COMPUTER NETWORKS

---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Network Devices:
1. Hub 2. Switch 3. Repeater 4. Bridge
5. Router 6. Gateway 7. Modem

Network protocols:

1. TCP/IP 2. HTTP 3. HTTPS 4. FTP 5. Telnet 6. SMTP

7. POP3 8. IMAP 9. PPP 10. VoIP 11. SLIP

Introduction to web services:

1. WWW 2. Web browser 3. Web server 4. Web site 5. Web address

6. Web page 7.URL 8. Domain Name 9. DNS Server 10. Web hosting
11. Web 2.0 12.Web 3.0 13.HTML 14. XML 15. DHTML
16. Web Scripting

NETWORK DEVICES
1. HUB:

 A hub is a device that connects multiple computers or devices in a network

so they can communicate with each other.
 A hub follows broadcast transmission.
 A hub is not an intelligent device. When one device sends a message, the
hub transmits that message to all devices connected to it. Only the device
meant to receive the message will take action; the others will ignore it. If
two devices send messages at the same time, their messages can collide,
causing confusion and data loss.
There are two types of hubs
1. Active Hub: Amplifies the signal as it moves from one connected device
to another and functions like a repeater.
2. Passive Hub: Allows the signal to pass from one computer to another
without any changes

1
2. SWITCH:
 A switch is a networking device that plays a central role in a Local Area
Network (LAN). Like a hub, a network switch is used to connect multiple
computers or devices that need to communicate with each other.
 When data arrives, the switch extracts the destination address from the data
packet and looks it up in a table to determine where to send the packet. This
allows it to send signals only to the selected devices instead of broadcasting
to all.
 A switch can forward multiple packets simultaneously. It does not forward
signals that are noisy or corrupted; instead, it drops such signals and
requests the sender to resend them.
 A switch is responsible for filtering, meaning it transfers data in a specific
manner, and for forwarding packets accurately.
3. REPEATER:

 A repeater is a network device that amplifies and restores signals for long-
distance transmission.
 Data is carried in the form of signals over cables. These signals can travel a
specified distance (usually about 100 meters). Beyond this limit, signals lose
strength and become weak. In such cases, the original signals need to be
regenerated.
 There are two types of repeaters: amplifiers and signal repeaters.
3. BRIDGE:
 A bridge is a networking device that connects two or more network segments,
allowing them to function as a single network.
 Bridges forward data between networks while using the same protocols.
 They examine incoming data packets and determine whether to pass them on
to the other side.
 Bridges are smart devices; they maintain a table of MAC addresses to keep
track of which devices are on which side. This means they only allow relevant
messages to cross the bridge, reducing unnecessary traffic.
4. ROUTER:
 A router is a network device that forwards data between different networks
and handles various communication protocols.

2
  Routers direct data packets from one network to another based on their
destination addresses.
 If a router does not know the destination, it forwards the traffic to another
router using a logical address that can resolve the destination.
 Routers maintain routing tables that contain information about the best paths
to various destinations, ensuring packets take the most efficient route
 A router can be both wired and wireless.
5. GATEWAY:

 Gateway is a network device that serves as a "gate" between two networks,

often with different protocols. It facilitates communication and data transfer
between them.
 They determine the best route for data packets to travel from one network to
another.
 It establishes an intelligent connection between a local network and external
networks with completely different structures. Since all data entering or
leaving a network must first travel through the gateway to utilize routing
pathways, it acts as the network's entry and exit point.
 The gateway functions as a network node that serves as both a proxy server
and a firewall system, helping to prevent unauthorized access.
6. MODEM:
 A modem stands for modulator and demodulator.
 It operates based on the processes of modulation and demodulation.
 In modulation, the digital data from the sender’s computer is converted into
an analog signal so it can travel over telephone lines to the destination
computer. In demodulation, the received analog signal is converted back
into digital data for the destination computer.

3
7. RJ- 45
 RJ-45, or Registered Jack-45, is an eight-pin connector used to connect
computers within a local area network (LAN).
 RJ-45 connectors are typically used with Ethernet cables, allowing devices
such as computers, switches, and routers to communicate over a network
8. ETHERNET CARD
 An Ethernet card, also known as a network interface card (NIC) or network
adapter, is a hardware component that allows a computer to connect to a local
area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN) using an Ethernet cable.
 Each Ethernet card is assigned a Media Access Control (MAC) address, which
provides a unique identifier for the device on the network. This helps in managing
network traffic and ensuring that data is sent to the correct destination
 Widely used in networking applications for both home and office setups,
facilitating wired internet connections.
9. WIFI CARD
Wi-Fi card consists of both hardware and software components that enable a
device to connect to a wireless access point, router, or hotspot. This allows users to
access the internet and other network resources without physical wired connections.

NETWORK PROTOCOLS
A protocol is a formal description of message formats and the rules that two
or more machines must follow to exchange those messages.

1. TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

TCP/IP is a suite of protocols that facilitates communication over the internet and
other networks, consisting of two main components: Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP).
 TCP is a stateful protocol, meaning that it maintains the state of the
connection. When a client sends a request to a server, it expects a response.
If it doesn’t receive one, it will resend the request.
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Responsible for dividing messages

4
 into packets (or datagrams) on the source computer. Ensures that the
packets are reassembled in the correct order at the destination computer.
 IP (Internet Protocol): Handles the addressing of the destination
computer, ensuring that each packet is routed to its proper destination.

2. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

 HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol) is a protocol used for accessing data on
the World Wide Web (WWW). It enables the transfer of hypertext and
multimedia content over the internet.
 HTTP operates in a request-response manner. Clients (such as web browsers)
send requests to web servers, which then respond with the requested
resources, such as web pages.
 The protocol is designed specifically for communication between clients (web
browsers) and web servers.
 It is a generic, stateless protocol, meaning that each request is independent
and does not retain information about previous interactions.

3. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

 HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure) is a secure version of the
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). It is commonly used for secure
communication on the World Wide Web.
 HTTPS encrypts data transmitted between the client and server using
protocols like TLS (Transport Layer Security) or SSL (Secure Sockets Layer).
This encryption helps protect sensitive information from eavesdropping and
tampering(Tampering is when someone changes or messes with data or
information without permission).
 HTTPS is widely used for secure transactions, such as online banking, e-
commerce, and the transfer of sensitive data.
4. FTP (File Transfer Protocol) :
 FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a standard network protocol used for
transferring files between a client and a server on a computer network.
 It allows users to upload, download, and manage files and directories on a
remote server.
 FTP uses a client-server architecture.
 FTP is a stateful protocol, meaning it maintains the state of the connection
during the session.

5
5. TELNET(TErminaL NETwork) :
 Telnet (TErminaL NETwork) is a network protocol that allows a user on one
computer to log into another computer on the same network.
 Once the Telnet client establishes a connection with the remote host, it acts
as a virtual terminal, enabling communication with the remote computer.

6. SMTP(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

 SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol ) : SMTP is the standard protocol used
for sending emails across networks. It facilitates the transfer of email
messages from the sender's email client to the recipient's mail server.
 SMTP supports the sending of various types of content, including text, images
and attachments like voice, video and graphics.
 SMTP is primarily designed for sending emails, not for retrieving them.
 The Mail Transfer Agent (MTA) is responsible for sending and receiving email
messages between servers. It uses SMTP to route messages to their
destinations.
7. POP3 (Post Office Protocol):
 POP3(Post Office Protocol) is a protocol used for retrieving emails from a
remote mail server to a local client. It allows users to download their email
messages for offline reading.
 Once emails are downloaded, users can read and manage them without an
internet connection.
8. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):
 IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol) is a protocol used for accessing and
managing emails stored on a remote mail server. Unlike POP3, it allows users
to interact with their emails directly on the server.
 IMAP enables users to view, organize, and manipulate their email messages
without needing to download them to their local device.
 IMAP is designed to support access from multiple devices, ensuring that
changes made on one device (such as reading or deleting messages) are
reflected across all devices.
 Users can choose to download only specific messages or parts of messages,
which is useful for managing bandwidth and storage.
 Since IMAP relies on the server for email storage, users need a stable internet
connection to access their emails and perform actions.

6
9. PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol):
 PPP (Point-to-Point Protocol) is a data link layer communication protocol
primarily used for establishing direct connections between two network
nodes.
 This protocol defines how two devices authenticate each other and establish a
direct link to exchange data.
 PPP maintains data integrity by ensuring that packets arrive in order. It
notifies the sender of any damaged or lost packets and requests
retransmission.
 PPP is specifically designed for transmitting IP packets over serial lines.
10. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol):
 VoIP, also known as Internet Telephony or Internet calling
 VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol) is a technology that enables the
transmission of voice and multimedia content over the Internet
 VoIP converts voice signals into digital data packets and transmits them over
the internet.
 VoIP calls, especially long-distance or international, are often cheaper than
traditional phone calls, as they utilize the existing internet infrastructure.
 In addition to voice, VoIP can support video calls, instant messaging, and file
sharing.
 Factors like network congestion can lead to delays, echo, or reduced call
quality.
Advantages of VoIP:
 Cost-Effective Communication:
 Multimedia Support
 Scalability (VoIP can easily accommodate a growing number of users and
increased data traffic without the need for extensive infrastructure changes.)
Disadvantages of VoIP
 Dependence on Internet Quality
 Security Concerns
11. SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol):
 SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol) is a simple protocol used for encapsulating
Internet Protocol (IP) packets to be transmitted over serial connection.
 SLIP is primarily designed for IP traffic and does not support multiple network
layer protocols.
 Unlike more modern protocols, SLIP does not provide any error detection or

7
 correction mechanisms. This can lead to issues if packets are lost or
corrupted during transmission.

INTRODUCTION TO WEB SERVICES

WWW:
 WWW stands for the World Wide Web, which is a system of interlinked
hypertext documents accessed via the internet.
 Users can view web pages that may contain text, images, videos, and other
multimedia.
 The web uses the HTTP protocol to transmit data and is typically accessed
through web browsers.
 It was invented by Tim Berners-Lee in the early 1990s and has since become
a fundamental part of the internet, enabling the sharing of information and
communication across the globe.
 WWW Attributes: User friendly, Multimedia documents, Hypertext and
Hyperlinks,Interactive, Frames
Web Browser:
A web browser is a software application that allows users to access, retrieve,
and view content on the World Wide Web. It retrieves data from web servers and
displays it in a user-friendly format. It acts as a gateway to the vast resources
available on the World Wide Web. Examples include Google Chrome, Mozilla Firefox,
Safari and Microsoft Edge.
Web Server:
A web server is a software or hardware system that serves content to clients,
typically web browsers, via the internet. When a user requests a web page by
entering a URL, the web server processes that request and delivers the appropriate
files (HTML, CSS, images, scripts, etc.) back to the browser.
Website:
A website is a collection of related web pages that are often grouped under a
common domain name. Websites can vary widely in content and purpose, ranging
from personal blogs and portfolios to corporate sites and online stores. Each website
is identified by a unique URL, allowing users to access it easily.
Web address:
 Web addresses enable users to navigate the internet and access specific
content or services by entering the address into a web browser or by clicking
on hyperlinks in web pages or documents.

8
  A web address, also known as a URL (Uniform Resource Locator), is a unique
reference or identifier that specifies the location of a resource on the internet.
It is used to locate and access various types of content, such as web pages,
documents, images, videos, and other online resources.
 A typical web address consists of several components, including the protocol
(such as "http://" or "https://"), the domain name (the specific web address
of a website), and additional path and parameters that specify the exact
location of the resource within the website.
Web page:
A web page is a single document or resource on the World Wide Web that can
be accessed through a web browser. Each web page is identified by a unique URL
(Uniform Resource Locator) that specifies its location on the web, enabling users to
access it directly through the browser's address bar or by clicking on links
URL:
 URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator.
 It is a reference or address used to locate resources on the internet.
 A URL specifies the location of a web resource, such as a web page, image,
video, or document, and provides a means for accessing it through a web
browser.
Elements of a URL:
URLs consist of several components, including:
 Protocol (e.g., "http://" or "https://")
 Domain Name: The specific web address of a website.
 Path and Parameters: Additional details that specify the precise location of the
resource within the website's directory structure.
When a user enters a URL into a web browser or clicks on a hyperlink, the browser
uses the URL to retrieve the corresponding resource from the web server and display
it for the user.
Domain Name:
 A URL specifies the distinct address for each resource on the internet. An
internet address that is character-based is referred to as a Domain Name.
 Common Domains:
.com – Commercial .edu – Educational .gov – Government
.mil – Military .net – Network resources
.org – Non-profit organization
 Country Abbreviations:

9
 .au – Australia .in – India .ca – Canada .uk – United Kingdom
DNS Server:
 A DNS (Domain Name System) server is a specialized type of server that
manages and facilitates the translation of domain names to IP (Internet
Protocol) addresses.
 A DNS server acts like a phone book for the internet, converting easy-to-
remember domain names (like www.example.com) into numerical IP
addresses (like 192.0.2.1) that computers use to identify each other on the
network.
 This translation process is essential for users to access websites, send emails,
and perform various online activities using recognizable domain names.
Web Hosting
Web hosting is a service that allows individuals and organizations to make
their websites accessible via the World Wide Web. It involves providing storage
space on a server for website files and data, along with the necessary technologies
and services to ensure the website is available and functional for visitors.
Types of Web Hosting:
 Free Hosting: Limited features and resources, often with ads.
 Virtual or Shared Hosting: Multiple websites share the same server resources,
making it cost-effective.
 Dedicated Hosting: An entire server is allocated to a single website, providing
more control and resources.
Web 2.0
 Web 2.0 refers to the second generation of the World Wide Web, emphasizing
user-generated content, interactivity, and information sharing online.
 Many Web 2.0 sites facilitate interactive exchanges of information, such as
blogs and video-sharing websites.
 Examples of Web 2.0 include hosted services (e.g., Google Maps), web
applications (e.g., Google Docs), video-sharing sites (e.g., YouTube), and
social networking platforms (e.g., Facebook, Twitter).
Web 3.0
 Web 3.0 aims to integrate new technologies like Artificial Intelligence (AI),
Machine Learning (ML), and blockchain.
 It supports the semantic web, enhancing web technologies to create, connect,
and share content through intelligent search and analysis based on the
meaning of words rather than just keywords and numbers.

10
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML)
 HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) is the standard markup language for
creating web pages and web applications.
 It serves as the backbone of every web page, providing structure and
content, including text, images, links, and other elements.
Various HTML Tags:
 <html>: Defines an HTML document.
 <body>: Defines the document's body.
 <br>: Inserts a single line break.
 <h1>, <h2>, …, <h6>: Creates headings of different sizes.
Extensible Markup Language (XML):
 XML (eXtensible Markup Language) is a markup language for documents
containing structured information.
 It defines a set of rules for encoding documents in a format that is both
human-readable and machine-readable.
DHTML:
Dynamic Hypertext Markup Language (DHTML) refers to a combination of web
development technologies (HTML, CSS, JavaScript) used to create dynamic web
pages with or without multimedia content.
Script:
A script is a list of commands embedded in a web page. Scripts are
interpreted and executed by specific programs or scripting languages.
Web Scripting:
The process of creating and embedding scripts in a web page is known as web
scripting.
Types of Scripts:
1. Client-Side Scripts: These scripts enable interaction within a web page. They
are downloaded to the client side and then interpreted and executed by the
browser.
2. Server-Side Scripts: These scripts perform tasks on the server side and then
send the results back to the client side.

11