CABLES CONTD…….

Dielectric Stress in Cable

The stress on the dielctric at any point in a single core cable is as follows:-
Let r = radius of conductor or
inner radius of insulation.
R = internal radius of sheath
or outer radius of insulation.
R εo = permittivity of free space
εr = relative permittivity of
dielectric
r x
q = charge on the conductor
per unit length in coulombs.
V = operating phase to
neutral voltage in volts

dx

Fig.1.Single Core Cable

 Dielectric Stress in Cable Contd….
• Flux passing through a cylinder of radius x and length one meter
surrounding the core is q.
• The electric flux density at a distance x from the centre is
q
Dx = C / m2
2 x
• The dielectric stress is given by
Dx q
gx = = V / m...............eq(1)
 o r ( 2 o r ) x
• The potential difference between the conductor and the sheath is equal to
the work done to move a unit positive charge from the conductor to the
sheath. Thus ,

R R q R q
V =  g x dx =  dx = ln volts.....eq(2)
r r ( 2 o  r ) x 2 o  r r
 Dielectric Stress in Cable Contd….
• Combining eq(1) and eq(2) gives
V
gx = .....V / m...................eq ( 3)
R
x ln  
r
• The maximum stress will occur at the smallest radius i.e x = r.
• The stress is a maximum at the surface of the conductor . The maximum
stress is given by
V
g max = ......V / m............eq ( 4 )
R
r ln
r
• When x = R, the stress will be a minimum which indicates that stress has a
minimum value at the sheath. The minimum value is given by

V
g min = ......V / m........eq ( 5 )
R
R ln
r
 Dielectric Stress in Cable Contd….
• Also g max R
=
gmin r
• The electric stress in a belted cable cannot be calculated accurately due to non
uniformity of the dielectric and the distortion in the electrostatic field.
• The present day tendency is to design high voltage cables on the basis of a fixed
maximum value of operating stress. The stress is expressed in kilovolts per
millimetre.
• Eq (4) is then utilized to determine the thickness of insulation necessary for a
given diameter of conductor.
• It is evident from eq(4) that greater the value of permissible stress lesser will be
the insulation thickness. It is desirable to choose a higher value of operating
stress in order to have a reduced thickness of insulation and therefore reduced
size of cable.
• Since smaller cables size affords more economy there is a tendency to increase
the operating stresses to their highest values without failures to cable either
under actual operating conditions or during its approval specified tests.
 Most economical size of cable
• Maximum potential gradient,
V
g max =
R
r ln
r
• If V and R are constant and r is made variable the expression above has a
minimum value when the denominator is a maximum. This occurs when
d  R
 r ln  = 0;
dr  r
• Solving this we get,
R
= e = 2.718
r
• This is the condition that would make the voltage gradient at the
conductor surface a minimum.
 Grading of Cables
• The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the dielectric of
cables is known as grading of cables.
• It has been observed that the stress is greatest at the surface of the
conductor and goes on decreasing as we move towards the sheath.
• If the dielectric be chosen according to the maximum stress the thickness
of the cable would change considerably.
• Moreover the benefit of the chosen dielectric would not be achieved fully
near the sheath.
• If all the dielectric were equally stressed the thickness of insulation would
be considerably reduced. This would reduce the cost of cable insulation.
• Moreover the heat generated in the conductor can be more easily
conducted to the sheath.
• For this reason stress has to be equally distributed in the cable.
• There are two methods of grading:-
• Capacitance grading
• Intersheath grading.
 Grading of Cables Contd…..
• Capacitance Grading: the process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric
stress by using layers of different dielectrics is known as capacitance
grading.
• Intersheath Grading: in this method a homogenous dielectric is used but it
is divide into various layers by placing metallic intersheaths between the
core and lead sheath. The intersheaths are held at suitable potentials which
are in between the core potential and the earth potential. This
arrangement improves voltage distribution in the dielectric of the cable and
consequently more uniform potential gradient is obtained.
• Disadvantages:
1. Cable grading is of theoretical interest only. The main disadvantage of the
capacitance grading is that the range of permittivity values of insulating
materials available for cable insulation is limited. Moreover the permittivity's of
the layers may not remain constant during the service period of the cable.
Consequently the stress distribution may change and even cause insulation
breakdown at the normal operating voltage.
2. The intersheaths , being very thin, are liable to damage during transportation
or installation. They are not able to carry the charging current of long cable
lines and thus the current carrying capacity of the cable is reduced.
 Insulation Resistance
• Let ,
• r = radius of the core
• R = internal radius of the sheath or internal radius of the dielectric.
• l = cable length.
• ρ = specific resistance of the dielectric.
• The leakage current flows radially through the dielectric. Consider an element
of the dielectric radius x and the thickness dx as shown in fig1.
• The length through which the leakage current flows = dx. The area of cross-
section through which it is flowing is 2πxl.
• Therefore, the resistance of the element in the radial direction is
dx
dRi = 
2 xl
• And the insulation resistance of the cable is
R  dx   R
Ri =  = ln xr = ln
R
r 2 xl 2 l 2 l r
• The above relation shows that the insulation resistance varies inversely as the
length.
 Cable Capacitance
• The capacitance of cable transmission line is very much than that of an overhead
line of the same length due to the following reasons:-
1. the distance between the conductors is very small.
2. The distance between the cores and the earthed sheath is also small.
3. The permittivity of the cable insulation is usually 3 to 5 times greater than that of air
insulation around the conductors of overhead lines.
• It is easier to calculate the capacitance of overhead system accurately if its
configuration be known, but for a cable such a calculation is only approximate.
• The approximate method of cable capacitance is based on the assumption that the
cable dielectric is perfectly homogeneous. The insulation of a cable is however far
from being homogeneous or uniform.
 Charging Current or Capacitive Current
• An underground power cable has the capability to store and release
electrical energy with the voltage variation; it works as a shunt
capacitance generating a capacitive current which is in quadrature with
the resistive or load current.
• The capacitive or charging current has a limiting effect on cable rating
capacity.
• This effect is quantified by the fact that when intended to supply energy to
an active load consumer in a radial network, via a power cable circuit, it is
needed to inject a higher current at the source to compensate for cable
capacitance.
• The charging current is calculated with the following equation:

I c = CV  10−6
• where,
Ic = Charging Current (A/km)
w = 2πf; f = system frequency
C = capacitance per unit length (μF/km)
V = Applied voltage (Volts)
 Charging Current or Capacitive Current Contd…..
• The charging current generates heat losses in cable which are of a
significant magnitude in very long high and extra high A.C. underground
power cable connections.
• In addition to the heating effect of charging current the cable capacitance
may have an impact on steady-state voltages across the power system to
which the cable is connected.
• The voltage may rise, especially at low loads, due to charging current
flowing through cable series inductances and through system inductances;
phenomenon known as Ferranti effect.
• The Ferranti effect is significant with long cables energized from one end.
• In this kind of situations the network voltage stabilization is carried out by
adjusting the voltage magnitude at generator by reducing the field
excitation or by lowering the voltage taps on transformers.
• However in case of long cable circuits, the compensation of charging
current requires installation of shunt reactors connected at one end or
both end of cable circuits which are selected based on specialized system
studies by taking into consideration cable specific data and system
parameters.
 Capacitances in a three Core Belted Cable
• The conductors in a cable are separated from each other by dielectric.
Similarly, there is dielectric between the conductors and the sheath.
• When a potential difference is applied between the conductors the cable
in effect is a combination of six capacitances. The capacitances between
the conductors are represented by Cc, while those between conductor
and sheath is represented by Cs.
• Thus a three phase belted cable may be represented by a system of
capacitances connected in star and delta as shown in fig 2.
• The delta connected Cc may be replaced by equivalent star connected
capacitances C1 as shown in fig 3.. The capacitance between the pair of
terminals will be the same in the two systems.
• Capacitance between A and B in the delta system = Cc + 0.5Cc = 1.5Cc

• Capacitance between A and B in the star system = 0.5C1

• For the two system to be equivalent

1.5Cc = 0.5C1 , C1 = 3Cc

 Capacitances in a three Core Belted Cable
• the cable may therefore be represented by fig4. if the neutral point N of
the system be earthed and the sheath be also at zero potential , N and S
will become equipotential and Fig 4 becomes equivalent to that shown in
Fig5.
• Since C1 and Cs are in parallel they are combined into a single capacitance
(C1+Cs). This is seen in fig 6.
• The capacitance of each conductor to neutral or equivalent capcitance is
given by
C0 = C1 + Cs = 3Cc + Cs
• If VL be the line voltage , Vp be the phase voltage , the charging current
per phase is
VL
I c = V p  Co =  ( 3Cc + Cs ) ... A
3
• Note: Co is the capacitance between any conductor screen for a 3 core
screened cable.
 Measurement of Cc and Cs
• The non uniformity of the insulation material, the variation in the shape of
conductors and the use of filler makes it difficult to estimate the capacitance of a
cable from its diameter. The following tests are generally performed:-
a) One conductor is say C is connected to the sheath or insulated and the
capacitance is measured between the remaining two conductors A and B.
Fig7(a) reduces to fig 7(b).
The total capacitance CL measured between the cores A and B is
C + CS 1 1
CL = CC + C = ( 3Cc + Cs ) = Co
2 2 2
The single measurement is sufficient for calculating the charging current per
conductor.
b) The three conductors are connected or bunched together Fig8 and the
capacitance is measured between this bunch and the sheath . Let it be denoted
by Cb. Here Cc becomes zero and Cb = 3 Cs.
c) Two conductors, say A and B are joined together and the capacitance is
measured between them and remaining conductor.(fig 9) The capacitance
between B and C is = 2 2 2
CC + CC + CS = ( 3CC + CS ) = CO
3 3 3
d) Two conductors B and C are connected to sheath and the capacitance is
measured between these and the third conductor A (as shown in fig 10).
The capacitance measured in this case is

= CS + CC + CC = 2CC + CS
• From the above tests the values of Cc and Cs can also be determined
separately.
 Losses in Cable
• Losses in Conductor
• Losses in dielectric
• Losses in sheath.
 Losses in Conductor
• Resistive Losses :
• Skin Effect: current pressed to the outer region of the conductor due to its
own current.

• Skin Effect , depth δ depends on frequency and material

• Due to skin effect
– no use of full conductor cross section
– increased conductor and cable diameter and weight
 Losses in Conductor
• Proximity Effect: current pressed to one side of conductor due to
neighboring current.

• The phenomena of skin and proximity effect is responsible for increase in

the AC resistance of the conductor.
 Dielectric Loss
• Power loss occurs in the dielectric of a cable due to the three main reasons:-
1. Conductivity of insulation.
2. Dielectric hysteresis or dielectric absorption.
3. Ionization or corona.

• Conductivity of Insulation:-
The resistance of dielectric is very high but not infinite and therefore, a small
current flows due to the conductivity of the dielectric. This current is called
the leakage current. The leakage current through the insulation resistance
gives rise to a power loss in the dielectric. This power loss is termed as
leakage loss.
 Dielectric hysteresis or dielectric absorption.
• If a constant d.c voltage is applied across a cable the current in the
beginning is very high. The current decreases gradually to a low steady
state value determined by the cable insulation. This steady state value of
current is called the conduction current.
• On removal of applied voltage the current does not become zero
instantaneously, but the cable is discharging for practically the same
length of time as it took previously to attain its steady state value before
the dielectric is fully discharged.
• However the amount of charge released is somewhat lesser than that
stored in dielectric during charge. A part of the absorbed charge
recombines with the dielectric.
• If an alternating voltage be applied to the cable, the dielectric is subjected
to several cycles of charge and discharge per second. A power loss takes
place in the material of the dielectric due to constant changing of
absorbed charge. This loss due to absorption is much greater than that in
the insulation resistance.
 Corona or Gaseous Ionization in Cables
• The spaces or voids in the cables are filled up with the vapours of the
impregnating oil and air.
• The dielectric strength of the voids or gaseous spaces within the insulation
is very small compared with that of insulation.
• If the applied potential gradient in the insulation is large there is a
concentration of field intensity in the spaces resulting in the ionization or
corona discharge.
• Thus a breakdown of insulation may occur at relatively low stresses and
temperatures.
• The life of the cable is thus affected.
 Dielectric Power Loss
• The cable behaves as an imperfect capacitor. The equivalent circuit is
shown if Fig11.

R1
IR1
I

Ic C

Fig 11
• Let
• V = line – to – neutral supply voltage.
• IR1 = Current through R1.
• Ic = charging current.
• I = supply current.
 Dielectric Power Loss Contd….
• The current I leads the applied voltage Ic I
by an angle φ.
• Dielectric angle = δ= (90-φ).
• For a single phase line ,
the dielectric power loss
Pd = VI cos  = VI R1 δ

φ
• From the phasor diagram IR1 V
I R1
= tan  ;
IC
I R1 = IC tan  = V Co tan 

 Pd = VI R1 = V 2Co tan 
 Dielectric Power Loss Contd….
• Since δ is usually very small
tan  = 

 Pd = V 2Co ......watts

• In a three phase cable , if Co be the equivalent star capacitance or

capacitance to neutral, the dielectric power loss is given by

Pd = 3V p 2Co
• Where Vp is the phase voltage.
 Current Rating of Cables
• In a cable, the factor which ultimately limits the current carrying capacity
is the maximum operating temperature which may be sustained by the
cable throughout its life without risk of damage or deterioration.
• The cause of temperature rise is the losses that occur in a cable which
appears as heat. These losses are:
(a) ohmic loss in the conductor,
(b) the dielectric loss in the insulating medium, and
(c) the sheath and intersheath losses.
• The maximum steady temperature prevail when the heat generated in the
cable is equal to the heat dissipated. The heat dissipation of the conductor
losses is by conduction through the insulation to the sheath from which
the total losses may be conducted to earth. Therefore , in order to find the
permissible current loading, the thermal resistivities of the insulation,
protective covering and the soil must be known.
 Types of Cable Faults
• Cables are generally laid directly on the ground or in ducts in the
underground distributions systems. For this reason there is less chance of
faults occuring in a underground cable system. However if a fault does
occur it is difficult to locate and repair the faults as the cables are not
visible.
• The following are the most common faults occuring in the cables:-
1. Open Circuit Fault:- when there is a break in the conductor of a cable it is
called open circuit fault. This can be checked with the help of a megger.
For this purpose the three conductors of a three phase core cable at the
far end are shorted and earthed. Then resistance between each
conductor and earth is measured by megger. The megger will indicate
zero resistance in the circuit of the conductor that is not broken. However
if the conductor is broken, it will indicate infinite resistance in its circuit.
2. Short Circuit Fault:- when two conductors of a multi core cable come in
electrical contact with each other due to the insulation failure, it is called
a short circuit fault. For this purpose two terminals of the megger are
connected to any two conductor. If the megger gives zero reading, it
indicates short circuit fault between these conductors. The same step is
repeated for other conductors taking two at a time.
 Types of Cable Faults
3. Earth Fault:- when the conductors of a cable comes in contact with earth,
it is called earth fault or ground fault. To identify this fault one terminal
of the megger is connected to the conductor and the other terminal
connected to earth. If the megger indicated zero reading, it means the
conductor is earthed. The same procedure is repeated for other
conductors of the cable.
• Treeing is an electrical pre-breakdown phenomenon in solid insulation. It
is a damaging process due to partial discharges and progresses through
the stressed dielectric insulation, in a path resembling the branches of a
tree. Treeing of solid high-voltage cable insulation is a common
breakdown mechanism and source of faults in power cables.
 Loop test for location of faults in Underground Cables
• The two most popular loop test are :-
1. Murray Loop Test.
2. Varley Loop Test.

• These simple tests can be used to locate the earth fault or short circuit
fault in underground cables provided that a sound cable runs parallel
along the faulty cable. Both these tests employ the principle of
Wheatstone bridge for fault location.
 Murray Loop Test
• This test is the most common and accurate method of locating earth fault
or short circuit faults in underground cables.
Earth Fault:
Test End Far End

• Here AB is the sound cable and CD A

R
Sound Cable B

is the faulty Cable; P

G
Low
resistance
Path

• Earth Fault occuring at point F. K2

Faulty Cable

• The far end D of the faulty cable is Q C D

X
K1

Connected to the far end B of the sound +

B
Earth Fault

cable through a low resistance link. -

E Earth Path

• Two variables P and Q are joined to ends

A and C respectively and serves as the ratio arms of the Wheatstone
bridge.
• Let R = resistance of the conductor loop upto the fault from the test end.
• X = resistance of the other length of the loop.
• Note: P,Q,R and X are the four arms of the Wheatstone bridge. The
resistances P and Q are varied till the galvanometer indicates zero
deflection .
 Murray Loop Test
• In the balanced condition of the bridge we have
P R
=
Q X
P R
• Or, +1 = +1
Q X

• Or, P+Q R+ X
=
Q X
• If r is the resistance of each cable , then R+X = 2r

P + Q 2r
 =
Q X

Q
or , X =  2r
P+Q
 Murray Loop Test
• If l is the length of each cable in metres, then resistance per metre length
of cables = r/l.
• Distance of fault point from the test end is

X Q l Q
d= =  2r  =  2l
r /l P +Q r P+Q
• Or , d = (Q/(P+Q))× (loop length).
• Thus the position of the fault is located.
• Note that resistance of the fault is in the battery circuit and not in the
bridge circuit . Therefore fault resistance does not affect the balancing of
the bridge. However if the fault resistance is high the sensitivity of the
bridge is reduced.
 Murray Loop Test
Short Circuit Fault:
Test End Far End

• Note: the fault resistance is in the A

R

Sound Cable B

• Battery circuit and not in the P

G
Low
Resistance
Path

• Bridge circuit. The Bridge is K2

balanced by adjusting the +

Q

C Faulty Cable D

resistances P and Q. -
B X

Short Circuit Fault

• For the balanced position of the K1

Bridge:
P R
=
Q X
P+Q R+ X 2r
or , = =
Q X X

Q
X =  2r
P+Q
• X = (Q/(P+Q))× (loop length) metres
• Thus the position of the fault is located.
 Varley Loop Test
• This test is also used to locate earth fault or short circuit fault in
underground cables. This test also employs Wheatstone bridge principle. It
differs from Murray Loop test in that here the ratio arms P and Q are fixed
resistances. Balance is obtained by adjusting the variable resistance S
connected to the test end of the faulty cable.

Earth Fault Short Circuit Fault

 Varley Loop Test
• For earth fault or short circuit fault, the key K2 is first thrown to position 1.
the variable S is varied till the bridge is balanced for resistance value of S1 .
• Then, P R
=
Q X + S1
P + Q R + X + S1
or , =
Q X + S1
Q ( R + X ) − PS1
or , X = ..............(i )
P+Q

• Now key K2 is thrown to position 2 (for earth fault or short circuit fault)
and bridge is balanced with new value of resistance S2. Then,
P R+ X
=
Q S2
or , ( R + X ) Q = PS 2 .............(ii )

• From eq(i) and eq(ii) we get, P( S2 − S1 )

X =
P+Q
• Loop Resistance = R + X =
P
S2
Q
 Varley Loop Test
• If r is the resistance of the cable per metre length the distance of fault
from test end is

X
d= metres
r
Fig2 Fig3