UNIT- IV- ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR

Habitat Selection

Habitat selection is the process by which organisms actively select

habitats (natural environment) to live. Eg. Mayfly nymphs inhabit the
underside of stones in fast-flowing streams and burrow in sediments in still
water.

Habitat is the natural environment where an animal usually lives.

Habitat provides shelter; food, protection, mates and space for breeding,
feeding, resting, roosting, courtship, grooming, sleeping, etc.

Rich habitats give higher fitness" to the organisms living there.

Poor habitats give lower fitness.

The quality of the habitat consists of the following variables:

➢ Food availability
➢ Predator occurrence
➢ Ease of defense
➢ Likelihood of offspring survival
➢ Microclimate changes
➢ Distance to human settlements.

Habitats are heterogeneous. There are many factors that are involved in the
organism's choice of habitat.

Animals must be able to tolerate two kinds of factors in the habitat,

namely: 1.Abiotic factors

2. Biotic factors

Abiotic factors are non-biological factor

Abiotic factors include temperature, humidity, salinity and pH.

Biotic factors include competition, predation and disease.

If both abiotic and biotic factors can be tolerated, the animal able to find the
resources that it needs to survive.

Habitat selection is a hierarchical process.

Habitat selection is generated by foraging decisions. Foraging is the only

process of driving habitat selection.

Heredity and experience play a role in determining selection It involves a series

of innate and learned behavioural decisions made by an animal. It is an active
behavioural process that may vary across spatial and temporal scales. It is
more complex.

A species actively prefers or avoids certain types of habitat Evaluation of

habitat selection is a hierarchical process coined by Johnson in 1980. It may
result in the disproportionate use of habitats to influence survival and fitness
of individuals. Habitat may be selected for the following purposes: Cover
availability Forage quality and quantity.

Resting or denning sites. Each of these may vary seasonally. If an individual or

species demonstrates disproportional use of any factor, then selection is
inferred for those criteria. Hilden structured his ideas on habitat selection by
categorizing the differences between proximate and ultimate factors.
 Food Selection

Food selection is the ability of animals to select the beneficial food. Food
is a source of energy. Food is required for movement, migration, courtship,
performing various activities etc. All animals select specific food in their natural
habitat. Food selection implies food ingestion. Food ingestion implies the
presence of food.

Food selection includes food search process. The food search process is
searching images and mechanisms for finding appropriate food stimuli in the
environment.

Honey bees have highly developed food search system. Food selection
also implies the ability to capture food and to assimilate it.

Food ingestion depends on an internal state indicating a need for the

particular food. It also depends on the recognition of the potential food as the
required food.

Omnivores, such as rats and humans, face with an enormous number of

potential foods. They are always cautious of eating something harmful or eating
too much of a good thing.

Types:
❖ Carnivores
❖ Scavengers
❖ Herbivores
❖ Saprophytes
❖ Omnivores

Frugivores eat mainly fruit.

Browsers eat mostly leaves.

Animals that eat mostly grass are grazing animals. Eg. Goat, elephant, cows,
horses, deer, rhinoceros, wildebeest, monkey, sheep, rabbit, panda, koala, etc.

3.Omnivores

An omnivore is an animal that eats, both plants and animals. The food
may include eggs, insects, fungi and algae. Many omnivores are opportunistic
feeders. Eg. Cassowary, chickens, crows, rooks, emus, hummingbirds,
ostriches, robins.

4.Scavengers

A scavenger is an organism that mostly consumes decaying biomass, such as

meat or rotting plant material. Many scavengers are carnivores.

Optimal Foraging Theory

Optimal foraging theory (OFT) is a model that helps to predict an animal

behaves when searching for food. Optimal foraging theory was first formulated
by Robert MacArthur, JMEnilen and Eric Pianka in 1966.

It is an ecological application of the optimality model. Optimal foraging

illustrates that the organisms forage in such a way to maximize their net
energy intake per unit time.

Although the animal obtains energy from the food, searching for and
capturing the food require both energy and time. This theory is based on a
number of assumptions. This theory assumes that the most economically
advantageous foraging pattern will be selected by a species through natural
selection.

The theory was devised in an attempt to explain, why animals often

restrict themselves to a few preferred food types, even though there is an
availability of wide ranges of food. The prediction is that an animal strikes a
balance between two contrasting strategies:

Predators are categorized into two types, namely:

1. Searching predator

2. Sit-and-wait predator

Assumptions behind optimal foraging theory are as given during

foraging.

1.There should be a heritable component of foraging behaviour

2. The relationship between foraging behaviour and fitness is known.

3. Evolution of foraging behaviour is subject to functional not prevented

by genetic

5. Evolution of foraging behaviour is subject to " functional', stants that

have been realistically determined.

1. Searching Predator

A searching predator moves throughout its habitat and finds its

Searching predators encounter and consume non-movingprey populatim The
prey density must be low. The predator's energy requirements must be high.

2. Sit-and-wait Predator

A sit-and-wait predator waits for its prey to come close to its point of
observation. It mostly relies on moving preys or that have high prey mobility.
The prey density must be relatively high. The predator's energy requirements
must be low. The sit-and-wait foraging mode is less common during periods of
prey scarcity.
 Building an Optimal Foraging Model An optimal foraging model generates
quantitative predictions of how, animals maximize their fitness while they
forage. The model building process involves identifying the following factors:

1. Currency

2. Constraints

3. Optimal decision rule

1. Currency is defined as the net energy gain that is optimized by the

animal per unit time.

2. Constraints are hypotheses about the limitations that are placed on an

animal. It can be due to features of the environment or plassilogy of the animal.

Feeding Systems and Classes of Predators Optimal foraging theory is

applicable tofeeding systems throughout the animal kingdom. The optimization
of these different foraging and predation strategies can be explained by the
optimal foraging theory. There are different classes of predators. They are the
following:

✓ True predators
✓ Parasites
✓ Grazers
✓ Parasitoids

1. True predators attack large numbers of prey throughout their life. •

They kill their prey either immediately or shortly after the attack. • They may
eat all or only part of their prey. • It includes tigers, lions, whales, sharks,
seed-eating birds, ants and humans.

2. Grazers eat only a portion of their prey. They harm the prey, but rarely
kill it. It includes antelope, cattle and mosquitoes.
 3. Parasites eat only a part of their prey (host), but rarely the entire
organism.

Antipredator Defences

Antipredator defence is the behaviour which provides protection the prey

against the predator.

Defenses are the acts of animals that reduce the chances of it being
harmed by another animal.

Animals have a wide range of defences against predators. Defense

mechanisms are very important in the life of all animals. The most common
system of defence is adaptation against predators.

Animals may also have defences against parasites and other members f
their own species.

Defence against predators are of two types, namely:

1. Primary defences

2. Secondary defences

Primary Defences

primary defences are the protective mechanisms found in prey animals,

which operate before a predator starts to catch the prey It is also a defense
mechanism which operates, whether a predator is nearby or not. It reduces the
probability that a predator.

It reduces the probability that a predator will encounter the prey. It

includes the following methods:

• Hiding away
 • Mimicry
• Crypsis
• Warning sounds
• Warning colouration
• Mimesis

1. Hiding Away Hiding away is the primary defence mechanism, in which

prey animals stay out of the sight of predator.

Animals hide themselves by living in holes or crevices, ground or by

being nocturnal. Nocturnality is an animal behaviour, in which an animal its
activities during night and sleeps during day time. This is a behavioural form of
detection avoidance us They cannot be seen unless the predator searches
carefulled by animals The hidden animal, however has to come out into the
open from their hidden place. , area But while hidden, it is relatively safe. Eg.
Fruit bats forage during night, evening time emergence in echoloc bats,
kangaroo rats exhibit moonlight avoidance to avoid predators.

Crypsis is the ability of a prey animal to conceal itself from its predator
by having a colour, pattern and shape that allows, it to blend to its
surroundings. It is also called cryptic coloration. It is a tactic that organisms
use to disguise their appearance

Mimicry is the close external resemble mimic, to some different

organism, the model. It is the similarity of one species to an odler which one It
is a situation in which one species called the mimic, resembles in colour, form
and behaviour of another species, called the rnodel The model and the mimic
are not always closely related. The model and mimic usually live in the same
area. The two most common types of mimicry are as follows.

l. Batesian mimicry
2. Mullerian mimicry
 Homing

Homing, ability of certain animals to return to a given place when

displaced from it, often over great distances.

The major navigational clues used by homing animals seem to be the

same as those used in migration (Sun angle, star patterns, Earth’s magnetic
field, etc.), but homing may occur in any compass direction and at any season.

Most of the best-known examples of strong homing ability are

among birds, particularly racing, or homing, pigeons.

Many other birds, especially seabirds and also swallows, are known to
have equal or better homing abilities.

A Manx shearwater (Puffinus puffinus), transported in a closed container

to a point about 5,500 km (3,400 miles) from its nest, returned to the nest in
12 1/2 days.

Non-avian animals that have homing abilities include some species

of reptiles and fishes.

When female loggerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta) emerge from their
shells, they imprint on the unique magnetic field signature of the beach on
which they hatched and can navigate back to it as adults to lay eggs of their
own.

In addition, experimental studies have shown that several species

of salmon can navigate back to their spawning streams by using their olfactory
senses to find the unique chemical signature of the waterway, and
juvenile sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka), like loggerhead sea turtles, also
appear to navigate using magnetic fields, from the ocean back to their
spawning streams

Biological Rhythms

Definition , a rhythm is a change that is repeated with a similar pattern.

Humans, like all other organisms that inhabit this Earth, have a rhythmic
order underlying life. Actually, change, not constancy, is the norm for life and
the rhythmic timing of change makes predictability a reality.
A Time for Everything
The rhythmic nature of life influences the very existence of organisms,
commencing before conception and extending beyond death. Rhythms may be
the most ubiquitous, yet overlooked, phenomena of life (Luce, 1970). They are
such an integral part of life that the absence or perturbation of specific
oscillations (e.g.,brain waves and heart beats) in humans and other animals is
used in the practice of medicine to distinguish between life and death, as well
as between illness and good health
Three Rhythm Domains
Much of the early work on biological rhythms focused on cycles in which
the period was 24 h. These rhythms are referred to as circadian rhythms
because they reoccur with a period of 24 h during usual light–dark conditions,
and can continue with a period close to 24.0 h when the organism is isolated
from external cues. Thus, periods of about (circa) a day (dies) are present when
organisms are isolated from environmental 24-h cycles, such as the alternating
light and darkness of the solar day, and/or changes in temperature. This “free-
running” period is an important characteristic of a circadian rhythm. In
addition, the period is relatively consistent over a range of temperatures
(temperature compensation). These and other characteristics are discussed
more extensively in
General Features of Rhythms.
While the circadian rhythms represent the dominant cycle that has been
studied relative to the activities of humans and other organisms, cycles having
periods shorter or longer than circadian, such as 90-min or seasonal cycles,
are also important. Biological cycles that have periods less than 20 h are called
ultradian rhythms, while cycles with periods longer than 28 h are called
infradian rhythms. Depending upon the variable, infradian periods can be
measured in weeks, months, years (circannual), and longer. Collectively, these
three rhythmic domains comprise a network or web of rhythmic oscillations
that in many ways can be likened to the various chemical pathways that
perform different functions, but occur simultaneously within the same
organelle or cell.

Fishes migration

▪ In ecology, it is an animal behaviour of mass movement of animals from

one place to another.
▪ The purposes for migration varies accordingly with the types of animals.
▪ Migratory behaviour of fish is a regular phenomenon. Their journey is
purposed mainly for feeding and reproduction.

Types fish migration on the basis of needs:

1. Alimentary or Feeding migration: migration for search of feeding

ground. It occur when food resources get exhausted.
2. Gametic or spwaning migration: it occur during breeding season in
search for the suitable spawning ground.
3. Climatic or seasonal migration: migration in search for suitable climatic
condition.
4. Osmo-regulatory migration: migration for water and electrolytes balance
from sea to fresh water and vice-versa.
5. Juvenile migration: it is larval migration from spawning ground to the
feeding habitats of their parent.

Movement of fishes during the migration

1. Drifting movement: It is a passive movement of fish along with water

currents
 2. Dispersal movement: It is a random locomotory movement of fish from a
uniform habitat to diverse direction
3. Swimming movement: It is an orientated movement of fish either toward
or away from the source of stimulus
4. Denatant and Contranatant movement: It is an active swimming
movement. Denatant movement is swimming with the water current while
contrantant movement is swimming against water current

Types of fish migration

The migration of some fishes is a regular journey and is truly an innate animal
behaviour. Fish migration are classified into following types:

1. Diadromous migration:

▪ it is the migration of fish between sea and fresh water.

▪ As we know, most of the fishes are restricted to either fresh water or sea
water. Changes in habitat may causes osmotic imbalance in those fishes.
However some fishes regularly migrate between sea and fresh water and
have perfect osmotic balance, they are the true migratory fish.
▪ This migration is of two types-
i. Anadromous migration:
▪ it is the migration of marine fishes from sea to fresh water for spawning.
▪ Fishes spend most of their life living and feeding in sea.
▪ They only migrate during breeding season to the river for spawning
ground.
▪ Eg. Salmon, Hisla, Lamprey etc.
▪ Salmon migrate for breeding during winter from sea to river. While
migrating, some physiological changes occurs:
▪ – stops feeding during journey
▪ – changes colour from silver to dull reddish brown
▪ – gonads mature
▪ They select suitable spawning ground and make a saucer-like nest in
which female lays eggs and male releases smelt over them. Juvenile larva
hatched out from the egg known as Alevins. Alveins then transform into
parr and metamorphosed into adult when return to the sea.
ii. Catadronous migration:
▪ It is the migration of fresh water fishes from river to sea during breeding
season for spawning. Eg. Eel (Anguilla spp)
▪ Both European eel (Anguilla anguilla or Anguilla vulgaris) and the
American eel (Anguilla rostrata) migrate from the continental rivers to
Sargasso Sea off Bermuda in south Atlantic for spawning, crossing
Atlantic Ocean.
 ▪ Before and during migration some physiological changes occur in their
bodies:
▪ – deposit large amount of fat in their bodies which serves as reserve food
during the journey
▪ – Colour changes from yellow to metallic silvery grey.
▪ – Digestive tract shrinks and stops feeding
▪ – Eyes get enlarged and vision sharpens. Other sensory organs also
become sensitive.
▪ – Skin serves respiratory organ.
▪ – Gonads get matured and enlarged.
▪ The lay eggs in suitable spawning ground and are fertilized by males. After
spawning they die. The larva hatch out and develop into young ell and
finally return to river.

2. Potamodromous migration:

▪ it is fresh water migration of fresh from one habitat to another for feeding
or spawning.
▪ Eg. Carps, catfish

3. Oceanodromous migration:

▪ It is the migration of fish within sea in search of suitable feeding and

spawning ground.
▪ eg. Clupea, Thummus, Tuna

4. Latitudinal migration:

▪ it is the migration of fish from north to south and vice-versa.

▪ It is a climatic migration.
▪ Eg. Sward fish migrate north in spring and south in autumn.

5. Vertical migration:

▪ it is a daily migration of fish from deep to the surface and vice-versa for
food, protection and spawning.
▪ Eg. Sward fish usually move vertically downward to greater depth for food.

6. Shoreward migration:

▪ it is the migration of fish from water to land. However it is a temporary

migration.
▪ Eg. Eel migrate from one pond to another pond via moist meadow grass.
Significance of fish migration

▪ to find suitable feeding and spawning ground

▪ for protection from predators
▪ survive from extreme climatic conditions
▪ increases genetic diversity
▪ it is an adaptational characters for survival and existences

Bird Migration
1. Definition of Bird Migration:

▪ The word “migration” has come from the Latin word migrara which
means going from one place to another. Many birds have the inherent
quality to move from one place to another to obtain the advantages of the
favourable condition.
▪ In birds, migration means two-way journeys—onward journey from the
‘home’ to the ‘new’ places and back journey from the ‘new’ places to the
‘home’. This movement occurs during the particular period of the year
and the birds usually follow the same route. There is a sort of ‘internal
biological clock’ which regulates the phenomenon.

Definition:
▪ According to L. Thomson (1926), bird migration may be described
as “changes of habitat periodically recurring and alternating in
direction, which tend to secure optimum environmental conditions
at all times”.
▪ 2. Types of Bird Migration:
▪ All birds do not migrate, but all species are subject to periodical
movements of varying extent. The birds which live in northern part of the
hemisphere have greatest migratory power.

▪ Migration may be:

▪ (i) Latitudinal,

▪ (ii) Longitudinal,
 ▪ (iii) Altitudinal or Vertical,

▪ (iv) Partial,

▪ (v) Total,

▪ (vi) Vagrant or Irregular,

▪ (vii) Seasonal,

▪ (viii) Diurnal and

▪ (ix) Nocturnal.

▪ (i) Latitudinal migration:

▪ The latitudinal migration usually means the movement from north to
south, and vice versa. Most birds live in the land masses of the northern
temperate and subarctic zones where they get facilities for nesting and
feeding during summer. They move towards south during winter.

▪ An opposite but lesser movement also occurs in the southern hemisphere

when the seasons are changed. Cuckoo breeds in India and spends the
summer at South-east Africa and thus covers a distance of about 7250
km.

▪ (ii) Longitudinal migration:

▪ The longitudinal migration occurs when the birds migrate from east to
west and vice- versa. Starlings (Sturnus vulgaris), a resident of east
Europe and west Asia migrate towards the Atlantic coast. California
gulls, a resident and breed in Utah, migrate westward to winter in the
Pacific coast.

Conditioning

Conditioning is a learning behaviour in which an organism's behaviour

becomes dependent on the occurrence of a stimulus in its environment.

It is a learned behaviour.
 Classical Conditioning

Classical conditioning is a learning process by which an animal responds

to a previously neutral stimulus, after the animal repeatedly encounters the
neutral stimulus together with another stimulus that already elicited the
response.
It is also called respondent conditioning.
In classical conditioning, two stimuli are given.
One of them will eventually induce a response resembling that of the
other.
It is a traditional technique devised by Ivan P. Pavlov.
Classical conditioning is supported by the experiment ofPavlov on dogs.
• A dog is placed in a room.
• Food is given to the dog.
• The dog produces saliva to digest the food. The dog's response of
salivation on eating food is an unconditioned response (UR) to food. The food is
the unconditioned stimulus (US).
• Now, the food is given after ringing a bell. It is repeated for few days.
• The dog learns that food will be given after the bell sound.
• Now, the bell was rung; but food was not given.
• The dog salivates on hearing the sound of the bell itself.
• Here, the bell's sound is the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the
salivation on hearing the sound is called conditioned response (CR).

Applications of Classical Conditioning

1. Classical conditioning is the basis of learning.
2. It helps in behavioral therapies such as aversion therapy

Aversion therapy is designed to make patients give up an undesirable

habit by causing them to associate it with an unpleasant effect.
Systemic sensitization is a treatment for phobias in which the pa- tient is
trained to relax while being exposed to progressively more anxietyprovoking
stimuli (Eg. Angry words)
 Flooding attempts to eliminate an unwanted CR.
3. It is used to bring conditioned drug response.
4. It is used to induce conditioned hunger.
5. It is used to create conditioned emotional response

Habituation
Habituation is the gradual decrease of response when the animal
exposed to repeated harmless stimuli.
This concept states that an animal or human may ignore a stimulu
The organism decreases its response to a repeated stimulus, when the
animal learns that the stimulus has no danger.
Thompson and Spencer (1966) first described the characteristics of
habituation. Habituation is opposite to sensitization where the response
increases on repeated stimulation.
The stimulus is received and perceived by the animal, but the animal has
decided not to pay attention.
Habituation does not require the animal or person to be aware of this
process. It may occur naturally or unconsciously.
Habituation is actually a basic process in animals. Without it, we would
not have the ability to identify the meaningful and changing environment from
relevant and irrelevant ones.
Habituation is present in every species of animal including man. In
habituation, there is a gradual decline of behaviour.
Animals may neglect repeated sudden loud noises when they lean that
this sound has no damaging effect.
This stimulus is not connected with any punishment or reward. Hence
habituation is a non - associative learning.
It is a learned adaptation to the repeated stimulus and there is no
reduction in sensory or motor ability.
Characteristics of Habituation
The key characteristics of habituation are the following:
1. Duration
If the stimulus is not presented for a long enough period, the response will
once again reappear at full- strength, a phenomenon known as spontaneous
recovery.

2. Frequency
The more frequently a stimulus is presented, a faster habituation will occur.
An increase in the frequency of stimulation, will increase the rate of
habituation. If you apply the same perfume every day, you're more likely to
stop noticing it earlier each time.
3. Intensity
Very intense stimuli tend to result in slower habituation.
4. Change
Changing the intensity or duration of the stimulation may result in the
reoccurrence of the original response.
Causes of Habituation
There are two theories for the causes of habituation. They are
1. Single factor theory
2. Dual factor theory

1.Single factor theory

It suggests that the constant repetition of a stimulus changes the efficacy
of that stimulus. The more we hear it, the less we notice it. It becomes
uninteresting to our brains, in a way.
2.Dual-factor theory
It suggests that there are underlying neural processes that regulate
responsiveness to different stimuli. So, our brain decides for us that we don't
need to worry about that useless stimulus because we have more valuable
things on which to focus our attention

Insight Learning (Reasoning)

Insight learning refers to the sudden realisation of a solution a problem

by thought without any real trial and error.
It is also known as reasoning.
 It is a type of problem solving that happens all of a sudden by standing
the relationship of various parts of a problem.
It is the most complicated form of learning. Insight learning was first
researched by Wolfgang Kohler.
It is a form of cognitive learning, where animals use insighttl accomplish
something.
It is achieved through cognitive processes.
It occurs when one suddenly realizes, on how to solve a problem It
involves gradual shaping. It results in a long-lasting change.
Properties of Insight Learning
Insight learning has the following properties:
1. Insight learning is sudden and complete.
2. Performance is smooth without errors.
3. Principles learned by insight can be easily applied to other problems.
6. It leads to change in perception.
7. With insight, the organisms tend to perceive a pattern or organization.
8. It is related with higher order animals and not with lower animals.
9. Age influences insight learning.
Insight Learning by Kohler's Experiment
Kohler's experiments demonstrate the role of intelligence and cognitive
abilities in higher learning and problem solving situation. He devised a number
of experiments, A few of them are the following:
Kohler's Experiment 1
1.Kohler put the chimpanzee, Sultan inside a cage.
2.A banana was hung from the roof of the cage.
3.A box was placed inside the cage.
4.The chimpanzee tried to reach the banana by jumping, but could not
succeed.
5.Suddenly, he got an idea and used the box as a climbingplatform.
6.He placed it just below the hanging banana, climbed on it and reached
the banana.
Kohler's Experiment - 2
1. Kohler put the chimpanzee, Sultan inside a cage.
2. A banana was hung from the roof of the cage. 3. He placed two to
three boxes inside the cage. The chimpanzee placed one box over
the other and reached the banana.
Kohler's Experiment - 3
1. In a more complicated experiment, the banana was placed out. side the cage
of the chimpanzee.
2. Two sticks, one longer than the other were placed inside the cage.
3. One stick was hollow at one end so that the other stick could be thrust into
it to form a long stick.
4. The banana was kept at a distance that it could not be picked up by any one
of the sticks.

Associative Learning
Associative learning is the ability of animals to associate one
environmental feature with another. Memory is the key to all associative
learning. Associative learning is a learned behaviour.
It is a learning to associate one stimulus with another. In one type of
learning, an animal learns to link a particular lus to a particular outcome.
For example, a dog may expect to go for a walk, when the owner picks up
the leash.
In trial and error learning, an animal learns to associate one of its
behaviour with a positive or negative effect.
Eg. A white footed mouse will avoid eating caterpillars with spe. cific
colours after getting a bad experience with a distasteful monarcJ butterfly
caterpillars. It occurs when you learn something based on a new stimulus.
Types of Associative Learning
There are two types of associative learning. They are as follows:
l. Classical conditioning
 2. Operant conditioning
Classical Conditioning
The components of classical conditioning are as follows:
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
Unconditioned response (UCR)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
Conditioned response (CR)
Neutral stimulus (NS)

Unconditioned stimulus - The unconditioned stimulus is one that

unconditionally, naturally and automatically triggers a response. Eg. Food
given to unconditioned dog.
Unconditioned Response - The unlearned response that occurs naturally
in response to the unconditioned stimulus. Eg. Salivation by unconditioned
dog on eating food Conditioned stimulus - A previously neutral stimulus that,
after becoming associated with the unconditioned stimulus eventually comes to
trigger a conditioned response.
Salivation on hearing the sound of a bell.
Neutral stimulus - A stimulus initially does not elicit respo be
conditioned. Eg. Bell sound before conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
The following are the principles of classical conditioning Acquisition
Stimulus generalization Discrimination Extinction Spontaneous recovery