Overview of Computer Organization and

Architecture
and
Introduction to Microprocessors
Presented by
Er. Irfan Rasool
 Exploring Computer Organization and Architecture

● The fundamental building blocks of modern

computers
● Essential Components and their intricate
interplay
● How computers process information
● Execute Instructions, and
● Interact with the outside world.
Von Neumann Architecture

The Von Neumann Architecture is a

design model that describes a system
where the CPU, memory, and I/O
devices are interconnected and share
a single memory space for both
instructions and data.
Von Neumann Architecture

Advantages:
● Simplicity: The design is straightforward, making it easier to understand and
implement.
● Flexibility: Programs can be easily modified and executed by the CPU.
● Uniformity: A single memory space simplifies the architecture and the design of
compilers and operating systems.

Disadvantages:
● Von Neumann Bottleneck: The shared bus for data and instructions can become a
performance bottleneck, as the CPU must wait for data or instructions to be
transferred from memory.
● Sequential Processing: The architecture inherently supports sequential execution,
which can limit performance in tasks requiring parallelism.
Basic Components of Microcomputer(Harvard
Architecture)
Separate Connection of Memory and I/O Devices with CPU
Basic Computer Structure
Central Processing Unit Memory Input/Output (I/O)
(CPU) Devices
The brain of the computer, the Memory stores data and I/O devices allow the computer

CPU executes instructions, instructions that the CPU needs to interact with the outside

performs calculations, and to access quickly. There are two world. This includes everything

manages the flow of data. It main types: RAM (Random from keyboards and mice for

contains the Arithmetic Logic Access Memory) for temporary user input to monitors and

Unit (ALU) and the Control Unit data and storage devices like printers for output, as well as

(CU) which work together to hard drives or SSDs for network cards for

process instructions. long-term data storage. communication.

Instruction Set Architecture (ISA)
Instruction Set
1
The ISA defines the set of instructions that a CPU can understand and execute. It's like a
language that the CPU uses to communicate with the programmer. These instructions can be
categorized into data transfer, arithmetic and logic operations, control flow, and I/O
operations.

Addressing Modes
2
Addressing modes determine how the CPU accesses data in memory. Common addressing
modes include register addressing, immediate addressing, direct addressing, and indirect
addressing.

Data Types
3
The ISA specifies the data types that the CPU can handle. These can include integers,
floating-point numbers, characters, and even more complex data structures like arrays and
structures.

Instruction Formats
4
Instructions are stored in memory in a specific format. This format defines how the opcode,
operands, and other necessary information are encoded within each instruction.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
Arithmetic Operations
1
The ALU performs basic arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. These operations are essential for calculations, data
manipulation, and program execution.

Logical Operations
2
The ALU can also perform logical operations such as AND, OR, XOR, and NOT. These
operations are used for bit-level manipulation, comparisons, and decision making
within programs.

Shift and Rotate Operations

3
The ALU can shift or rotate bits within data. These operations are useful for bit
manipulation, binary conversions, and efficient data processing.

Comparison Operations
4
The ALU can compare data values, determining if they are equal, greater than, or less
than. This capability is crucial for conditional branching and decision-making within
programs.
Control Unit (CU)
Instruction Fetch
The CU fetches instructions from memory and decodes them to determine the
operation to be performed.

Operand Fetch
The CU fetches the operands required for the instruction from memory or
registers.

Execution
The CU controls the ALU to execute the instruction and generate the result.

Result Storage
The CU stores the result of the operation in memory or registers.
Memory Systems
Cache Memory
A small, fast memory that stores frequently accessed data, improving
performance by reducing the time to access data from slower main memory.

Main Memory (RAM)

The primary memory used for storing active programs and data that the CPU
needs to access quickly. It's volatile, meaning data is lost when the computer
is turned off.

Secondary Storage (Hard Drive, SSD)

Non-volatile storage for long-term data persistence, storing operating
systems, applications, and user files. It's slower than RAM but retains data
even when the computer is powered off.
Input/Output (I/O) Organization
I/O Device Function

Keyboard User input of text and commands.

Mouse Cursor control and interaction with

graphical interfaces.

Monitor Visual output for displaying text,

graphics, and video.

Hard Drive Long-term storage for operating

systems, applications, and user files.

Network Card Communication with other

computers and networks.
Parallel Architectures
Multi-core Processors
A single chip with multiple processing cores, enabling parallel execution of
instructions, improving performance for multi-threaded applications.

Clusters
A collection of interconnected computers working together as a single system,
distributing tasks across multiple machines for increased processing power.

Grid Computing

A distributed computing paradigm that leverages geographically dispersed

computers to solve complex problems, often used in scientific research and
high-performance computing.

Cloud Computing

A model for delivering computing services over the internet, including storage,
processing, and software, allowing users to access resources on demand.
Interrupts and Exception Handling
Interrupt Request
1
An interrupt signal is generated by a device or an event, interrupting the normal flow
of execution.

Interrupt Handler
2
The CPU saves its current state and jumps to a specific interrupt handler routine
designed to address the interrupt.

Interrupt Processing
3
The interrupt handler performs actions to address the cause of the interrupt, such as
handling I/O requests or recovering from an error.

Return to Execution
4
The interrupt handler restores the CPU's state and returns control to the interrupted
program.
Computer Security

Malware Cyberattacks
Harmful software designed to disrupt computer Malicious attempts to compromise computer systems,
operations, steal data, or gain unauthorized access. It networks, or data. These can include hacking, phishing,
can include viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. denial-of-service attacks, and ransomware.
But We Have to Focus on
Microprocessor Only
Processor
Different
Types of
Processors
Processor
Installation
Understanding
Processor
and
Microprocessor
Processor: The Heart of Computing
A processor is a general term for any device that interprets and executes instructions. It
processes data by performing calculations and operations as dictated by a computer program.
Function: The processor is responsible for executing instructions from software, performing
operations such as arithmetic, logic, control, and input/output operations.

The processor is the brain of a computer, responsible for interpreting instructions, executing
commands, and controlling the flow of information within the system.

● General-purpose Computing
○ Central Processing Units (CPUs)
● Graphics and Parallel Processing
○ Graphics Processing Units (GPUs)
● Signal Processing
○ Digital Signal Processors (DSPs)
● ASICs
● FPGAs
Microprocessor: The Single-Chip Revolution
A Microprocessor is a specific type of processor that incorporates the functions of a CPU on a single integrated circuit (IC).

Functions:
● It performs all the tasks of a CPU, including fetching, decoding, and executing instructions .
● Microprocessors are the brain of computers and many other electronic devices.
● Single-Chip Integration
○ All CPU functions on a single IC

Example: Intel 8086, AMD Ryzen, ARM Cortex.

 Core: The Individual Processing Unit
A Core is an individual processing unit within a processor. Each core can independently
execute instructions.
Function: A single core can handle one task (or thread) at a time. Modern processors often
have multiple cores to handle multiple tasks simultaneously, improving performance.
Example: A quad-core processor has four cores, allowing it to process four different tasks
at once.

Independent Execution Improved Performance

Each core can execute instructions Faster processing and smoother

independently multitasking

Parallel Processing
Multiple cores can handle different tasks
Multicore Processor: Unleashing Parallel
Processing
A Multicore Processor is simply a processor containing multiple cores integrated into a single chip.
The presence of these multiple cores allows for parallel processing, where different tasks are executed
simultaneously across the cores, boosting overall system performance.
Functions:
● A multicore processor can perform multiple operations simultaneously by dividing tasks among its
cores.
● Better multitasking, parallel processing, and improved performance in multi-threaded applications.
● Multicore processors are essential for demanding applications like gaming, video editing, and scientific
simulations, where efficient multitasking is crucial.

Processor Type Cores Parallel Processing

Dual-core 2 Limited parallel processing

Quad-core 4 Moderate parallel processing

Hexa-core 6 Significant parallel processing

Octa-core 8 High parallel processing

capabilities
Microprocessor Vs Microcomputer Vs Microcontroller
Microprocessor (µP):
A central processing unit (CPU) with related timing functions on a single chip. A
microprocessor, combined with memory and input/output devices, forms a microcomputer.

Microcomputer:
A system incorporating a CPU and associated hardware whose purpose is to manipulate
data. It allows the execution of instructions, enabling the microprocessor to communicate
with external devices.

Microcontroller:
A chip that consists of a microprocessor, memory, and input/output ports, typically used in
applications where size and cost need to be minimized.
Microprocessor Vs Features Microcontrollers Microprocessors

Microcontroller Integrations
Microcontrollers integrate
CPU, memory and I/O ports
Microprocessors require external
components such as memory
onto a single chip. and additional peripherals.

Microcontrollers are better Microprocessors are more

suited for specific, low-power suitable for general-purpose and
or ultra-low power applications high-performance applications
Applications within embedded systems, requiring more processing power,
such as home appliances like such as personal computers or
washing machines or IoT the types of servers used in data
devices. centers.

Microcontrollers are optimized Microprocessors are built for

for efficiency and real-time more demanding and
Performance processing and operate at complicated computations and
lower clock speeds up to 200 can operate at clock speeds
MHz. above 1 GHz.

Microcontroller hardware is Microcontrollers are better suited

generally inexpensive and for specific, low-power or
because they do not require ultra-low-power applications
Cost
specialized programming within embedded systems, such
knowledge, they add very little as home appliances like washing
to overall project budgets. machines or IoT devices.
 Microprocessors
and
Evolution of Microprocessors

Irfan Rasool
 Microprocessor
Microprocessor
o A microprocessor is a highly integrated electronic component that functions as the
central processing unit (CPU) within a computer or electronic device.
o A microprocessor serves as the brain of a computer or electronic device.
o It processes instructions, performs calculations, and manages data within a system.
• Functions:
o Executes instructions from computer programs.
o Performs arithmetic and logic operations.
o Manages input and output operations.
• Key Characteristics:
o Compact and integrated on a single chip.
o Process data in binary form (0s and 1s).
o Operates at high speeds, measured in gigahertz (GHz).
• Components:
o Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU): Performs mathematical and logical operations.
o Control Unit: Manages the flow of data and instructions within the processor.
o Registers: Small, fast storage locations for data and instructions.
 Microprocessor
• Central Processing Unit (CPU):
o The microprocessor is often referred to as the CPU, emphasizing its central role in processing data
and executing instructions.
o It acts as the primary decision-maker and controller in a computer or electronic device.
• Integration:
o Microprocessors are designed to be highly compact and integrated onto a single silicon chip,
consolidating various components essential for processing.
o This integration enables efficient communication and coordination between different parts of the
processor.
• Instruction Execution:
o The microprocessor interprets and executes instructions provided by software programs.
o These instructions are typically in the form of binary code, representing a series of 0s and 1s that the
processor can understand.
• Arithmetic and Logic Operations:
o The microprocessor is equipped with an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs mathematical
computations (arithmetic) and decision-making processes (logic).
o These operations form the basis for all computational tasks performed by the microprocessor.
 Microprocessor
• Integration:
o Microprocessors are designed to be highly compact and integrated onto a single silicon chip,
consolidating various components essential for processing.
o This integration enables efficient communication and coordination between different parts of the
processor.
• Instruction Execution:
o The microprocessor interprets and executes instructions provided by software programs.
o These instructions are typically in the form of binary code, representing a series of 0s and 1s that the
processor can understand.
• Arithmetic and Logic Operations:
o The microprocessor is equipped with an Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), which performs mathematical
computations (arithmetic) and decision-making processes (logic).
o These operations form the basis for all computational tasks performed by the microprocessor.
 Microprocessor
• Data Management:
o Microprocessors use registers, which are small, high-speed storage locations, to temporarily store
data and intermediate results during processing.
o Efficient data management is crucial for the seamless execution of instructions.
• Binary Processing:
o Microprocessors process data in binary form, where information is represented using combinations of
0s and 1s.
o The binary system facilitates electronic storage, transmission, and manipulation of data within the
processor.
• Speed:
o Microprocessors operate at high speeds, measured in gigahertz (GHz), enabling them to quickly
process large volumes of data and execute instructions in a short amount of time.
 Microprocessor Applications
• Computers and Laptops:
o Microprocessors serve as the central processing unit (CPU) in computers and laptops,
executing instructions from operating systems and applications.
• Smartphones and Tablets:
o In mobile devices, microprocessors power the entire system, handling tasks such as
running apps, managing connectivity, and processing user input.
• Embedded Systems:
o Microprocessors are extensively used in embedded systems, where they control specific
functions in devices such as washing machines, refrigerators, and automotive systems.
 Microprocessor Applications
• Home Appliances:
o Microprocessors are integrated into various household appliances like microwaves,
ovens, and refrigerators, enhancing functionality and automation.
• Telecommunications:
o Microprocessors play a crucial role in telecommunications equipment, including routers,
switches, and base stations, facilitating data transmission and communication.
• Digital Cameras and Imaging Devices:
o Microprocessors handle image processing tasks in digital cameras, improving image
quality and enabling features such as autofocus and image stabilization.
• Medical Devices:
o In healthcare, microprocessors are used in devices like medical imaging equipment,
patient monitoring systems, and diagnostic instruments.
• Automotive Systems:
o In vehicles, microprocessors control engine functions, manage safety systems, and
operate entertainment and navigation systems.
 Microprocessor Applications
• Networking Equipment:
o Microprocessors are employed in networking devices such as routers, switches, and
modems to manage data traffic and ensure efficient communication between devices.
• Industrial Automation:
o Microprocessors play a critical role in industrial automation systems, controlling
machinery, monitoring processes, and optimizing production efficiency.
• Aerospace and Defense Systems:
o Microprocessors are used in avionics, navigation systems, radar systems, and other critical
applications in aerospace and defense.
• Consumer Electronics:
o Various consumer electronics, including televisions, DVD players, and audio systems,
utilize microprocessors for signal processing and control functions.
• Wearable Devices:
o Microprocessors power wearable devices like smartwatches and fitness trackers,
processing sensor data and providing real-time feedback to users.
 Microprocessor Applications
• Internet of Things (IoT) Devices:
o Microprocessors are integral to IoT devices, enabling them to collect, process, and
transmit data for smart home systems, industrial IoT, and more.
• Gaming Consoles:
o Microprocessors drive the processing power of gaming consoles, enabling realistic
graphics, complex calculations, and seamless gameplay.
 Evolution of Microprocessors
• Transistor was invented in 1948 (23 December 1947 in Bell lab). IC was invented in 1958 (Fair
Child Semiconductors) By Texas Instruments J Kilby. The first microprocessor was invented by
INTEL(INTegrated ELectronics).
• Size of the microprocessor – 4 bit

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of transistors Inst. per sec

1971 by Ted Hoff and

INTEL 4004/4040 740 kHz 2300 60,000
Stanley Mazor
 Evolution of Microprocessors
• Size of the microprocessor – 8 bit

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of transistors Inst. per sec

8008 1972 500 kHz 3500 50,000

8080 1974 2 MHz 6000 10 times faster than 8008

8085 1976 (16-bit address bus) 3 MHz 6500 769230

 Evolution of Microprocessors
• Size of the microprocessor – 16 bit

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of transistors Inst. per sec

1978 (multiply and divide

8086 instruction, 16-bit data bus 4.77 MHz, 8 MHz, 10 MHz 29000 2.5 Million
and 20-bit address bus)

1979 (cheaper version of

8088 2.5 Million
8086 and 8-bit external bus)

1982 (80188 cheaper

version of 80186, and
additional components like
80186/80188 6 MHz
interrupt controller, clock
generator, local bus
controller, counters)

1982 (data bus 16bit and

80286 8 MHz 134000 4 Million
address bus 24 bit)
 Evolution of Microprocessors
• Size of the microprocessor – 32 bit

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of transistors Inst. per sec

1986 (other versions

80386DX, 80386SX,
INTEL 80386 16 MHz – 33 MHz 275000
80386SL , and data bus
32-bit address bus 32 bit)

1986 (other versions

INTEL 80486 80486DX, 80486SX, 16 MHz – 100 MHz 1.2 Million transistors 8 KB of cache memory
80486DX2, 80486DX4)

Cache memory 8 bit for

PENTIUM 1993 66 MHz
instructions 8 bit for data
 Evolution of Microprocessors
• Size of the microprocessor – 64 bit

Name Year of Invention Clock speed Number of transistors Inst. per sec

2006 (other versions core2

64 KB of L1 cache per core
INTEL core 2 duo, core2 quad, core2 1.2 GHz to 3 GHz 291 Million transistors
4 MB of L2 cache
extreme)

2.2GHz – 3.3GHz, 2.4GHz

i3, i5, i7 2007, 2009, 2010 – 3.6GHz, 2.93GHz –
3.33GHz
Evaluation of major Microprocessors From Intel
 Generations of Microprocessors
First-Generation (1st Generation Microprocessors (1971–1972))
• Key Developments:
o Intel 4004: The world’s first microprocessor (4-bit, 1971).
• Could perform basic arithmetic (add, subtract) and logical operations (AND, OR).
• Included a control unit for instruction fetching, decoding, and generating control
signals.
• Operated on 4 bits of data at a time.
• Key components: 4001 ROM, 4002 RAM, and 4003 shift register.
o Intel 8008:
• First 8-bit microprocessor.
• Improved performance for arithmetic and logic operations.
• Technology Used:
o PMOS Technology: Low cost, slow speed, low output current.
• Other Major Chips:
o Intel 8008: First 8-bit microprocessor (1973).
o Rockwell PPS-4 (4-bit) and National Semiconductor IMP-16 (16-bit).
• Limitations of 1st Generation:
o Slow processing speeds.
o Limited data processing capacity.
 Generations of Microprocessors
Second Generation(2nd Generation Microprocessors (1973–1978))
● Key Developments:
○ Transition from PMOS to NMOS Technology.
○ Faster speeds, higher density, and better TTL compatibility.
● Notable Processors:
○ Intel 8080: Improved version of Intel 8008.
○ Motorola 6800, Intel 8085, Zilog Z80: Important processors of this era.
● Key Features:
○ 8-bit processing.
○ Higher instruction execution speed.
○ Better power efficiency compared to PMOS.
● NMOS Technology Advantages:
○ Faster speed and higher transistor density than PMOS.
○ Significant increase in instruction execution speed.
● Intel 8080 and 8085:
○ Intel 8080: Became popular in personal computers.
○ Intel 8085: Introduced with single 5V power supply and a built-in clock generator.
● Zilog Z80:
○ Widely used in early home computers and embedded systems.
 Generations of Microprocessors
Third Generation( 3rd Generation Microprocessors (1978–1985))
● Key Developments:
○ Introduction of HMOS Technology (High-speed Metal-Oxide Semiconductor).
○ Superior Speed-Power Product (SSP): Faster and more energy-efficient than NMOS.
● Notable Processors:
○ Intel 8086, 80186, 80286, Motorola 68000/68010.
○ Intel 8088: A key processor used in the IBM PC.
● Key Features:
○ 16-bit architecture: Minicomputer-like performance.
○ Increased processing power and efficiency.
● Advantages of HMOS Over NMOS:
○ Speed Power Product (SSP) of HMOS is 4 times better than NMOS.
○ SSP for NMOS: 4 picojoules (PJ); for HMOS: 1 PJ.
○ Circuit Density:
■ NMOS: 4128 µm²/gate.
■ HMOS: 1052.5 µm²/gate (2x denser than NMOS).
● Example of High-Speed Chips:
○ Intel 8085AH: High-speed version of Intel 8085 using HMOS technology.
 Generations of Microprocessors
Fourth Generation(4th Generation Microprocessors (1980–1995))
• The fourth-generation came into existence from 1981 to 1995. The 32-bit processors using HMOS
fabrication came into existence. INTEL 80386 and Motorola 68020 are some of the popular
processors of this generation.
● Key Developments:
○ Introduction of 32-bit architecture.
○ Focus on faster, more powerful, and energy-efficient designs.
● Notable Processors:
○ Intel 432: First commercial 32-bit microprocessor (1980).
○ Intel iAPX 80386, Intel 80486: Improved performance and integration.
○ Motorola 68020/68030/68040: Increased computational power.
● Key Features:
○ Integration of on-chip cache memory to improve program execution speed.
○ Introduction of HCMOS (low power HMOS) technology.
 Generations of Microprocessors
Fifth-Generation(1995- Present)
• From 1995 till now we are in the fifth generation. 64-bit processors like PENTIUM, Celeron, dual, quad,
and octa-core processors came into existence.
• Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI):
o Allowed up to a million transistors on a single chip.
o Increased system complexity and reduced power consumption.

• Ongoing Research:
o Increasing the number of on-chip functions.
o Improving memory speed, I/O devices, and overall processing power.
o Development of multi-core processors for parallel computing.
• Trends:
o Energy-efficient designs.
o Integration of AI capabilities and specialized processing units (GPUs, TPUs).
 Types of Microprocessors
• Complex instruction set microprocessor (CISC)
o The processors are designed to minimize the number of instructions per program and
ignore the number of cycles per instruction.
o The compiler is used to translate a high-level language to assembly-level language
because the length of code is relatively short and
o an extra RAM is used to store the instructions.
o These microprocessor can perform complex mathematical calculations in a single
command.
o Example: IBM 370/168, VAX 11/780, Intel x86 CPUs, AMD.

• Reduced instruction set microprocessor (RISC)

o They are designed to reduce the execution time by using the simplified instruction set.
o They can carry out small things in specific commands.
o These processors complete commands at a faster rate.
o They require only one clock cycle to implement a result at uniform execution time.
o There is less a number of registers
o To access the memory location LOAD and STORE instructions are used.
o Example: MIPS, PowerPC, SUN's SPARC, RISC-V, Microchip PIC processors, ARM, Power
Architecture, DEC Alpha, Intel i860, Intel i960
 Types of Microprocessors
• Superscalar microprocessor –
o These processors can perform many tasks at a time.
o They can be used for ALUs and multiplier-like arrays.
o They have multiple operation units and perform tasks by executing multiple commands.

• Application-specific integrated circuit –

These processors are application-specific like personal digital assistant computers. They are
designed according to proper specifications.

• Digital signal multiprocessor –

o These processors are used to convert signals like analog to digital or digital to analog.
o The chips of these processors are used in many devices such as RADAR, SONAR, Mobile
Phones etc.
 Challenges of Microprocessors
• Power Consumption:
o High-performance microprocessors often consume a considerable amount of electrical power. This
can lead to increased energy costs and may limit their use in battery-powered devices.
• Heat Generation:
o Microprocessors can generate a significant amount of heat, especially as their processing speeds
increase. Heat dissipation becomes a critical consideration, requiring additional cooling
mechanisms such as fans or heat sinks.
• Complexity and Cost:
o Developing and manufacturing advanced microprocessors is a complex and costly process. This
complexity can result in higher production costs, affecting the overall cost of electronic devices.
• Security Concerns:
o Microprocessors are vulnerable to security threats such as malware, viruses, and cyber attacks.
Exploiting vulnerabilities in microprocessor architecture can lead to data breaches and system
compromises.
• Limited Parallel Processing:
o While modern microprocessors may have multiple cores, their ability to perform parallel processing is
still limited compared to specialized parallel computing architectures. This can impact the efficiency
of certain types of computations.
•
If any of the buses of the microprocessor get melted then the microprocessor will not work
because of its fabrication
 Challenges of Microprocessors
• Obsolescence:
o Rapid advancements in microprocessor technology may lead to the obsolescence of older models.
This can pose challenges for industries that rely on long-term support for specific applications or
devices.
• Environmental Impact:
o The manufacturing and disposal of microprocessors can have environmental consequences. The
production process involves the use of rare and potentially harmful materials, and the disposal of
electronic waste raises recycling and environmental concerns.
• Dependency on Software:
o Microprocessors require software to operate, and their performance is often dependent on the
quality and optimization of the software running on them. Incompatibilities or software bugs can
affect the overall functionality of the system.
• Limited Memory Capacity:
o While memory capacity has increased over time, there are still limitations on the amount of data
that can be stored directly on a microprocessor. This can be a constraint in applications requiring
large datasets.
 Challenges of Microprocessors
• Compatibility Issues:
o Newer microprocessors may not be backward compatible with older software or hardware, leading
to compatibility issues and requiring updates or modifications.
• Electromagnetic Interference (EMI):
o High-frequency operations of microprocessors can generate electromagnetic interference,
potentially causing problems with other electronic devices and communication systems.
 Done For
Now

Any Questions