
 Application Layer

Functions of the Application Layer

The main functions of the application layer are given below.
 Network Virtual Terminal(NVT): It allows a user to log on to a remote host.
 File Transfer Access and Management(FTAM): This application allows a user
to access files in a remote host, retrieve files in a remote host, and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
 Mail Services: Provide email service.
 Directory Services: This application provides distributed database sources and
access for global information about various objects and services.
How Data Flows in the OSI Model?
When we transfer information from one device to another, it travels through 7
layers of OSI model. First data travels down through 7 layers from the sender’s end
and then climbs back 7 layers on the receiver’s end.
Data flows through the OSI model in a step-by-step process:
 Application Layer: Applications create the data.
 Presentation Layer: Data is formatted and encrypted.
 Session Layer: Connections are established and managed.
 Transport Layer: Data is broken into segments for reliable delivery.
 Network Layer : Segments are packaged into packets and routed.
 Data Link Layer: Packets are framed and sent to the next device.
 Physical Layer: Frames are converted into bits and transmitted physically.
Each layer adds specific information to ensure the data reaches its destination
correctly, and these steps are reversed upon arrival.
We can understand how data flows through OSI Model with the help of an example
mentioned below.
Let us suppose, Person A sends an e-mail to his friend Person B.
Step 1: Person A interacts with e-mail application like Gmail, outlook, etc. Writes
his email to send. (This happens at Application Layer).
Step 2: At Presentation Layer, Mail application prepares for data transmission
like encrypting data and formatting it for transmission.
Step 3: At Session Layer, There is a connection established between the sender
and receiver on the internet.
Step 4: At Transport Layer, Email data is broken into smaller segments. It adds
sequence number and error-checking information to maintain the reliability of the
information.
Step 5: At Network Layer, Addressing of packets is done in order to find the best
route for transfer.
Step 6: At Data Link Layer, data packets are encapsulated into frames, then MAC
address is added for local devices and then it checks for error using error
detection.
Step 7: At Physical Layer, Frames are transmitted in the form of electrical/ optical
signals over a physical network medium like ethernet cable or WiFi.
After the email reaches the receiver i.e. Person B, the process will reverse and
decrypt the e-mail content. At last, the email will be shown on Person B email
client.

Protocols Used in the OSI Layers

Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishing
1 – Physical Physical
Bits USB, SONET/SDH, etc.
Layer Connections
between Devices.

Node to Node
2 – Data Link
Delivery of Frames Ethernet, PPP, etc.
Layer
Message.

Transmission of
data from one host
3 – Network IP, ICMP, IGMP, OSPF,
to another, located Packets
Layer etc.
in different
networks.

Take Service from Segments

4 –
Network Layer and (for TCP) or
Transport TCP, UDP, SCTP, etc.
provide it to the Datagrams
Layer
Application Layer. (for UDP)
 Protocol
Layer Working Data Unit Protocols

Establishes
Connection,
5 – Session Maintenance, NetBIOS, RPC, PPTP,
Data
Layer Ensures etc.
Authentication and
Ensures security.

Data from the

application layer is
6 –
extracted and TLS/SSL, MIME, JPEG,
Presentation Data
manipulated in the PNG, ASCII, etc.
Layer
required format for
transmission.

Helps in identifying
7 –
the client and FTP, SMTP, DNS, DHCP,
Application Data
synchronizing etc.
Layer
communication.

Why Does The OSI Model Matter?

The OSI Model matters because it provides the user a clear structure of “how the
data moves in the network?”. As the OSI Model consists of 7 layers, each layer has
its specific role, and due to which it helps in understanding, identifying and solving
the complex network problems easily by focusing on one of the layers not the entire
network.
As the modern Internet does not prefer the OSI Model, but still, the OSI Model is
still very helpful for solving network problems. It helps people understanding
network concepts very easily.