Software Engineering

Module 1
● Software has become critical to advancement in almost all areas of human endeavor.
● The art of programming only is no longer sufficient to construct large programs
● There are serious problems in the cost, timelines, maintenance, and quality of many
software products
● Software engineering has the objective of solving these problems by producing good,
quality, maintainable software, on time, within budget.

Definition

The establishment and use of software engineering principles in order to obtain

economically developed software that is reliable and works efficiently on real machines.

A discipline whose aim is the production of quality software, software that is delivered on
time, within budget, and that satisfies its requirements.

Program Vs Software
● A program is a set of instructions to solve a problem or specified task
● Software is something more than a program
● It consists of programs, documentation of any facet of the program, and the procedures
used to setup and operate the software system

● Any program is a subset of software and it becomes software only if documentation

and operating procedure manuals are prepared
● A program is a combination of source code and object code.
● documentation consists of various kinds of manuals as given in the figure
● Operating procedures consist of instructions to setup and use the software system and
the instruction on how to react to system failure

●
●
 Software characteristics
● The software does not wear out
● Software is not manufactured
● Reusability of components
● Software is flexible

Functionality
● It refers to the degree of performance of the software against its intended purpose

Efficiency
 ● It refers to the ability of the software to use system resources in the most effective and
efficient manner.
● The software should make effective use of storage space and executive command as per
the desired timing requirement

Reliability
● A set of attributes that bear on the capability of software to maintain its level of
performance under a given condition for a stated period of time.

Maintainability
● It refers to the ease with which modifications can be made in a software system to extend
its functionality, improve its performance, or correct errors.

Portability
 ● A set of attribute that bear on the ability of software to be transferred from one
environment to another, without or minimum changes.

Usability
● It refers to the extent to which the software can be used with ease
● The amount of effort or time required to learn how to use the software.
 Software Process
● The software process is the way in which we produce software.
● It is the set of activities and associated outcomes that produce software.
● Software engineers mostly carry out these activities.
● There are four key process activities that are common for all software processes.
○ Software specification
■ The functionality of the software and constraints on its operation
must be defined.
○ Software development
■ The software based on these requirements which is specified in the
specification must be developed.
○ Software validation
■ The software must be validated to ensure that it satisfies what the
system wants.
○ Software evaluation
■ Software must evolve to meet the changing needs.
● This differs from organization to organization.
● Surviving in the increasingly competitive software business requires more than hiring
smart and knowledgeable developers and buying the latest development tools.
● We also need to use effective software development processes, so that developers can
systematically use the best technical and managerial practices to successfully complete
their project
● Many software organizations are looking at software process improvement as a way to
improve the quality productivity predictability of their software development and
maintenance software.
● Not enough time
○ Unrealistic schedules leave insufficient time to do the essential project work
○ No software groups are sitting around with plenty of spare time to devote to
exploring what is wrong ith their current development processes what they should
be doing differently.
○ Customers and senior managers are demanding more software, of high quality in
the minimum possible time.
○ Therefore there is always a shortage of time.
○ One consequence is that software organizations may deliver release 1.0 on a
date(deadline). They have to release 1.1 immediately after the previous release by
incorporating more features and fixing discovered bugs
● Lack of knowledge
○ A second obstacle is that many software developers do not seem to be familiar
with industry best practices. Normally, software developers donot spend much
 time reading the literature to find out about the best known ways of software
development.
○ Developer may buy books on Java, Visual Basic, or Oracle, but they do not have
more knowledge on software process, testing, or software quality
○ The the industry awareness of process improvement -> ISO 9001, capability
maturity model have introduced in recent years
○ They should know about these practices
● Wrong motivations
○ SOme organizations launch process improvement initiatives for wrong reasons.
May be an external entity, such as a contractor, demanded that the development
organization should achieve CMM level X by data Y.
○ Or a senior manager learned just enough about the CMM and directed his
organization to climb on the CMM bandwagon
● Insufficient Commitment

Product and Process

● Product
○ What is delivered to the customer, is called a product
○ It includes any software manufactured based on the customer's request.
○ It can be a problem-solving software or a computer-based system.
○ It is the result of the project
○ It is called source code, specification document, manual, documentation,etc
○ Basically, it is nothing but a set of deliverables only.

● Process
○ It is the way in which we produce software
○ It is the collection of activities that lead to a product
○ An efficient process is required to produce a good quality product
○ If the process is weak, the end product will undoubtedly suffer, but an obsessive
over-reliance on the process is also dangerous.

Software

Product Process

Product is the final production of the project A process is a set of sequences or steps that
have to be followed to create a project
 A product focuses on the final result The process is focused on each step/stage that
should be completed

A product tends to be short-term The process tends to be long term

In case of a product, the firm guidelines are In con

followed

Software Life Cycle Models

● The ultimate objective of software engineering is to produce good quality maintainable
software within a reasonable time frame and at affordable cost.
● This is achievable only if we have matured processes to produce it.
● For a mature process, it should be possible to determine in advance how much time and
effort will be required to produce the final product.
● This can be done using data from past experience, which requires that we must measure
the software process.
● In immature organizations, the process is usually not written down. In mature
organizations, the process is in writing and it is actively managed.
● A key component of the software development process is the lifecycle model on which
the process is based.

It is a period of time that starts when a software product is conceived and ends when the
product is no longer available for use.
● It typically includes
○ Requirement phase
○ Design phase
○ Implementation phase
○ Test phase
○ Installation and checkout phase
○ operation and maintenance phase
○ Retirement phase

● A software life cycle model is a particular abstraction that represents a software life
cycle.
● It is also called software development life cycle.
● A variety of life cycle models have been proposed based on tasks involved in developing
and maintaining software.
Build and Fix Model
● Sometimes, product is constructed without specifications or any attempt at design.
● Instead, the developer simply builds a product that is reworked as many times as
necessary to satisfy the client.
● This is an adhoc approach and not well defined.
● Basically, it is a simple two phase model.
● The first phase is to write code and the next phase is to fix.
● Fixing in this context may be error correction or addition of further functionality

● Although this approach may work well on a small programming exercises 100 or
200 lines long
● But this approach is totally unsatisfactory for software of any reasonable size.
WaterFall Model

● The most familiar model is the waterfall model.

● This model has five phases.
○ Requirement analysis and specification
○ Design
○ Implementation and unit testing
○ Integration and system testing
○ Operation and maintenance
● The phases always occur in this order and do not overlap.
● The developer must complete each phase before the beginning of the next phase
● This model is named Waterfall Model because its diagrammatic representation resembles
a cascade of waterfalls.
Requirement Analysis and Specification phase
○ This phase aims to understand the exact requirements of the customer and
document them properly.
○ This activity is usually executed together with the customer, as the goal is to
document all functions, performance, and interfacing requirements for the
software.
○ The requirements describe the “what of a system”, not the “how”.
○ This phase produces a large document, written in natural language contains a
description of what the system will do without describing how it will be done
○ The resultant document is known as a Software requirement specification(SRS)
document.
○ THe SRS document may act as a contract between the developer and the
customer. If developer fails to implement full set of requirements, it may lead to a
failure to implement the contracted system.
Design phase
○ The SRS document is produced in the previous phase, which contains the exact
requirements of the customer.
○ The goal of this phase is to transform the requirements specifications into a
structure that is suitable for implementation in some programming languages.
○ Here, overall software architecture is defined, and the high level and detailed
design work is performed.
○ This work is documented and known as a software design description(SDD)
document
○ The information contained in the SDD document should be sufficient to begin the
coding phase.
○
Implementation and unit testing phase
● During this phase design is implemented.
● If the SDD is complete, the implementation or coding phase proceeds smoothly
● Because all the information needed by the software developers is contained in the
SDD
● During testing, major activities are centered around the examination and
modification of the code
● Initially, small modules are tested in isolation from the rest of the software
product

Integration and system testing phase

● This is very important phase.
● Effective testing will contribute to the delivery of higher quality software products, more
satisfied users, lower maintenance costs, and more accurate and reliable results.
● It is a very expensive activity and consumes one-third to one-half of the cost of a typical
development project
● The purpose of unit testing is to determine that each independent module is correctly
implemented.
● This gives little chance to determine that the interface between modules is also correct->
so integration testing is used
● System testing involves the testing of the entire system where the software is part of the
system
● This is essential to build confidence in the developers before software is delivered to the
customer or released in the market
Operation and maintenance phase
● Software maintenance is a task that every development group has to face when the
software is delivered to the customer’s site, installed, and it is operational.
● Therefore, the release of the software inaugurates the operation and maintenance phase of
the life cycle.
● The time spent and effort required to keep the software operational after release is very
significant.
● Despite the fact that it is a very important and challenging task, it is routinely a poorly
managed headache that nobody wants to face.
● Software maintenance is a very broad captivity that includes error correction,
enhancement of capabilities, deletion of obsolete capabilities, and optimization.
● The purpose of this phase is to preserve the value of the software over time.
● This phase may span for 5 to 50 years whereas development may be 1 to 3 years.
About the waterfall model.
● This model is easy to understand and reinforces the notion of define before design and
design before code
 ● This model expects complete and accurate requirements early in the process, which is
unrealistic
● Working software is not available until late in the possess, thus delaying the discovery of
serious errors.
● It also does not incorporate any kind of risk assessment.
Problems of waterfall models
● It is difficult to define all requirements at the beginning of the project
● This model is not suitable for accommodating any change
● A working version of the system is not seen until late in the project’s life.
● It does not scale up well to large projects.
● Real projects are rarely sequential

●
Increment Process Models
● Increment process models are effective in situations where the requirements are defined
precisely and there is no confusion about the functionality of the final product.
● Although functionality can be delivered in phases as per desired priorities.
● After every cycle, a usable product is given to the customer.
● For example, in the university automation software, the library automation module will
be delivered in the first phase, examination automation module will be delivered in the
second phase and the so on.
● Every new cycle will have an additional functionality
● Increment process models are popular particularly when we have to quickly deliver a
limited functionality system.
● Iterative enhancement models
○ The aim of the waterfall and prototyping models is the delivery of a
complete, operational, and good-quality product.
○ In contrast, this model does deliver an operational quality product at each
release
○ Each release satisfies only a subset of customer requirements.
○ The complete product is divided into a set of releases,
○ The developer delivers the product release by release.
○ At each release, the customer has an operational quality product that does a
portion of what is required.
○ The customer is able to do some useful work after the first release.
○ With this model, the first release may be available within few weeks or few
months, whereas the customer generally waits months or years to receive a
product using the waterfall and prototyping model,
● RAPID Application Development Models(RAD)
●

● This model is an incremental process model and was developed by IBM in the 1980s
● It is described in the book James Martin's Rapid Application Development
● User involvement is essential from the requirement phase to the delivery of the product.
● The continuous user participation ensures the involvement of user's expectations and
perspectives in requirement elicitation, analysis, and design of the system.
● The process starts with building a rapid prototype and it is given to the user for evaluation
● The user feedback is obtained and a prototype is refined.
● The process continues till the requirements are finalized.
● We may use any grouping techniques (FAST, QFD, Brainstorming sessions) for
requirements elicitation.
● Software requirements and specifications and design documents are prepared with the
association of users.
● Requirement planning phase
● User description phase
● Construction phase
 ● Cut Over phase

In this model, quick initial views about the product are possible due to the delivery of a rapid
prototype. The development time of the product may be reduced due to use of powerful
development tools.
It may use CASE tools and frameworks to increase productivity
involvemen
Challenges
● In this case, continuous user involvement is necessary. If users can’t be involved
throughout the life cycle, this may not be an appropriate model
● If reusable components are not available, development time may not be reduced
significantly.
● Highly specialized and skilled developers are expected and such developers may not be
available very easily.
● It may not be effective, if the system can not be properly modularised.
 Evolutionary Process Models
● The evolutionary model resembles to iterative enhancement model.
● The same phases as defined in the waterfall model occur here in a cyclical
fashion.
● This model differs from iterative enhancement model in the sense that this
does not require a usable product at the end of each cycle.
● In evolutionary development, requirements are implemented by category
rather than by priority.
● In the case of the incremental model, The entire requirements are splitted
into subsets and each module will be implemented in an incremental manner
based on the priority. Usable product is released after each phase.
● 40% of requirements arrived after the beginning of development.
● But in the case of evolutionary approach, there is no restriction about a
usable product.
● It is well suitable for where there are certain uncertainties , requirements
cant be clearly defined.
● These models are useful for projects using new technology that is not well
understood.
● This is also very useful for complex projects where all functionality must be
delivered at one time , but the requirements are unstable and not well
understood at the beginning.
● Prototyping model
● Spiral model
● Prototyping Model

●
● A disadvantage of the waterfall model is that the working software is not
available until late in the process, thus delaying the discovery of serious
errors.
● An alternative to this is to first develop a working prototype of the software
instead of developing the actual software.
● The working prototype is developed as per current available requirements.
● Basically , it has limited functional capabilities, low reliability and untested
performance(usually low).
● The developers use this prototype to refine the requirements and prepare the
final specification document
● The working prototype has been evaluated by the customer, it is reasonable
to expect that the resulting specific document will be correct.
● When the prototype is created, it is reviewed by the customer
● Typically, this review gives feedback to the developers that helps to remove
certain uncertainties in the requirements of the software. And starts an
iteration of refinement in order to further clarify requirements.
● The prototype may be a usable program, but it is not suitable as the final
software product.
● The reason may be poor performance, maintainability, or overall quality.
The code for the prototype is thrown away; however, the experience
 gathered from developing the prototype helps in developing the actual
system.
● Therefore, the development of a prototype involve extra cost, but overall
cost might turnout to be lower than that of an equivalent system developed
using the waterfall model.
● The developer should develop a prototype as early as possible to speed up the software
development process.
● After all, the sole use of this is to determine the customers real needs
●
● Spiral Model

●
● The problem with traditional software process models is that they do not deal sufficiently
with the uncertainty, which is inherent to software projects.
● Important software projects have failed because project risks were neglected and nobody
was prepared when something unforeseen happened.
○ Planning-Determination of objectives, alternatives, and constraints
○ Risk Analysis- Analyze alternatives and attempt to identify and resolve the risks
involved.
○ Development-product development and testing product
○ Assessment- Customer evaluation
● During the first phase planning is performed, risks are analyzed, prototypes are built,
customers will evaluate the prototype.
● During the second phase, a more refined prototype is built, requirements are documented
and validated, and customers are involved in assessing the new prototype.
● By the time third phase begins, risks are known, and a somewhat more traditional
development approach is taken.
● The focus is the identification of problems and the classification of these into different
levels of risks, the aim being to eliminate high-risk problems before they threaten the
software operation or cost
● An important feature of spiral model is that each phase is completed with areview by the
people concerned with the project(designers and programmers).
● This review consists of a review of all products developed up to that point and it includes
the plans for the next cycle.
● These plans may include a partition of the product in smaller portions for development or
components that are implemented by individual groups or persons.
● If the plan for the development fails, then the spiral is terminated. Otherwise ite
terminates with the initiation of new or modified software.