Microstructure development

• Microstructure development refers to the evolution of the internal

structure of a material, particularly metals and alloys, during processes
such as cooling, solidification, or heat treatment.
• The microstructure significantly influences a material’s mechanical,
physical, and chemical properties. It consists of various phases, grains,
boundaries, and defects that arise as the material transitions between
different phases and states.
 Factors Influencing Microstructure Development
1.Composition of the Alloy: The type and amount of elements in an alloy
determine the phases that will form during solidification.
2.Cooling Rate: The speed at which the material cools affects grain size,
phase distribution, and the formation of dendrites, eutectics, or other
structures.
3.Phase Diagram: The phase diagram helps predict the phases that will
appear in the microstructure at various temperatures and compositions.
4.Solidification Process: Processes like casting, welding, and 3D printing
influence microstructure development.
5.Post-Solidification Processes: Processes like heat treatment, cold working,
and annealing alter the microstructure further.
• Microstructure development involves several stages, starting from the
liquid phase during solidification to the final solid-state structure of a
material. The key stages are:
1.Nucleation: As the material cools, small clusters of atoms (nuclei) form
within the liquid. These nuclei serve as the starting points for the formation
of grains in the solid phase. Nucleation can be homogeneous (within the
liquid) or heterogeneous (on surfaces or impurities).
2.Grain Growth: Once nucleated, grains grow as the material continues to
cool. The growth occurs until the entire material solidifies, and the size and
shape of the grains depend on the cooling rate. Slow cooling results in large
grains, while fast cooling leads to fine grains.
3.Phase Formation: As cooling progresses, different phases form based on
the alloy’s composition and temperature, following the phase diagram.
These phases can include solid solutions, intermetallic compounds, or
eutectic structures, depending on the material system.
4.Dendritic Growth: In many alloys, dendrites, or tree-like structures, form
during solidification. Dendritic arms grow from the nucleation sites, and their
morphology depends on cooling rate and alloy composition.
5.Post-Solidification Transformations: In the solid state, further phase
transformations may occur through heat treatment or during slow cooling.
This includes eutectoid reactions, precipitation hardening, or martensitic
transformations.
6.Heat Treatment: Processes like annealing or quenching can modify the
microstructure to enhance mechanical properties by refining grains or
inducing phase changes.
 Microstructure of Some Common Alloys
1.Steel (Fe-C Alloy):
The microstructure depends on the carbon content and cooling rate.
Phases include ferrite (soft, ductile), austenite (high-temperature phase),
cementite (hard, brittle), pearlite (lamellar structure), and martensite
(hard, formed by rapid quenching).
2.Aluminum Alloys:
Typically have solid solution strengthening and precipitation hardening
phases like CuAl2​ in Al-Cu alloys.
3.Titanium Alloys:
Microstructure contains α-phase (hcp structure) and β-phase (bcc
structure). Heat treatment is used to control the phase distribution and
improve strength.
 Types of Binary Phase Diagram
• Binary phase diagrams are classified based on the interactions between two
components and the nature of the phases that form during cooling and
heating.
• Each of these diagrams represents different kinds of phase transformations
and reactions.
1. Isomorphous Phase Diagram
• Definition: In an isomorphous system, the two components are completely
soluble in each other in both the liquid and solid states. This means that at all
compositions, the two elements can form a single-phase solid solution.
• Key Characteristics:
• Only one solid phase exists across all compositions (usually denoted as α).
• The phase diagram shows a continuous liquidus and solidus line.
• An example of an isomorphous system is the copper-nickel (Cu-Ni) alloy
system.
• Microstructure Development: As the alloy cools from the liquid phase, it
solidifies into a single solid solution (e.g., α phase), with grains consisting of
both elements.
• Example: The copper-nickel binary phase diagram.
2. Eutectic Phase Diagram
• Definition: In a eutectic system, the two components are only partially
soluble in each other in the solid state. The key feature of a eutectic system
is the eutectic reaction, where the liquid phase transforms directly into
two solid phases simultaneously at the eutectic composition and
temperature.
• Key Characteristics:
• The diagram has a eutectic point, where the liquid transforms into two
solid phases (α + β).
• Above the eutectic temperature, a liquid phase exists. Below the
eutectic temperature, two solid phases coexist.
• The eutectic composition has a unique, fine-scale microstructure
consisting of alternating layers of the two solid phases.
• Microstructure Development: Alloys with the eutectic composition form a
fine microstructure of two solid phases (e.g., α and β) upon cooling. Alloys
with compositions other than the eutectic composition may form a primary
solid phase before the eutectic reaction occurs.
• Example: The lead-tin (Pb-Sn) binary phase diagram, commonly used in
soldering applications.
3. Eutectoid Phase Diagram
• Definition: A eutectoid reaction is similar to a eutectic reaction, but it
occurs entirely in the solid state. In this reaction, a single solid phase
transforms into two different solid phases upon cooling at the eutectoid
temperature and composition.
• Key Characteristics:
• The reaction is represented as α→β+γ where α is a single solid phase,
and β and γ are two new solid phases.
• Microstructure Development: Eutectoid transformations result in a fine,
lamellar microstructure composed of two solid phases, such as pearlite in
steel.
• Example: The iron-carbon (Fe-C) phase diagram shows a eutectoid reaction
at 0.8% carbon, where austenite (γ-phase) transforms into ferrite (α-phase)
and cementite (Fe3C).
4. Peritectic Phase Diagram
• Definition: In a peritectic system, a liquid phase and a solid phase react at a
specific composition and temperature to form a second solid phase. This
reaction is known as the peritectic reaction.
• Key Characteristics:
• The diagram shows a peritectic point where the transformation occurs:
L+α→β.
• The liquid and solid phases coexist until the peritectic reaction
temperature is reached, at which point they react to form a new solid
phase.
• Peritectic systems often result in microstructures that are more complex
than those in eutectic systems.
• Microstructure Development: Upon cooling, the first solid phase forms. Then,
at the peritectic temperature, the remaining liquid reacts with this solid to
form the second solid phase, which grows at the interface between the two
phases.
• Example: The iron-nickel (Fe-Ni) system and certain steel phase diagrams (Fe-
C) near the peritectic composition.
5. Peritectoid Phase Diagram
• Definition: A peritectoid reaction occurs when two solid phases react to
form a third solid phase upon cooling at a specific temperature and
composition.
• Key Characteristics:
• The reaction is represented as α+β→γ, where two solid phases (α and
β) react to form a new solid phase (γ).
• This type of diagram is less common than eutectic and peritectic
diagrams.
• Microstructure Development: The microstructure contains regions of the
third solid phase forming at the boundaries of the original two phases.
• Example: The uranium-molybdenum (U-Mo) binary phase diagram.
6. Monotectic Phase Diagram
• Definition: A monotectic reaction involves the transformation of one liquid phase
into a different liquid phase and a solid phase upon cooling at a specific
temperature.
• Key Characteristics:
• The diagram features two distinct liquid phases at certain compositions.
• The monotectic reaction is represented by L1→L2+α, where L1​ is the original
liquid, L2​ is the new liquid phase, and α is the solid phase.
• Monotectic systems often involve liquid immiscibility, where two liquids do
not dissolve into each other.
• Microstructure Development: As the system cools, droplets of the second liquid
phase (L2​) form within the original liquid (L1​) and may solidify upon further
cooling.
• Example: The copper-lead (Cu-Pb) binary phase diagram shows a monotectic
reaction.
7. Syntectic Phase Diagram
• Definition: A syntectic reaction occurs when two liquid phases combine to
form a solid phase at a specific composition and temperature.
• Key Characteristics:
• The diagram represents a reaction where two distinct liquids coexist
before transforming into a solid phase.
• This is a less common type of phase diagram.
• Microstructure Development: The two liquid phases first separate and
coexist before combining to form a solid phase upon cooling.
• Example: The magnesium-lead (Mg-Pb) system exhibits syntectic behavior.
 Lever Rule
The lever rule helps calculate the mass fractions of the two coexisting
phases in a two-phase region (e.g., liquid and solid). It applies when the
system is in equilibrium, typically between two phases in a region of
the phase diagram where both phases are present (like a liquid and a
solid during solidification).
 How to Apply the Lever Rule
• Consider a binary phase diagram with a mixture of two components A and B.
If you have a point within the two-phase region, it represents a composition at
a given temperature where both phases coexist. The two phases may be, for
example, a liquid phase and a solid phase.
1.Identify the composition at a given temperature: Find the overall
composition of the alloy on the x-axis (composition axis) and locate the
temperature on the y-axis (temperature axis).
2.Locate the tie line: Draw a horizontal line (called the tie line) at the given
temperature. This line intersects the phase boundaries (liquidus and solidus
lines) at two points:
1. One point corresponds to the composition of the liquid phase.
2. The other corresponds to the composition of the solid phase.
3. Calculate the fractions: Use the lever rule to calculate the mass
fraction of each phase. The formulas are:
• Numerical: Suppose we are dealing with a copper-nickel binary alloy that has
an overall composition of 30% Nickel (Ni) and 70% Copper (Cu) by weight. The
system is at a temperature where both liquid and solid phases are in
equilibrium.
• From the phase diagram:
• The composition of the liquid phase (Ci ) is 40% Nickel and 60% Copper.
• The composition of the solid phase (Cs​) is 20% Nickel and 80% Copper.
• We want to find the fraction of solid and liquid phases at this composition and
temperature.
 Iron and Iron-carbide phase diagram
or
Iron-Carbon(Fe-C) Phase Diagram
• The Iron-Carbon (Fe-C) phase diagram, particularly focusing on Iron-Iron
Carbide (Fe-Fe₃C), is a key reference in understanding the microstructure and
heat treatment of steels.
• The phase diagram helps predict the phases that will form at different
temperatures and carbon compositions, and it is critical for understanding the
mechanical properties of various steels.
Features of the Fe-Fe₃C Phase Diagram
• The Fe-Fe₃C phase diagram shows the equilibrium between iron and carbon,
with carbon compositions up to about 6.67%, representing Fe₃C (cementite).
Steels generally contain less than 2% carbon, so the region of primary interest
is between 0% and 2% carbon.
• Here are the key phases and regions of the Fe-Fe₃C diagram:
1.Ferrite (α-Fe): Ferrite is a body-centered cubic (BCC) phase of iron.
• It can dissolve a small amount of carbon (up to ~0.02% at 727°C).
• Ferrite is soft and ductile.
2.Austenite (γ-Fe): Austenite is a face-centered cubic (FCC) phase that can
dissolve much more carbon (up to ~2.11% at 1147°C).
• It is only stable at high temperatures (above ~727°C for most steels).
• Austenite is non-magnetic and more ductile than ferrite.
3.Cementite (Fe₃C): Cementite is an iron carbide (Fe₃C) compound that is very
hard and brittle.
• It forms as a separate phase and is responsible for increasing the hardness
of steel.
4.Pearlite: Pearlite is a microstructure consisting of alternating layers of ferrite
and cementite.
• It forms when austenite decomposes at lower temperatures.
• Pearlite has a mix of strength and ductility.
5.Ledeburite: Ledeburite is a mixture of austenite and cementite that forms in
high-carbon steels and cast irons (carbon content above 2.11%).
 Important Reactions in the Fe-Fe₃C Phase Diagram
•Eutectoid Reaction (727°C at 0.76% C): This is a key transformation in steels and
occurs when austenite (γ) transforms into a mixture of ferrite (α) and cementite
(Fe₃C):
γ→α+Fe3C
•This occurs at a carbon content of 0.76% at 727°C.
•The resulting microstructure is called pearlite, which is a fine mixture of ferrite and
cementite.
•Eutectic Reaction (1147°C at 4.3% C): This reaction occurs in cast irons, where liquid
iron and carbon solidify into austenite(γ) and cementite(Fe3C).
L→γ+Fe3C
•This occurs at 4.3% carbon.
•Peritectic Reaction (1493°C at 0.17% C): This reaction occurs when ferrite (δ) and
liquid combine to form austenite (γ).
δ+L→γ
•Occurs at a carbon content of about 0.17% at 1493°C.
 Regions in the Fe-Fe₃C Phase Diagram
1. Hypoeutectoid Steels (C < 0.76%):
•In hypoeutectoid steels, austenite transforms into proeutectoid ferrite and
pearlite during cooling.
•These steels have a carbon content below the eutectoid point (0.76%).
2. Eutectoid Steel (C = 0.76%):
•At exactly 0.76% carbon, the steel consists entirely of pearlite at room
temperature.
3. Hypereutectoid Steels (C > 0.76%):
•Hypereutectoid steels have a carbon content above the eutectoid point and
form proeutectoid cementite and pearlite during cooling.
4. Cast Irons (C > 2.11%):
•Cast irons have a carbon content above 2.11% and are characterized by the
formation of cementite and austenite (or graphite in the case of gray cast iron).
 Typical Compositions
• Low Carbon Steel (< 0.25% C): Mostly ferrite with some pearlite, making it
soft and ductile.
• Medium Carbon Steel (0.25% - 0.6% C): Contains more pearlite, providing a
balance between strength and ductility.
• High Carbon Steel (0.6% - 1.4% C): Contains more pearlite and some
cementite, making it hard and strong.
• Cast Iron (2.11% - 6.67% C): Forms cementite and austenite or graphite,
making it brittle but very hard.
 Important Questions and PYQ(AKTU)
1. Write down % composition of carbon in steel and cast iron.
2. What is substitutional solid solution?
3. State and explain the Hume-Rothery rule for the formation of a solid
solution.
4. Draw a neat Iron carbon equilibrium diagram. Explain the microstructure of
pearlite and Eutectoid Steels.
5. What is the use of tie lines and lever rule within two phase regions? Explain
it with copper nickel binary phase diagram.
6. What is solid solution? Enlist types of solid solution and explain it.
7. Explain Degree of Freedom used in Phase Diagram.
8. Describe various types of micro-constituents of Eutectic Steel (at STP).
9. Explain Gibbs Phase rule.
10. Differentiate between brass and bronze.
11. Describe super alloy and give its one example.
12. Describe cast iron and discuss composition and application of Grey cast iron,
malleable cast iron, white cast iron and spheroidal cast iron.
13. Draw and explain the iron carbon diagram and show all invariant reaction
and phases in it.

14. In a Lead Tin (Pb-Sn) system the following invariant reaction was observed at
a temperature of 183° C

Melting points of Lead and Tin are 327°C and 232°C. (i) Draw the phase diagram.
(ii) Calculate the fraction of total a in the alloy containing 80% Sn at 182°C.
Explain the procedure of constructing a phase diagram in which two metals are
soluble in liquid state but fully insoluble in solid state. Also explain the
solidification of hypoeutectoid alloy of your choice
 Superalloys
• Superalloys are a class of high-performance alloys designed to withstand
extreme conditions, particularly high temperatures, mechanical stress, and
corrosive environments.
• They are primarily used in applications where these extreme conditions would
degrade ordinary metals, such as in jet engines, gas turbines, nuclear reactors,
and chemical plants.
• Key Characteristics of Superalloys:
1.High Temperature Strength: They maintain strength and resist deformation at
temperatures where many metals would weaken.
2.Oxidation and Corrosion Resistance: Superalloys resist oxidation and
corrosion, which is crucial in high-temperature and chemically active
environments.
3.Creep Resistance: Superalloys have excellent creep resistance, meaning they
can resist gradual deformation over long periods, even under high stress.
4.Fatigue Resistance: They are highly resistant to cyclic loading and fatigue
failure, making them suitable for rotating parts like turbine blades.
Types of Superalloys:
1.Nickel-Based Superalloys: Most widely used in high-temperature applications, especially
in jet engines and gas turbines. Examples include Inconel, Hastelloy, and Rene alloys.
1. Properties: Excellent thermal stability, oxidation resistance, and strength at high
temperatures.
2. Structure: Often have a face-centered cubic (FCC) crystal structure with a secondary
phase called γ′ (gamma prime), which helps in strengthening the alloy.
2.Cobalt-Based Superalloys: These superalloys are often used where hot corrosion
resistance is needed.
1. Properties: Good oxidation and corrosion resistance, especially at temperatures
lower than that of nickel-based alloys.
2. Structure: Face-centered cubic (FCC) structure, with carbide-forming elements to
improve strength.
3.Iron-Based Superalloys: These are based on iron-nickel or iron-nickel-cobalt and are less
common in high-end applications.
1. Properties: Good high-temperature performance and more cost-effective than
nickel-based superalloys but not as strong at extremely high temperatures.
2. Structure: Body-centered cubic (BCC) or FCC structures, depending on composition.
• Example: Nickel-Based Superalloy for a Jet Engine Turbine Blade
• For a jet engine turbine blade, a nickel-based superalloy would be chosen for
its ability to withstand both the high temperatures of combustion and the
stresses from high-speed rotation. A typical alloy might contain elements like
aluminum and titanium to enhance the γ′\gamma'γ′ phase, along with
chromium for oxidation resistance. The blade might also be single-crystal cast
to eliminate grain boundaries, which enhances creep resistance.
 Cast Iron
• Cast Iron is a group of iron-carbon alloys with a carbon content greater than
2%, typically ranging from 2% to 4%. It is known for its excellent castability,
machinability, and high wear resistance, making it a widely used material in a
range of engineering applications.
• Key Characteristics of Cast Iron:
1.High Carbon Content: The high carbon content distinguishes it from steel and
gives it a lower melting point, making it easier to cast.
2.Brittleness: While strong under compression, cast iron is brittle and has poor
tensile strength, meaning it can crack or shatter under tension.
3.Good Wear Resistance: Due to its hardness and carbon structure, it resists
wear, making it ideal for parts like engine blocks, pipes, and cookware.
4.Good Damping Capacity: Cast iron has good vibration damping properties,
making it suitable for machine bases and engine blocks.
 Types of Cast Iron
• Cast iron can be classified based on its microstructure, which is largely
influenced by its carbon content, cooling rate, and alloying elements.
1.Gray Cast Iron:
1. Structure: It contains graphite flakes that give it a grayish appearance
when fractured.
2. Properties: It has high thermal conductivity, excellent machinability, good
damping capacity, but low tensile strength and brittle.
3. Applications: Engine blocks, pipes, cookware, frames of heavy machines.
2.White Cast Iron:
1. Structure: It contains cementite (Fe₃C) rather than free graphite, which
makes it appear white upon fracture.
2. Properties: It is very hard and wear-resistant but extremely brittle, making
it difficult to machine.
3. Applications: Wear-resistant surfaces, such as in grinding equipment,
liners, and mill balls.
3. Ductile (or Nodular) Cast Iron:
•Structure: It contains graphite in the form of spherical nodules rather than flakes,
which improves ductility.
•Properties: It is much more ductile and impact-resistant than gray cast iron and has
better tensile strength.
•Applications: Automotive components, gears, crankshafts, and pipes that require
strength and toughness.

4. Malleable Cast Iron:

•Structure: It is produced by heat-treating white cast iron to transform cementite into
clusters of graphite.
•Properties: It is more ductile than white cast iron and has good machinability.
•Applications: Small, thin sections like fittings, brackets, and hardware that require
some ductility.
5. Compacted Graphite Iron (CGI):
• Structure: Graphite exists as short, interconnected flakes.
• Properties: It combines the strength and toughness of ductile iron with the
machinability of gray iron.
• Applications: Diesel engine blocks, brake components, and other high-
performance applications.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
• Good castability: Cast iron can be easily molded into complex shapes.
• Excellent wear resistance: Useful for components subjected to wear.
• Damping capacity: Good for parts where vibration control is essential.
• Cost-effective: Cast iron is inexpensive and widely available.
Disadvantages:
• Brittle: Prone to cracking or breaking under tensile loads.
• Heavy: Has a relatively high density, making it unsuitable for weight-sensitive
applications.
• Low impact resistance: Susceptible to sudden failure under impact.
 Applications of Cast Iron
• Gray Iron: Engine blocks, pipes, machinery bases, cookware, manhole
covers.
• White Iron: Grinding equipment, cement mixers, and abrasion-resistant
parts.
• Ductile Iron: Automotive parts, gears, valves, pipes, and crankshafts.
• Malleable Iron: Fittings, brackets, and other components that require
moderate ductility.
• Compacted Graphite Iron: High-performance engine blocks and brake
components.