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Introduction
We have written this small book for those who only start
getting acquainted with the world of PostgreSQL. From this
book, you will learn:

I PostgreSQL — what is it all about? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3

II What’s new in PostgreSQL 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
III Installation on Linux and Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
IV Connecting to a server, writing SQL queries,
and using transactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
V Learning the SQL language on a demo database . . . . 59
VI Using PostgreSQL with your application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
VII Minimal server setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
VIII About a useful pgAdmin application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
IX Advanced features:
full-text search, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
JSON format, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
foreign data wrappers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
X Education and certification opportunities . . . . . . . . . . 145
XI Keeping up with all updates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
XII About the Postgres Professional company . . . . . . . . . . 171

We hope that our book will make your first experience with
PostgreSQL more pleasant and help you blend into the Post-
greSQL community. Good luck!
I About PostgreSQL

PostgreSQL is the most feature-rich free open-source data-

base system. Originally developed in the academic environ-
ment, it has managed to bring together a wide developer
community through its long history. Nowadays, PostgreSQL
offers everything that most customers need, and it is actively
used all over the world to create high-load business-critical
systems.

Some History

Modern PostgreSQL originates from the POSTGRES project,

which was led by Michael Stonebraker, professor of the
University of California, Berkeley. Before this work, Michael
Stonebraker had been managing INGRES development; it was
one of the first relational database systems, and POSTGRES
appeared as the result of rethinking all the previous work
and the desire to overcome the limitations of its rigid type
system.

The project was started in 1985, and by 1988 a number of

scientific articles had been published that described the data
model, POSTQUEL query language (SQL was not an accepted
standard at the time), and data storage structure.
4 POSTGRES is sometimes considered to be a so-called post-
i relational database system. The relational model had always
been criticized for its restrictions, even though they were
the flip side of its strictness and simplicity. As computer
technologies were spreading in all spheres of life, new types
of applications started to appear, and databases had to
support custom data types and such features as inheritance
or creating and managing complex objects.

The first version of this database system appeared in 1989.

It was being improved and enhanced for several years, but
in 1993, when version 4.2 was released, the project was shut
down. However, despite its official cancellation, UC Berkeley
alumni Andrew Yu and Jolly Chen revived the project and
resumed its development in 1994, taking advantage of its
liberal BSD license and open source. They replaced POSTQUEL
query language with SQL, which had become a generally
accepted standard by that time. The project was renamed
to Postgres95.

In 1996, it became obvious that the Postgres95 name would

not stand the test of time, and a new name was selected:
PostgreSQL. This name reflects the connection both with the
original POSTGRES project and the SQL adoption. This name
may be quite hard to articulate, but nevertheless, we should
pronounce it as “Post-Gres-Q-L” or simply “postgres,” but not
as “postgre.”

The first PostgreSQL release had version 6.0, keeping the

original numbering scheme. The project grew, and its man-
agement was taken over by at first a small group of active
users and developers, which was named PostgreSQL Global
Development Group.
Development 5
i

All the main decisions about developing and releasing new

PostgreSQL versions are taken by the Core team, which
consists of seven people at the moment.

Apart from developers who contribute to the project from

time to time, there is a group of main developers who have
made significant contributions to PostgreSQL. They are called
major contributors. There is also a group of committers,
who have the write access to the source code repository.
Group members change over time, new developers join the
community, others leave the project. The current list of
developers is published on the PostgreSQL’s official website:
postgresql.org/community/contributors.

The contribution of Russian developers into PostgreSQL is

compelling. This is arguably the largest global open-source
project with such a vast Russian representation.

Vadim Mikheev, a software programmer from Krasnoyarsk

who used to be a member of the Core team, played an
important role in PostgreSQL evolution and development. He
created such key core features as multi-version concurrency
control (MVCC), vacuum, write-ahead log (WAL), subqueries,
triggers. Vadim is not involved with the project anymore.

In 2015, Oleg Bartunov, a professional astronomer and

research scientist at Sternberg Astronomical Institute of
Lomonosov Moscow State University, teamed up with Teodor
Sigaev and Alexander Korotkov to start the Postgres Profes-
sional company, which is now the main talent foundry in
Russia when it comes to database system development.

The main areas of their contribution are PostgreSQL local-

ization (national encodings and Unicode support), full-text
6 search, working with arrays and semi-structured data (hstore,
i json, jsonb), new index methods (GiST, SP-GiST, GIN and RUM,
Bloom). They have also created a lot of popular extensions.

PostgreSQL release cycle usually takes about a year. In

this timeframe, the community receives patches with bug
fixes, updates, and new features from everyone willing to
contribute. Traditionally, all patches are discussed in the
pgsql-hackers mailing list. If the community finds the idea
useful, its implementation is correct, and the code passes
a mandatory code review by other developers, the patch is
included into the next release.

At some point (usually in spring, about half a year before the

release), code stabilization is announced: all new features
get postponed till the next version, only bug fixes and
improvements for the already included patches are accepted.
Within the release cycle, beta versions appear. Closer to the
end of the release cycle a release candidate is built, and soon
a new major version of PostgreSQL is released.

Major versions used to be defined by two numbers, but in

2017 it was decided to start using a single number. Thus,
version 9.6 was followed by PostgreSQL 10, while the latest
available version is PostgreSQL 15, which was released in
October 2022.

As the new version is being prepared, developers can find and

fix bugs in it. The most critical fixes are backported to the
previous versions. The community usually releases updates
quarterly; these minor versions accumulate such fixes. For
example, version 14.5 contains bug fixes for the 14.4 release,
while version 15.2 provides fixes for PostgreSQL 15.1.
Support 7
i

PostgreSQL Global Development Group supports major re-

leases for five years. Both support and development are
managed through mailing lists. A correctly filed bug report
has all the chances to be addressed very fast: bug fixes can
be released as fast as 24 hours.

Apart from the community support, 24x7 commercial sup-

port for PostgreSQL is also provided by a number of compa-
nies in different countries, including Postgres Professional
(www.postgrespro.com).

Current State

PostgreSQL is one of the most popular databases. Based

on the solid foundation of academic development, over
several decades PostgreSQL has evolved into an enterprise-
level product that is now a real alternative to commercial
databases. You can see it for yourself by looking at the
key features of PostgreSQL 15, which is the latest released
version right now.

Reliability and Stability

Reliability is especially important in enterprise-level appli-

cations that handle business-critical data. For this purpose,
PostgreSQL provides support for hot standby servers, point-
in-time recovery, different types of replication (synchronous,
asynchronous, cascade).
8 Security
i
PostgreSQL supports secure SSL connections and provides
various authentication methods, such as password authen-
tication (including SCRAM), client certificates, and external
authentication services (LDAP, RADIUS, PAM, Kerberos).

For user management and database access control, the

following features are provided:

• creating and managing new users and group roles

• role- and group-based access control to database objects
• row-level and column-level security
• SELinux support via a built-in SE-PostgreSQL functionality
(Mandatory Access Control)

Russian Federal Service for Technical and Export Control has

certified a custom PostgreSQL version released by Postgres
Professional for use in data processing systems for personal
data and classified information.

Conformance to the SQL Standard

As the ANSI SQL standard is evolving, its support is constantly

being added to PostgreSQL. This is true for all versions of the
standard, from SQL-92 to the most recent SQL:2016, which
standardizes JSON support. Much of this functionality is
already implemented in PostgreSQL 15.

In general, PostgreSQL provides a high rate of conformance

to the SQL standard, supporting 170 out of 177 mandatory
features and many optional ones.
Transaction Support 9
i
PostgreSQL provides full support for ACID properties and
efficient transaction isolation based on the multi-version
concurrency control (MVCC). This method allows us to avoid
locking in all cases except for concurrent updates of the same
row by different processes. Reading transactions never block
writing ones, and writing never blocks reading.

This is true even for the serializable isolation level, which is

the strictest one. Using an innovative Serializable Snapshot
Isolation system, this level ensures that there are no serializa-
tion anomalies and guarantees that concurrent transaction
execution produces the same result as sequential one.

For Application Developers

Application developers get a rich toolset for creating appli-

cations of any type:

• Support for various server programming languages: built-

in PL/pgSQL (which is closely integrated with SQL), C for
performance-critical tasks, Perl, Python, Tcl, as well as
JavaScript, Java, etc.
• APIs to access the database from applications written in
virtually any language, including the standard ODBC and
JDBC APIs.
• A rich set of database objects that allow you to efficiently
implement the logic of any complexity on the server
side: tables and indexes, sequences, integrity constraints,
views and materialized views, partitioning, subqueries
and WITH-queries (including recursive ones), aggregate
and window functions, stored functions, triggers, etc.
10 • A flexible full-text search system that supports a variety of
i languages, extended with efficient index access methods.
• Semi-structured data typical of NoSQL: hstore (storage of
key–value pairs), xml, json (represented as text or in a
more robust jsonb binary format).
• Foreign Data Wrappers. This feature allows adding new
data sources as external tables by the SQL/MED standard.
You can use any major database as an external data
source. PostgreSQL provides full support for foreign data,
including write access and distributed query execution.

Scalability and Performance

PostgreSQL takes advantage of the modern multi-core CPU

architecture. Its performance grows almost linearly as the
number of cores increases.

PostgreSQL can parallelize queries and some commands

(such as index creation and vacuuming). In this mode, reads
and joins are performed by several concurrent processes. JIT-
compilation of queries can speed up operations thanks to
better use of hardware resources. Each PostgreSQL version
adds new parallelization features.

Horizontal scaling can rely on both physical and logical

replication. It allows you to build PostgreSQL-based clus-
ters to achieve high performance, fault tolerance, and geo-
distribution. Some examples of such systems are Citus (Citus-
data), Postgres-BDR (2ndQuadrant), Multimaster (Postgres
Professional), Patroni (Zalando).
Query Planner 11
i
PostgreSQL relies on a cost-based query planner. Using
the collected statistics and taking into account both disk
operations and CPU time in its mathematical models, the
planner can optimize even the most complex queries. It can
use all access paths and join methods available in state-of-
the-art commercial database systems.

Indexing

PostgreSQL provides various types of indexes. Apart from tra-

ditional B-trees, you can use many other access methods.

• Hash,
a hash-based index. Unlike B-trees, such indexes work
only for equality checks, but in some cases they can prove
to be more efficient and compact.
• GiST,
a generalized balanced search tree. This access method
is used for the data that cannot be ordered. For example,
R-trees that are used to index points on a plane and can
serve to implement fast k-nearest neighbor (k-NN) search,
or indexing overlapping intervals.
• SP-GiST,
a generalized non-balanced tree based on dividing the
search space into non-intersecting nested partitions. For
example, quad-trees for spatial data and radix trees for
text strings.
• GIN,
a generalized inverted index used for compound multi-
element values. It is mainly applied in full-text search to
12 find documents that contain the words used in the search
i query. Another example is search for elements in data
arrays.
• RUM,
an enhancement of the GIN method for full-text search.
Available as an extension, this index type can speed
up phrase search and return the results in the order of
relevance without any additional computations.
• BRIN,
a compact structure that provides a trade-off between the
index size and search efficiency. Such index is useful for
huge clustered tables.
• Bloom,
an index based on the Bloom filter. Having a compact rep-
resentation, this index can quickly filter out non-matching
tuples, but the remaining ones have to be re-checked.

Many index types can be built upon both a single column

and multiple columns. Regardless of the type, you can
build indexes not only on columns, but also on arbitrary
expressions. It is also possible to create partial indexes for
specific sets of rows. Covering indexes can speed up queries,
since all the required data is retrieved from the index itself,
avoiding heap access.

The planner can use a bitmap scan, which allows combining

several indexes together for faster access.

Cross-Platform Support

PostgreSQL runs both on Unix operating systems (including

server and client Linux distributions, FreeBSD, Solaris, and
macOS) and on Windows systems.
Its portable open-source C code allows building PostgreSQL 13
on a variety of platforms, even if there is no package sup- i
ported by the community.

Extensibility

One of the main advantages of PostgreSQL architecture is

extensibility. Without changing the core system code, users
can add various features, such as:

• data types
• functions and operators to support new data types
• index and table access methods
• server programming languages
• foreign data wrappers
• loadable extensions

Full-fledged support of extensions enables you to develop

new features of any complexity that can be installed on
demand without changing the PostgreSQL core. For example,
the following complex systems are built as extensions:

• CitusDB,
which implements massively parallel query execution and
data distribution between different PostgreSQL instances
(sharding).
• PostGIS,
one of the most popular and powerful geoinformation
data processing systems.
14 • TimescaleDB,
i which provides support for time-series data, including
special partitioning and sharding.

The standard PostgreSQL 15 distribution alone includes

about fifty extensions that have proved to be useful and
reliable.

Availability

A liberal PostgreSQL license, which is similar to BSD and

MIT licenses, allows unrestricted use of PostgreSQL; you may
also modify PostgreSQL code without any limitations and
integrate it into other products, including commercial and
closed-source software.

Independence

PostgreSQL does not belong to any company; it is developed

by the international community, which includes developers
from all over the world. It means that systems using Post-
greSQL do not depend on a particular vendor, thus keeping
the investment safe in any circumstances.
II What’s New in
PostgreSQL 15
If you are familiar with the previous versions of PostgreSQL,
this chapter can give you a sense of what has changed over
the past year. It mentions only some of the updates; for the
full list of changes, see the Release Notes: postgrespro.com/
docs/postgresql/15/release-15.

SQL Commands

After an unsuccessful attempt made as early as PostgreSQL

11, the MERGE command is finally implemented. This com-
mand is defined by the SQL standard. It is more flexible and
sometimes also more efficient than the previously available
INSERT ... ON CONFLICT command.

Should NULL values be considered distinct in integrity con-

straints? There used to be only one correct answer to this
question (negative), but now the NULLS [NOT] DISTINCT
clause allows choosing the desired behavior.

You can now provide a list of columns in the ON DELETE SET

NULL clause for composite foreign keys: instead of resetting
values in all the columns, simply specify the exact fields to
be affected when the parent entry is deleted.
16 The COPY command can now take the table header in the first
ii data row as input, as well as include it in the output.

Functions

The unnest and range_agg functions have been added for

multidimensional data types introduced in version 14.

New regular expression functions have been added to facili-

tate migration: regexp_like, regexp_count, regexp_instr,
and regexp_substr.

Functions pg_size_pretty and pg_size_bytes have been

improved to support petabyte units. Prefixes for larger units
have been reserved for future enhancements.

Partitioning

If a trigger on a partitioned table gets renamed, triggers on

table partitions are renamed automatically.

The CLUSTER command is now supported for partitioned

tables.

Planning is now performed faster if only a few partitions are

relevant to the query.
Write-Ahead Log 17
ii

LZ4 and ZStd compression algorithms for full page images

have been added. As compared to the standard PGLZ algo-
rithm, LZ4 usually consumes less resources but is just as
efficient, while ZStd is more CPU-intensive but shows better
compression results. The LZ4 algorithm is also supported by
the pg_receivewal utility.

WAL records for recovery can now be prefetched, which may

speed up server restart after a failure, backup restore, and
application of WAL records during replication.

Continuous archiving now allows using custom modules

instead of an OS command. Developers of backup solutions
can now rely on this feature.

A new feature that is not directly available to end users

is the ability to create custom resource managers. This
functionality is important for developers of both index and
table access methods. Incidentally, table access methods
can now be altered using the ALTER TABLE ... SET METHOD
command (but sadly, there is no alternative available yet).

Added the pg_walinspect extension, which enables viewing

WAL records via an SQL query (in addition to the already
available pg_waldump utility).

Logical Replication

Logical replication has been significantly improved. There

is hope that such long-awaited features as replication of
sequences and DDL commands will be soon implemented
as well.
18 When creating a publication, you can now filter rows and
ii columns to be replicated, as well as replicate all tables that
belong to a particular schema (FOR ALL TABLES IN SCHEMA).

Added support for prepared transactions to logical repli-

cation.

Subscriber processes are now executed with the privileges

of the subscription owner; superuser rights are not required
anymore.

Subscriptions can now be stopped on conflict. Previously, the

WAL receiver process was restarted every second; now the
conflicting transaction can be skipped (ALTER SUBSCRIPTION
... SKIP).

Backup

The good-old pg_basebackup utility was refactored.

You can now choose the backup location: it can be created

either on the client or on the server. Following the principle
of extensibility, you can create custom backup targets; for
example, the new basebackup_to_shell extension passes
the backup to an OS command.

Data compression on the server side can now be performed

by gzip, LZ4, and ZStd algorithms, which can be useful if the
network throughput is low.
Security 19
ii

The CREATE privilege has been revoked from the public

schema; this privilege used to be inherited by all users from
the public pseudorole. The public schema is now owned
by a new pseudorole called pg_database_owner, which im-
plicitly includes the owner of the current database.

PostgreSQL now provides more opportunities for delegating

system administration tasks to non-privileged users. The
right to perform the CHECKPOINT command is granted to the
new role called pg_checkpointer. The access to statistics on
backend memory contexts (pg_backend_memory_contexts
and pg_shmem_allocations catalog views) is granted to
the pg_read_all_stats role. You can also control access
to configuration parameters (GRANT SET and GRANT ALTER
SYSTEM).

It is now possible to create views with the caller’s privileges:

the user must have the right to access these views’ objects
in this case.

Regular users can no longer manage their own role mem-

bership (that is, use the ADMIN OPTION) by default to add or
remove members of its own role).

Monitoring

Cumulative statistics is now stored in shared memory; a

separate statistics collector process is not used anymore, and
there is no need to mount tmpfs for the files that accumulate
statistics.
20 New wait events for archive commands have appeared:
ii ArchiveCommand, ArchiveCleanupCommand, RestoreCom-
mand, RecoveryEndCommand.

Server log can now be written in the JSON format; it is much

better suited for programmatic parsing than a plain-text
output.

The pg_log_backend_memory_contexts function now logs

memory contexts of auxiliary processes in addition to back-
end memory contexts.

Postgres_fdw

The postgres_fdw foreign data wrapper, which is the corner-

stone of the future built-in sharding, can now pass CASE ex-
pressions to the foreign server and set the application_name
parameter to an arbitrary value.

Transactions started on foreign servers can now be commit-

ted in parallel, which may boost performance. Unfortunately,
we are still far from having genuine distributed transac-
tions.

Vacuuming and Freezing

Vacuuming and freezing have been significantly refactored.

Now VACUUM can partially process the pages that cannot be
locked instead of skipping them altogether. As a result, the
relfrozenxid threshold can also be advanced by routine
vacuuming, so aggressive vacuuming can be performed less
frequently.
The VACUUM VERBOSE command now displays more useful 21
information, which was previously included into the server ii
log only.

Optimizations

Sorting now utilizes memory more efficiently, which in-

creases the chances to avoid disk access; sorting of a single
column is now performed faster.

Encoding validation of UTF-8 text strings has been sped up by

processing several bytes at a time.

Data transfer from workers to the leader process in paral-

lelized queries has been accelerated. The parallel_tuple_cost
value has not been changed yet.

Parallel aggregation has been already available for a long

time, and now the SELECT DISTINCT command can also be
executed in parallel.

New support functions added for the planner improve cardi-

nality estimation for conditions with the starts_with func-
tion or the ˆ@ operator.

The default hash_mem_multiplier value has been increased

to 2.0 (it used to be 1.0). It means that hash tables can now
use twice as much memory as specified in the work_mem
parameter: it’s good for queries, but you have to keep an eye
on memory consumption.

You can manage the size of the working table of a recursive

query using the recursive_worktable_factor parameter.
22 Miscellaneous
ii
The ICU locale provider, which was added as early as version
10, can now be used as the default one for databases
and clusters; collation versions are recorded in the system
catalog.

Python 2 is not supported anymore, both plpython2u and

plpythonu languages were removed.

Documentation

The documentation was extended with a new chapter on

hash indexes: postgrespro.com/docs/postgresql/15/hash-
index.
III Installation
and Quick Start
What is required to get started with PostgreSQL? In this
chapter, we’ll learn how to install PostgreSQL and manage
the corresponding service, and in the next one we’ll continue
our ramp-up by creating a simple database and trying out
some basic SQL queries.

We are going to use a regular (often called “vanilla”) distribu-

tion of PostgreSQL 15. Depending on your operating system,
the procedure of installing and setting up PostgreSQL will
differ:

• If you are using Windows, read on.

• To set up PostgreSQL on Linux-based Debian or Ubuntu
systems, go to p. 28.

For other operating systems, you can view installation in-

structions online: www.postgresql.org/download.

You can also use Postgres Pro Standard 15: it is fully com-
patible with vanilla PostgreSQL, includes some additional
features developed by Postgres Professional, and is free when
used for trial or educational purposes. Check out installation
instructions at postgrespro.com/products/download in this
case.
24 Windows
iii

Installation

Download the PostgreSQL installer, launch it, and select the

installation language: postgrespro.com/windows.

The installer provides a conventional wizard interface: you

can simply keep clicking the “Next” button if you are fine with
the default options. Let’s go over the main steps.

Choose components (keep the current selection if you are

uncertain what to choose):

Then you have to specify PostgreSQL installation directory.

By default, PostgreSQL server is installed into C:\Program
Files\PostgreSQL\15.
You can also specify the location of the data directory. 25
iii

This directory will hold all the information stored in your

database system, so make sure you have enough disk space
if you plan to keep a lot of data.

If you are going to store your data in a language other than

English, make sure to choose the corresponding locale (or
leave the “Default” option if your Windows locale settings
are configured appropriately).

Enter and confirm the password for the postgres database

user. You should also select the “Set up environment vari-
ables” checkbox to connect to the PostgreSQL server on
behalf of the current OS user.

You can leave the default settings in all the other fields.
26
iii

If you are planning to install PostgreSQL for training pur-

poses only, you can select the “Use the default settings”
option for the database system to take up less RAM.

Managing the Service and the Main Files

When PostgreSQL is installed, the “postgresql-15” service is

registered in your system. This service is launched auto-
matically at the system startup under the Network Service
account. If required, you can change the service settings
using the standard Windows options.

To temporarily stop the service, run the “Stop Server” program

from the Start menu subfolder that you have selected at
installation time.
 27
iii

To start the service, run the “Start Server” program from the
same folder.

If an error occurs at the service startup, you can view

the server log to find out its cause. The log file is lo-
cated in the log subdirectory of the database directory
chosen at installation time (you can typically find it at
C:\Program Files\PostgreSQL\15\data\log). Logging is
regularly switched to a new file. You can find the required
file either by the last modified date or by the filename that
includes the date and time of the switchover to this file.

There are several important configuration files that define

server settings. They are located in the database directory.
You do not have to modify them to get started with Post-
greSQL, but you’ll definitely need them in real work. Take a
look into these files, they are fully documented:
28 • postgresql.conf is the main configuration file that con-
iii tains server parameters.
• pg_hba.conf defines access rules. For security reasons,
the default configuration only allows access from the
local system, and it must be confirmed by a password.

Now we are ready to connect to the database and try out

some commands and SQL queries. Go to the “Trying SQL”
chapter on p. 33.

Debian and Ubuntu

Installation

If you are using Linux, you need to add PGDG (PostgreSQL

Global Development Group) package repository. At the mo-
ment, the supported Debian versions are 10 “Buster,” 11 “Bulls-
eye,” and 12 “Bookworm.” The currently supported Ubuntu
versions are 18.04 “Bionic,” 20.04 “Focal,” 22.04 “Jammy,” and
22.10 “Kinetic”.

Run the following commands in the console window:

$ sudo apt-get install lsb-release

$ sudo sh -c 'echo "deb \
http://apt.postgresql.org/pub/repos/apt/ \
$(lsb_release-cs)-pgdg main" \
> /etc/apt/sources.list.d/pgdg.list'
$ wget --quiet -O - \
https://postgresql.org/media/keys/ACCC4CF8.asc \
| sudo apt-key add -

Once the repository is added, let’s update the list of pack-

ages:
$ sudo apt-get update 29
iii
Before starting the installation, check localization settings:

$ locale

If you plan to process non-English data, the LC_CTYPE and

LC_COLLATE variables may have to be configured. For exam-
ple, it makes sense to set these variables to “fr_FR.UTF8” for
the French language, even though the “en_US.UTF8” may do
too:

$ export LC_CTYPE=fr_FR.UTF8
$ export LC_COLLATE=fr_FR.UTF8

You should also make sure that the operating system has the
required locale installed:

$ locale -a | grep fr_FR

fr_FR.utf8

If it’s not the case, generate the locale, as follows:

$ sudo locale-gen fr_FR.utf8

Now we can start the installation:

$ sudo apt-get install postgresql-15

It was the final step; once the installation command com-

pletes, PostgreSQL will be installed and launched. To check
that the server is ready to use, run:

$ sudo -u postgres psql -c 'select now()'

If all went well, the current time is returned.

30 Managing the Service and the Main Files
iii
When PostgreSQL is installed, a special postgres user is
created on your system. All the server processes work on
behalf of this user, and all the database files belong to this
user as well. PostgreSQL will be started automatically at the
operating system boot. It’s not a problem with the default
settings: if you are not working with the database server, it
consumes very little of system resources. If you still decide
to turn off the autostart, run:

$ sudo systemctl disable postgresql

To temporarily stop the database server service, enter:

$ sudo systemctl stop postgresql

You can launch the server service as follows:

$ sudo systemctl start postgresql

You can also check the current state of the service:

$ sudo systemctl status postgresql

If the service cannot start, use the server log to troubleshoot

this issue. Take a closer look at the latest log entries in
/var/log/postgresql/postgresql-15-main.log.

All information stored in the database is located in the

/var/lib/postgresql/15/main/ directory. If you are going
to keep a lot of data, make sure that you have enough disk
space.
Server settings are defined by several configuration files. 31
There’s no need to edit all these files to get started, but it’s iii
worth checking them out since you’ll definitely need them in
the future:

• /etc/postgresql/15/main/postgresql.conf is the
main configuration file that contains server parameters.
• /etc/postgresql/15/main/pg_hba.conf file defines ac-
cess settings. For security reasons, the default configura-
tion only allows access from the local system on behalf of
the database user that has the same name as the current
OS user.

Now it’s time to connect to the database and try out SQL.
IV Trying SQL

Connecting via psql

To connect to the database server and start executing com-

mands, you need to have a client application. In the “Post-
greSQL for Applications” chapter, we will talk about sending
queries from applications written in different programming
languages. And here we’ll explain how to work with the psql
client from the command line in the interactive mode.

Unfortunately, many people are not very fond of the com-

mand line nowadays. Yet it is really worth mastering.

First of all, psql is a standard client application included into

all PostgreSQL packages, so it’s always available. No doubt,
it’s good to have a customized environment, but there is no
point in getting lost on an unknown system.

Secondly, psql is really convenient for everyday DBA tasks,

writing small queries, and automating processes. For exam-
ple, you can use it to periodically deploy application code
updates on your database server. The psql client provides
its own commands that can help you find your way around
database objects and display the data stored in tables in a
convenient format.

However, if you are used to working in graphical user inter-

faces, try pgAdmin (we’ll get back to it later) or other simi-
34 lar products: wiki.postgresql.org/wiki/Community_Guide_to_
iv PostgreSQL_GUI_Tools.

To start psql on a Linux system, run this command:

$ sudo -u postgres psql

On Windows, open the

Start menu and launch the
“SQL Shell (psql)” program.
When prompted, enter the
password for the postgres
user that you set when in-
stalling PostgreSQL.

Windows users may run

into encoding issues when
viewing non-Latin charac-
ters in the terminal. If that
is the case, make sure that
a TrueType font is selected
in the properties of the ter-
minal window (typically, “Lucida Console” or “Consolas”).

As a result, you should see the same prompt on both oper-

ating systems: postgres=#. Here “postgres” is the name of
the database to which you are connected right now. A single
PostgreSQL server can serve several databases, but you can
work only with one of them at a time.

Now let’s try out some commands. Enter only the part printed
in bold; the prompt and the system response are provided
here solely for your convenience.
Databases 35
iv
Let’s create a new database called test:

postgres=# CREATE DATABASE test;

CREATE DATABASE

Don’t forget to finish each command with a semicolon:

PostgreSQL expects you to continue typing until you enter
this symbol (so you can split the command between multiple
lines).

Now let’s connect to the created database:

postgres=# \c test
You are now connected to database "test" as user
"postgres".
test=#

As you can see, the command prompt has changed to

test=#.

The command that we’ve just entered does not look like SQL,
as it starts with a backslash. This is a convention for special
commands that can only be run in psql (so if you are using
pgAdmin or some other GUI tool, skip all commands starting
with a backslash or try to find an equivalent).

There are quite a few psql commands, and we’ll use some of
them a bit later. To get the full list of psql commands right
now, you can run:

test=# \?

Since the reference information is quite bulky, it will be

displayed in a pager program of your operating system, which
is usually more or less.
36 Tables
iv

Relational database management systems present data as

tables. The structure of the table is defined by its columns;
the data itself is stored in table rows. The data is not ordered,
so rows are not necessarily stored in the same order they
were added into the table.

For each column, a data type is defined. All the values in

the corresponding row fields must belong to this type. You
can use multiple built-in data types provided by PostgreSQL
(postgrespro.com/doc/datatype) or add your own custom
types, but here we’ll cover just a few main ones:

• integer
• text
• boolean, which is a logical data type taking true or false
values

Apart from regular values defined by the data type, a field

can be NULL. It can be interpreted as “the value is unknown”
or “the value is not set.”

Let’s create a table of university courses:

test=# CREATE TABLE courses(

test(# c_no text PRIMARY KEY,
test(# title text,
test(# hours integer
test(# );

CREATE TABLE

Note that the psql command prompt has changed: it is

a hint that the command continues on the new line. For
convenience, we will not repeat the prompt on each line in 37
the examples that follow. iv

The above command creates the courses table with three

columns: c_no specifies the course number represented as a
text string, title provides the course title, and hours lists
an integer number of lecture hours.

Apart from columns and data types, we can define integrity

constraints that will be checked automatically: PostgreSQL
will not allow invalid data in the database. In this example,
we have added the PRIMARY KEY constraint for the c_no
column. It means that all the values in this column must
be unique, and NULLs are not allowed. Such a column
can be used to distinguish one table row from another.
The postgrespro.com/doc/ddl-constraints page lists all the
available constraints.

You can find the exact syntax of the CREATE TABLE command
in the documentation, or view command-line help right in
psql:

test=# \help CREATE TABLE

Such reference information is available for each SQL com-

mand. To get the full list of SQL commands, run \help
without arguments.

Filling Tables with Data

Let’s insert some rows into the created table:

test=# INSERT INTO courses(c_no, title, hours)

VALUES ('CS301', 'Databases', 30),
('CS305', 'Networks', 60);
INSERT 0 2
38 If you need to perform a bulk data upload from an external
iv source, the INSERT command is not the best choice. Instead,
you can use the COPY command specifically designed for this
purpose: postgrespro.com/doc/sql-copy.

We’ll need two more tables for further examples: students

and exams. For each student, we are going to store their
name and the year of admission (start year). The student ID
card number will serve as the student’s identifier.

test=# CREATE TABLE students(

s_id integer PRIMARY KEY,
name text,
start_year integer
);
CREATE TABLE
test=# INSERT INTO students(s_id, name, start_year)
VALUES (1451, 'Anna', 2014),
(1432, 'Victor', 2014),
(1556, 'Nina', 2015);
INSERT 0 3

The exams table contains all the scores received by students

in the corresponding course. Thus, students and courses are
connected by the many-to-many relationship: each student
can take exams in multiple courses, and each exam can be
taken by multiple students.

Each table row is uniquely identified by the combination

of a student ID and a course number. Such an integrity
constraint pertaining to several columns at once is defined
by the CONSTRAINT clause:

test=# CREATE TABLE exams(

s_id integer REFERENCES students(s_id),
c_no text REFERENCES courses(c_no),
score integer,
CONSTRAINT pk PRIMARY KEY(s_id, c_no)
);
CREATE TABLE 39
iv
Besides, the REFERENCES clause here defines two referential
integrity checks called foreign keys. Such keys show that the
values of one table reference rows of another table.

After any action performed on the database, PostgreSQL

checks that all the s_id identifiers in the exams table corre-
spond to real students (that is, entries in the students table),
while c_no course numbers correspond to real courses. Thus,
it is impossible to assign a score on a non-existing subject
or to a non-existent student, regardless of the user actions
or possible application errors.

Let’s assign several scores to our students:

test=# INSERT INTO exams(s_id, c_no, score)

VALUES (1451, 'CS301', 5),
(1556, 'CS301', 5),
(1451, 'CS305', 5),
(1432, 'CS305', 4);

INSERT 0 4

Data Retrieval

Simple Queries

To read data from tables, use the SQL operator SELECT. For
example, let’s display two columns of the courses table. The
AS clause allows you to rename the column if required:

test=# SELECT title AS course_title, hours

FROM courses;
40 course_title | hours
iv --------------+-------
Databases | 30
Networks | 60
(2 rows)

The asterisk * displays all the columns:

test=# SELECT * FROM courses;

c_no | title | hours
-------+-------------+-------
CS301 | Databases | 30
CS305 | Networks | 60
(2 rows)

In production applications, it is recommended to explicitly

specify only those columns that are really needed: then the
query is performed more efficiently, and the result does not
depend on new columns that may appear. But in interactive
queries you can simply use an asterisk.

The result can contain several rows with the same data. Even
if all rows in the original table are different, the data can
appear duplicated if not all the columns are displayed:

test=# SELECT start_year FROM students;

start_year
------------
2014
2014
2015
(3 rows)

To select all different start years, specify the DISTINCT

keyword after SELECT:

test=# SELECT DISTINCT start_year FROM students;

 start_year 41
------------ iv
2014
2015
(2 rows)

For details, see the documentation: postgrespro.com/doc/

sql-select#SQL-DISTINCT.

In general, you can use any expressions after the SELECT

operator. And if you omit the FROM clause, the query will
return a single row. For example:

test=# SELECT 2+2 AS result;

result
--------
4
(1 row)

When you select some data from a table, it is usually required

to return only those rows that satisfy a certain condition. This
filtering condition is specified in the WHERE clause:

test=# SELECT * FROM courses WHERE hours > 45;

c_no | title | hours
-------+----------+-------
CS305 | Networks | 60
(1 row)

The condition must be of a logical type. For example, it can

contain operators =, <> (or !=), >, >=, <, <=, as well as combine
simple conditions using logical operations AND, OR, NOT, and
parenthesis (like in regular programming languages).

Handling NULLs is a bit more subtle. The result will contain

only those rows for which the filtering condition is true; if
the condition is false or undefined, the row is excluded.
42 Remember:
iv
• The result of comparing something to NULL is undefined.
• The result of logical operations on NULLs is usually
undefined (exceptions: true OR NULL = true, false AND
NULL = false).
• To check whether the value is undefined, the following op-
erators are used: IS NULL (IS NOT NULL) and IS DISTINCT
FROM (IS NOT DISTINCT FROM).

The coalesce expression is often used to replace NULL values

with something else, such as an empty string for text types
or zero for numeric types.

For more details, see the documentation: postgrespro.com/

doc/functions-comparison.

Joins

A well-designed database should not contain redundant data.

For example, the exams table must not contain student
names, as this information can be found in another table
by the number of the student ID card.

For this reason, to get all the required values in a query, it is

often necessary to join the data of several tables, specifying
their names in the FROM clause:

test=# SELECT * FROM courses, exams;

c_no | title | hours | s_id | c_no | score
-------+-------------+-------+------+-------+-------
CS301 | Databases | 30 | 1451 | CS301 | 5
CS305 | Networks | 60 | 1451 | CS301 | 5
CS301 | Databases | 30 | 1556 | CS301 | 5
 CS305 | Networks | 60 | 1556 | CS301 | 5 43
CS301 | Databases | 30 | 1451 | CS305 | 5 iv
CS305 | Networks | 60 | 1451 | CS305 | 5
CS301 | Databases | 30 | 1432 | CS305 | 4
CS305 | Networks | 60 | 1432 | CS305 | 4
(8 rows)

This result is called the direct or Cartesian product of tables:

each row of one table is appended to each row of the other
table.

As a rule, you can get a more useful and informative result

if you specify the join condition in the WHERE clause. Let’s
match the courses to the corresponding exams to get all the
scores for all the courses:

test=# SELECT courses.title, exams.s_id, exams.score

FROM courses, exams
WHERE courses.c_no = exams.c_no;

title | s_id | score

-------------+------+-------
Databases | 1451 | 5
Databases | 1556 | 5
Networks | 1451 | 5
Networks | 1432 | 4
(4 rows)

Another way to join tables is to explicitly use the JOIN

keyword. Let’s display all the students and their scores for
the “Networks” course:

test=# SELECT students.name, exams.score

FROM students
JOIN exams
ON students.s_id = exams.s_id
AND exams.c_no = 'CS305';
44 name | score
iv --------+-------
Anna | 5
Victor | 4
(2 rows)

From the database point of view, these queries are com-

pletely equivalent, so you can use any approach that seems
more natural.

In this example, the result does not include any rows of the
table specified on the left side of the join clause if they have
no pair in the right table: although the condition is applied
to the subjects, the students that did not take the exam in
this subject are also excluded. To include all the students
into the result, we have to use the outer join:

test=# SELECT students.name, exams.score

FROM students
LEFT JOIN exams
ON students.s_id = exams.s_id
AND exams.c_no = 'CS305';
name | score
--------+-------
Anna | 5
Victor | 4
Nina |
(3 rows)

Note that the rows of the left table that don’t have a counter-
part in the right table are added to the result (that’s why the
operation is called LEFT JOIN). The corresponding values of
the right table are NULL in this case.

The WHERE conditions are applied to the result of the join

operation. Thus, if you move the subject restriction from the
join condition to the WHERE clause, Nina will be excluded
from the result because the corresponding exams.c_no is
NULL:
Other documents randomly have
different content
Euæmonis filium; cui parentalia faciunt anniversaria per festos
Baccho dies.

CAPUT XX.

De deo Æsymnete dicto ejusque cultu — Minerva Panachaide ac templis signisque

deorum in urbe Patrensium — Odeo Patrensium et Atheniensium — templo
Dianæ Limnatidis — aliis templis et signis.
Deo qui in arcam fuerat abditus cognomen est Æsymnetes. Præsunt
ejus religioni novem viri ex civitatis principibus electi, et feminæ
primariæ totidem; ac per dies quidem festos nocte una arcam foras
effert sacerdos. Ea nox hanc habet quasi prærogativam. Descendunt
etiam ad Milichum fluvium oppidanorum liberi omnes cum spiceis
coronis, qui est idem ornatus quo ad aram olim Dianæ qui mactandi
erant deducebantur. (2) Nostra ætate eas coronas in templo deæ
deponunt, ac deinde ubi se flumine abluerint, novis ex hedera
impositis coronis recta ad Æsymnetæ fanum procedunt. Hoc ritu
sacrum illud peragitur. Intra Laphriæ ambitum Minervæ etiam ædes
est cognomento Panachaidis, cujus signum ex auro et ebore. (3)
Descendentibus ad inferiorem urbis partem, est Matris Dindymenes
delubrum, in quo Attes etiam colitur, etsi nullum ejus monstratur
signum; Magnæ Matris ipsius marmoreum est. In foro Jovis Olympii
templum est: sedet ipse in solio prope adsistente Minerva. Ultra
Olympii, Junonis est simulacrum. Apollini etiam fanum dedicarunt;
dei nudum est ex ære signum, pedibus tantum calceatis, quorum
altero bovis calvæ insistit. (4) Delectatum vero bobus Apollinem, in
hymno quem in Mercurium fecit docet Alcæus, boves surreptas
Apollini a Mercurio memorans. Sed etiam ante Alcæum versibus
prodidit suis Homerus certa mercede Laomedontis armenta
Apollinem pavisse; ita loquentem in Iliade Neptunum fecit:
 (5) Ipse ego Trojanam vallabam mœnibus urbem
tam latis pulchrisque ut inexpugnabilis esset;
at tu, Phœbe, boves camuras tunc pastor agebas.

Hanc ergo figmenti de bovis calva rationem habuisse fictorem

conjicere licet. In foro sub divo positum est Minervæ signum, in
cujus fronte est Patrei sepulcrum. (6) Cum foro Odeum conjunctum
est. In eo Apollinis simulacrum dedicatum est eximia admodum
specie. De manubiis illud Patrenses fecere, quum ex Achæis omnibus
soli Ætolis contra Gallos auxilium tulere. Exornatum Odeum illud est
omnium quæ in Græcia sunt magnificentissime, excepto duntaxat eo
quod Athenis est. Illud enim et magnitudine et ornamentorum
insignibus facile superat quorumvis operum splendorem; ab Herode
vero Attico in mortuæ uxoris memoriam est dedicatum. Ejus operis
in commentario de rebus Atticis idcirco nullam fecimus mentionem,
quod eam historiam ante quam Herodes Atticus ædificationem illam
instituisset perscripseramus. (7) Sed ad Patrenses redeo. E foro
abeuntibus qua parte est Apollinis ædes, porta est in eo urbis exitu,
et supra portam inauratæ statuæ eminent, Patreus, Preugenes,
Atherion, qui, ut ipse Patreus, pueri sunt. In adversa fori regione
juxta eundem exitum fanum est cum area sacra Dianæ Limnatidis.
(8) Aiunt tenentibus jam tum Lacedæmonem et Argos Doribus
Preugenem ex quodam somnio Limnatidis signum Spartanis
surripuisse; in ea re servi, cui fidem habebat maximam, opera usum.
Servatur hoc ex ligno signum antiquum reliquo tempore Mesoæ, quo
a Preugene primum est e Sparta deportatum; verum ipso Limnatidis
festo die e sacris servis unus e Mesoa illud transfert Patras in aream
deæ. (9) In ea area Patrenses habent alias quoque sacras ædes;
non sub dio illas quidem, sed ad eas per porticus est aditus. Ibi
Æsculapii signum præter vestem e marmore, Minervæ ex ebore et
auro est fabricatum. Ante Minervæ templum Preugenis
monumentum est, ad quod anniversaria fit parentatio Preugeni, fit
item Patreo, eo ipso tempore quo Limnatidi solennia peraguntur
sacra. Non longe a theatro ædes duæ sunt, Nemesis una, Veneris
altera. Dearum signa e candido marmore sunt, insigni utrumque
magnitudine.
 CAPUT XXI.

De Baccho Calydonio ac Coresi erga Callirrhoen amore — tribus Bacchi signis

eorumque nominibus — Neptuni cognominibus templa et signa in urbe
Patrensium porro recensentur — de miro Patrensium oraculo prope fontem —
oraculo Apollinis — Thyrxei in Cyaneis et Sarapidis templis Patris — feminis
Patrensium.
In eadem urbis regione templum est Bacchi cui cognomen
Calydonio. Est enim et hujus dei signum e Calydone Patras
deportatum. Fuit, dum Calydon stetit, inter alios Bacchi sacerdotes
Coresus, cui uni omnium hominum ex amore indignissimi casus
evenere. Amabat hic Callirrhoen virginem; et quanto erat Coresi
amor vehementior, tanto erat puellæ animus ei infestior. (2) Quare
quum neque precum, neque munerum ullo genere omnia expertus
Coresus virginem flectere potuisset, postremo supplex ad Bacchi
signum confugit opem poscens. Deus simul atque audivit sacerdotis
precationem, incessit statim Calydoniis ebrietati persimilis quidam
furor, ex quo passim populari vesaniæ morbo interibant. In ea lue ad
Dodonæ oraculum confugiunt. Erat enim apud ejus oræ incolas,
Ætolos et eorum finitimos Acarnanas et Epirotas, columbarum et
responsorum qua ex quercu edebantur maxima ut veracissimi oraculi
autoritas. (3) Responsum qui missi fuerant tulere, placandum
Bacchum, cujus ira tantam apportasset perniciem. Esse vero
placandi numinis unam illam rationem, si ad ejus aram Coresus vel
Callirrhoen ipsam immolasset vel alium qui se pro illa devovere
sustineret. Puella quum frustra deprecando, ne eorum quidem a
quibus educata fuerat impetrato auxilio, cædi destinata esset, (4) et
iis omnibus comparatis quæ ad sacrum rite peragendum in promptu
esse oportere Dodonæi Jovis oraculum monuerat, cum infulis
victimæ ornatu ad aram jam deducta fuisset; Coresus ipse, qui sacris
præerat, amore victus nihil jam pristinæ in puellam iræ indulgens, se
ipsum pro illa occidit, ae re ipsa ostendit se omnium quos novimus
hominum minime ficto amore fuisse incensum. (5) Commota rei
spectaculo Callirrhoe, animum mutavit; quumque mentem ejus
subiisset partim Coresi commiseratio, partim pudor eorum quæ in
illum commiserat, et ipsa semet ad fontem, qui non procul abest a
Calydonis portu, jugulavit. Eum fontem posteri de puellæ nomine
Callirrhoen nuncuparunt. (6) Est apud Patrenses non longe a theatro
indigenæ cujusdam feminæ sacrarium, in quo Bacchi signa totidem,
quot erant antiqua oppida, et iisdem nominibus, Mesateus, Antheus
et Aroeus. Signa hæc festis Baccho diebus in Æsymnetæ templum
deportant: quod templum vero Æsymnetæ in maritima urbis parte
situm est, ad ejus viæ, qua e foro exitus patet, dexteram. (7)
Descendens ab Æsymnetæ aliud conspicias templum et signum e
lapide, quod Salutis nuncupatur. Dedicatum aiunt jam tum ab
Eurypylo, quum insaniæ morbo liberatus fuit. Proxime ad portum
Neptuni ædes est cum signo marmoreo, cujus rectus est status.
Neptunum quidem, præter ea cognomina qui a poetis ficta sunt
ornandi carminis causa et quæ gentes prope singulæ privatim
imponunt, communia fere omnibus et maxime insignia sunt Pelagius
(Marinus), Asphalius (quasi Securitatem parans) et Hippius
(Equester) (8) Equestrem autem cur appellent hunc deum, alius
aliam sibi causam persuaserit. Ego ex eo conjicio quod equitationem
primus Neptunus invenisse dicatur. Homerus quidem quo loco
certamen equorum describit, Menelaum facit jusjurandum
concipientem per hujus ipsius dei numen:
En age equos tangens Neptuni numina jura,
fraude meos nulla prudens tardare jugales.

(9) Pamphus vero, vetustissimorum apud Athenienses hymnorum

auctor, Neptunum appellat «equorum ac navium erectis vexillis
ornatarum largitorem.» Satis itaque probabile, non aliunde eum
quam ab equitatione nomen illud adeptum. (10) Patris quidem non
procul a Neptuni, Veneris templa sunt. Deæ signum e duobus quæ
ibi dedicata sunt alterum e mari piscatores reti extraxerunt una ante
me ætate. Sunt et proxime portum signa, et Martis quidem ex ære;
Apollini vero et Veneri (quibus prope portum area etiam sacra
dedicata est) os, manus et imi pedes e marmore, reliquæ partes e
ligno confectæ sunt. (11) Est etiam in ipsa maritima ora lucus, in
quo curricula luculenta et stationes æstivo anni tempore valde
suaves. In eodem luco Apollinis et Veneris delubra spectantur cum
signis marmoreis. Proximum luco est Cereris fanum; dea ipsa et
Proserpina stant, Telluris effigies in solio sedet. (12) Pro Cereris æde
fons est: is qua parte templum spectat, lapideum habet sepimentum,
ab exteriori vero parte descensus ad eum structus est. Ibi oraculum
est maxime veridicum. Cognoscuntur tamen ex eo non rerum
omnium, sed morborum duntaxat eventa. Speculum tenui
suspensum funiculo demittunt, ita librantes ut in fonte omnino non
mergatur, sed imo ambitu summam aquam contingat. Exinde ubi
odores adoleverint et rite deam precati fuerint, inspiciunt in
speculum; et ex ejus imaginibus periturusne an victurus is æger sit,
de quo consuluerunt, divinant. (13) Neque latius omnino hujus aquæ
divinatio patet. Proxime autem Cyaneas Lyciæ finitimas oraculum est
Apollinis Thyrxei: aquæ vero quæ est juxta Cyaneas ea est natura,
ut in eam si quis introspiciat, similiter omnia ei quæ vult videre
liceat. Sunt etiam Patris juxta lucum duo Sarapidis templa; in
quorum altero Ægypti Beli filii monumentum. Ægyptum Aroen
confugisse tradunt Patrenses filiorum luctu confectum, quum ipsum
Argorum nomen exhorresceret et inprimis a Danao sibi plurimum
metueret. (14) Est etiam apud Patrenses Æsculapii templum. Hoc
supra arcem, ad eam portam per quam exeunt qui Mesatin iter
habent, est conditum. Feminarum Patris quam virorum duplo fere
major est numerus; et hæ quidem si quæ aliæ ad Venerem pronæ.
Texendis e bysso, quæ in Elide provenit, reticulis et alia veste earum
complures victum quæritant.

CAPUT XXII.

De Pharis urbe, fluvio Piero et platanis miræ magnitudinis — Mercurio Agoræo

ejusque oraculo — lapidibus quadrangulis a Pharensibus cultis et Phararum
conditore — Tritæa urbe et monumento picturis Niciæ exornato. — Tritææ
 conditore — summorum deorum templo — itinere Ægium versus — mira
amnis Charadri vi.
Pharæ Achæorum oppidum Patrensibus est ab Augusto attributum.
Via interest stadiûm centum et quinquaginta; a mari vero ad
continentem superiorem oram, stadiûm intervallum circiter
septuaginta. Præterfluit Pharensium agrum fluvius Pierus, idem
(opinor) qui et Oleni ruinas præterlabitur, quem maris accolæ Pirum
nominant. In ejus ripis platanorum lucus est tanta arborum
magnitudine, ut intra cavernas (multæ enim ex ipsa vetustate
concavæ sunt) qui velint et epulentur et somnum capiant. (2) Fori
area magno et late patenti ambitu est, quo scilicet spatio esse
consueverant priscorum fora. In medio Mercurii marmoreum signum
cum barba, ipsi terræ insistit, forma quadrangula, modica
magnitudine. Testatur inscriptio a Messenio Simulo dedicatum.
Cognomen ei est Agoræo (Forensi), et proxime eum constitutum est
oraculum. Ante Mercurii signum situs est focus et ipse lapideus; ad
eum focum plumbo agglutinatæ sunt æneæ lucernæ. (3) Qui deum
consulit, accedit sub vesperam et thus super foco adolet, deinde
oleo infuso lucernas accendit; tum vero in ara ad simulacri dextram
nummum patria nota signatum (appellant Æreum) dedicat, deumque
ad aurem rogat quodcumque placuerit, inde e foro abiens manibus
aures premit. Ubi e foro excessit, amota ab auribus manu quam
primum excepit vocem, eam sibi oraculi loco ducit. (4) Talis etiam
apud Ægyptios ad Apidis fanum celebratur oraculi religio. Est item
Pharis aqua Mercurio sacra; Hama (?) fonti nomen. Pisces ex eo non
capiunt, quod sacros deo putant. Prope ipsum dei signum lapides
fere triginta erecti sunt quadrangula figura; singulos certis deorum
nominibus appellantes Phararum incolæ venerantur. Atque adeo olim
apud universos Græcos rudes lapides pro simulacris divinos honores
obtinebant. (5) Est procul oppido stadia ferme quindecim Castoris et
Pollucis lucus, lauris consitus plurimis; neque ædes tamen in eo est
neque signa: aiunt incolæ, Romam quæ fuerant fuisse deportata;
ara tantum exstat lapidibus vilibus exstructa. Pro certo comperire
non potui, Pharesne Phylodamia Danai filia natus, an alius quis illi
cognominis eam urbem condiderit. (6) Tritæa quidem Achæorum et
ipsa urbs a litore interior; Patrensibus hæc quoque attributa
Imperatoris voluntate. Abest a Pharis stadia centum et viginti.
Antequam ingrediaris urbem, sepulcrum videas candido lapide
exstructum, insigne illud quidem tum reliquo opere, tum maxime
quod in eo Niciæ relucent picturæ. In eburnea sella sedet eximia
specie mulier juvenis; adstat ei ancillula umbraculum tenens; (7) et
adolescentulus plane impuber tunica amictus et supra tunicam
punicea chlamyde; cui servulus adstat cum jaculis, venaticos canes
ducens. Nomina eorum cognoscere non potuimus; sed in medio
cuique posita erat conjectura, illud esse viri et uxoris monumentum.
(8) Tritææ quidem conditorem Celbidan sunt qui dicant fuisse;
venisse vero illum e Cumis Opicæ terræ. Alii a Marte tradidere
Tritæam Tritonis filiam compressam; fuisse eam Minervæ
sacerdotem dum virgo esset; Melanippum Marte et Tritæa natum,
quum adultus esset, urbem condidisse et de matris nomine
appellasse. (9) Est Tritææ fanum quod Maximorum deorum vocatur.
Simulacra fictilia sunt. Sacra his annua non alio ritu fiunt quam
Baccho apud cunctos fere Græcos. Minervæ etiam ædes exstat, deæ
signum lapideum hac ætate cernitur, priscum Romam fuisse
deportatum Tritæenses ipsi memorant. Iidem Marti etiam et Tritææ
solenne habent rem divinam facere. (10) Atque hæ quidem procul a
mari et plane interiores in continenti terra urbes sunt. Navigantibus
Ægium a Patris distat stadia quinquaginta promontorium cui nomen
Rhion. Portus Panormus longius abest a promontorio stadia
quindecim. Totidem a Panormo distat qui Minervæ murus dicitur: a
quo ad portum cui Erinei (Caprifici) nomen oram legentibus
intervallum stadiûm nonaginta: inde ad Ægium sexaginta: at
pedestre iter e Patrensi urbe usque in Ægiensem quadraginta
potissimum stadiis brevius est eo marinæ profectionis numero quem
modo exposui. (11) Paululum abest ab ipso Patrensium oppido
Milichus amnis et Triclariæ templum, in quo signum omnino nullum
reliquum est. Situm hoc ad viæ dexteram. Paulo longius progressis a
Milicho amne alius est amnis cui Charadrus nomen: e quo quæ
verno tempore potarint pecudes, mares gignere creduntur fœtuum
partem maximam; eaque de cause pastores aliorsum greges agunt,
præter bovillum tamen pecus. Id ab eo flumine idcirco non rejiciunt,
quod mares et ad usum sacrorum et ad agrorum cultum magis sunt
idonei: ceteri pecoris feminas majore multo æstimatione dignantur.

CAPUT XXIII.

Reliquiæ urbis Argyræ — de Selemno amne et Argyra fonte narratio — de Bolinæo

amne et urbe Bolina — promontorio Drepano et reliquiis urbis Rhypum —
Ægio urbe, Lucinæ (Ilithyiæ) templo ac signo — de Æsculapio disputatio —
Ægii urbis memoranda.
Post Charadrum ruinæ sunt non magnopere insignes Argyræ urbis,
et ad dexteram viæ popularis fons Argyra, et Selemnus fluvius in
mare exit. De eo indigenarum est pervulgata fabula, Selemnum
egregia forma puerum pecus ibi pascentem amatum ab Argyra,
maris Nympharum una: illam e mari subnatantem cum puero cubare
solitam; (2) non longo post temporis intervallo quum pueri forma
defloruisset, ad eum ventitare Nympham desisse; desertum ab
Argyra puerum amorisque ardore consumptum esse a Venere in
amnem mutatum. (Refero quæ Patrenses narrant.) Verum quum in
aquam etiam versus Argyræ amore teneretur (sicuti etiam de Alpheo
Arethusam amante proditum est), Veneris munere Nymphæ fluvium
cepit etiam oblivio. (3) Atque audivi eam vim Selemnum habere, ut
qui viri quæve feminæ se in eo abluerint, amorum suorum
obliviscantur. Quod nisi commentitium est, quantavis pecunia
videatur hominibus ea Selemni aqua pretiosior. (4) Ab Argyra modico
intervallo fluvius abest Bolinæus. Fuit ei proxima olim Bolina urbs.
Virginem cui Bolina nomen ab Apolline amatam tradunt; quæ fugiens
in mare se proximum abjecerit ac postea Apollinis gratia
immortalitatem sit adepta. Promontorium inde mari imminet. In hoc
ipsum mare fabula vulgavit Saturnum falcem abjecisse, Cœlum
patrem quum exsecuisset, et ex eo promontorium Drepanum
(Falcem) vocatum. Paululum supra militarem viam cernuntur
Rhypum ruinæ: ab illis distat Ægium stadia circiter triginta. (5)
Ægiensem agrum perlabitur fluvius Phœnix, et item Meganitas;
ambo in mare influunt. Porticus suburbana Stratoni athletæ, qui
Olympiæ eodem die pancratii et Iuctæ coronas cepit, erecta est, quo
certum ubi se exerceret locum haberet. Habent Ægienses vetustum
Lucinæ fanum. Deæ signum, a vertice ad calcem tenui carbaso
velatum, ligneum est præter os, summas manus et pedes: quæ
partes e marmore Pentelico confectæ sunt. (6) Alteram manum
porrigit, altera facem præfert. Attributas ei faces ex eo suspicari
possis, quod parturientes dolores haud secus atque ignis urere
videantur. Etiam hinc merito faces gestaverit, quod ipsa in lucem
fœtus profert. Simulacrum illud fecit Damophon Messenius. (7) Non
longe a Lucinæ est sacra Æsculapio area, in qua Hygieæ sunt et
Æsculapii ipsius signa. In basi incisi iambi indicant Messenii
Damophontis opus esse. In hoc Æsculapii templo altercatio mihi fuit
cum Sidonio homine, qui et rerum omnium divinarum peritiores esse
Phœnicas quam Græcos contendebat, tum vero et inter ipsos aiebat
Æsculapii patrem Apollinem celebrari, matrem vero ei mortalem
fuisse negabat. (8) Æsculapium enim aerem esse, ex quo bona
valetudo tam homini, quam cunctis aliis animantibus exsistere:
Apollinem igitur qui Sol ipse sit, jure patrem Æsculapii perhiberi,
quod accommodatum anni temporibus cursum peragens aeri
salubritatem impertiat. Hæc ego illi facile assentiebar, sed non esse
magis Phœnicum eam opinionem quam Græcorum ostendebam;
quum Titane etiam (quod est Sicyoniorum oppidum) idem signum
Salubritatis dicatur. Esse vero vel puero manifestum aiebam,
corporum in terra salubritatem Solis cursu effici. (9) Est item apud
Ægienses Minervæ delubrum et Junonis lucus. Minervæ ipsius duo
sunt e candido lapide signa. Ad Junonis nemini, præter eam
mulierem cui sacerdotium obtigit, fas aspicere. Bacchi etiam ædes
est proxima theatro; signum impuberi ore est. In foro etiam Jovis est
area cognomento Servatoris: et in primo aditu ad lævam simulacra
sunt ænea duo, quorum alterum imberbis effigiem præ se ferens
mihi multo esse videbatur antiquius. (10) At ænea signa, quæ recta
via (ab introitu?) progressis in cella quadam Neptuno et Herculi, Jovi
item et Minervæ dicata sunt, Argivos nuncupant, vel quod (ut Argivi
dicunt) Argis fabricata fuerint, vel quod (ut Ægienses narrant) pro
deposito illa signa ipsis data fuerint ab Argivis: (11) qui sibi præterea
mandaverint ut quotidie sacra facerent ad ea signa: at id quo fine
publica impensa, se excogitasse, ut ea ipsa, quibus postea in
epulationibus vescerentur, diis rem divinam facientes consecrarent.
Sed enim quum depositum aliquando repetissent Argivi, se quoque
repetisse quam in sacra erogassent pecuniam; illos quum solvendo
non essent, signa ipsis reliquisse. Prope forum communis Apollini et
Dianæ ædes dedicata est. In foro etiam est Dianæ templum;
sagittas dea ejaculantis effigiem præ se fert. Est etiam Talthybii
caduceatoris sepulcrum, cui Spartæ quoque tumulus est aggesta
terra exstructus; et utraque civitas Talthybio parentat.

CAPUT XXIV.

Ægii urbi memoranda porro enumerantur — Jovis Homagyrii signum et Cereris

Panachææ — synedrium Achæorum in urbe Ægio — de Helice urbe et
Neptuno Heliconio — Helice terræ motu funditus eversa — de variis signis,
quæ terræ motus præcedunt, et horum varia ratione — Sipyli eversio.
In maritima Ægii parte Veneris delubrum est, Neptuni deinde,
Proserpinæ etiam et Jovi Homagyrio (quod est ac si Congregatori
dicas) templa dedicata fuere. In Jovis, dei ipsius, Veneris et Minervæ
signa exstant. (2) Homagyrium cognomine appellarunt, quod in hunc
locum Græciæ principes Agamemnon coegit, quo de illorum
sententia consilium caperet, quæ foret Priami regnum bello
adoriendi optima ratio. Agamemnoni ipsi et aliæ potuerunt laudes
attribui, et ea quod semel habito delectu cum iis tantum qui nomina
dederant, nullo postea evocato e Græciæ supplemento, et Ilium et
finitimas urbes expugnarit. (3) Proximum est Homagyrio Jovi
Panachææ Cereris fanum. Sunt in Ægiensium litore eodem in quo
templa quæ diximus, hæc memoratu digna: aqua perennis quæ ab
ipso usque fonte quum adspectu tum potu est jucunda: Salutis
fanum; in quo signum cernere fas nemini præter eos qui sacerdotio
funguntur. Ibi sacra et alia rite peragunt et ex ara deæ sumpta liba
in mare porriciunt, mittere se illa Arethusæ Syracusas dicentes. (4)
Sunt et alia apud Ægienses ex ære fabricata signa, Juppiter puerili
ætate et Hercules item impuber, Ageladæ Argivi opera. His
deliguntur quotannis sacerdotes, quorum in ædibus asservantur
signa. Priscis quidem temporibus decernebatur Jovis sacerdotium
puero qui primas pulchritudinis tulisset; quo jam pubescente in alium
puerum hic pulchritudinis honos transibat. Hæ patriæ Ægiensibus
religiones. Conventus autem apud eos Achæorum hac etiam ætate
celebratur, uti ad Thermopylas et Delphos Amphictyonum. (5) Hinc
progressis amnis Selinus, et ab Ægio stadiûm intervallo quadraginta
ad mare vicus est Helice, frequentis olim urbis nomen. In ea fuit
Ionibus religiosissimum Neptuni Heliconii templum. Mansisse apud se
cultum ejus dei memorant etiam tum quum ab Achæis ejecti
Athenas primum, atque inde postea in maritimam Asiæ oram
confugere. In Milesiis etiam qua ad Biblidem fontem iter est, ante
ipsam urbem ara monstratur Neptuni Heliconii. Et item apud Teios
ambitus est et ara Heliconii plane opere spectando. (6) Quin et
Homerus Helices et Heliconii Neptuni mentionem versibus inseruit
suis. Interjecto dein tempore quum habitantes ibi Achæi supplices e
templo abstractos trucidassent, non fuit lenta dei ad pœnam
reposcendam ira: sed vehemens terræ ac repentinus motus non ipsa
tantum mœnia et ædificiorum superficiem subvertit, sed urbis etiam
totius aream ita obruit, ut ne vestigia quidem ulla posteris
agnoscenda relinquerentur.
7. Et alias quidem quoties labes hujusmodi aliqua insignior facta est
quæ terram longe lateque concusserit, similiter præcesserunt certa
quædam divinitus præsagia, aut perpetui imbres, aut diuturnæ
siccitates, tepidæ contra naturam hiemes, æstate anni solis orbis
caligine obductus insolite, vel incensus rutilo vel subatro lividus fuit
colore (8) fontes utplurimum exsiccabantur; ventorum turbines
quocumque irrupissent prævalidas arbores radicitus convellerunt.
Nonnunquam etiam ignes longo flammarum tractu per cœlum
discurrere: siderum quoque non ante conspectæ formæ magnum
hominibus pavorem incussere. Densiores præterea ab ima terra
halitus erupere. His et aliis multis prodigiis, antequam terræ tam
violenti motus evenirent, homines præmonitos deus vult. (9) Sed
hujus tantæ motionis non unam nobis quasi formam ant simplex
genus ii quibus hæc jam pridem investigare curæ fuit et eorum
discipuli ac sectatores prodidere. Pluribus enim modis tremente terra
affici quæ moveantur, animadvertere. Levissima est omnium motio
(si quid tamen leve existimari possit in tam atroci malo) quoties quæ
in partem unam impulsa fuerint et prope jam solo æquata, obnitens
ab imo contrarius quidam motus surrigat et restituat. (10) Videre
itaque est quum terra in hunc modum moverit, columnas e recto
statu jam pene humi dejectas erigi, et distractas parietum partes
denuo coagmentari; trabes etiam loco dimotas in pristinam sedem
reponi; ad hæc fistulas aut tubulos et si quid aliud ducendis aquis
factum, si forte convulsa discesserint, ad unguem rursus compingi,
ut non aptius fabrorum arte cohærere posse videantur. Diversus est
ab hoc impetus, quo irruente nulla est tectorum aut mœnium tam
firma superficies, quæ non corruat ac sternatur æque ac si fuisset
bellicis obsidionum tormentis labefactata. (11) Eum vero qui omnium
est perniciosissimus non absimili modo fieri volunt quam si spiritus
qui in intimis humani corporis penetralibus sedem habet, continua
febri densior magnaque cum vi sursum trudatur, ejusque rei se
quum in aliis corporis partibus indicia ostendant, tum sub utriusque
manus eam juncturam quæ cubitum cum manu extrema committit.
Eodem plane modo istum terræ motum recta subire ædificia et
fundamenta evibrare non alio ferme modo quam terram talpæ
suppellentes egerunt. Solus hic motus ita vehemens est, ut
ædificiorum ne vestigia quidem ulla in solo relinquat. (12) Hoc
vastitatis genere perculsam ab imo solo Helicen memorant.
Accessisse vero et alteram hujuscemodi cladem: maris eluvione
hieme anni Helicen totam circumquaque incinctam, ipsumque
Neptupi lucum ita inundatione ea obrutum, ut vix summa exstarent
arborum cacumina. Quo factum ut repente tum terræ motione
violentissima, tum vero maris æstu effusius stagnante urbs tota cum
omni civium numero pessum ierit. (13) Talis etiam urbem quæ fuit
olim in Sipylo monte casus in hiatum dejecit: ac montis quidem
ipsius labe facta defluentes aquæ lacum effecere in ejus voraginis
faucibus, cui nunc Saloe nomen. Εt sane in lacu cernebantur ejus
urbis ruinæ, priusquam omnia torrentis aqua obtegeret. Helices
etiam ruinæ quædam eminent; non jam omnes æqualiter
conspiciuntur, parte earum aquis marinis absumpta.

CAPUT XXV.

Pietatis in supplices exhibitæ et læsæ exempla memorantur — de tempore Helices

excidii — oppido Cerynea — memorandis Ceryneæ — oppido Bura — Herculis
Buraici oraculo, quod talis editur — amne Crathide et Ægis oppido — Gæo,
Telluris templo.
Ob violatos quidem supplices implacabilem esse numinis iram, non
Helices modo exitium, sed alia etiam talium eventorum exempla
documento esse possunt. Exstat enim Dodonæi Jovis oraculum
Atheniensibus Aphidantis ætate redditum, quo supplices
sacrosanctos esse debere his versibus monentur:
Ara tibi Eumenidum fumans et curia Martis
sint cordi. Huc bello domiti nam forte Lacones
suppliciter tristes venient. Ne confice ferro
neu viola. Supplex sacer est et crimine purus.

(2) Hæc redierunt in memoriam Græcis quum essent Peloponnesii

Athenas adorti, regnante Codro Melanthi filio. Tunc enim ex Attica
reliquæ Peloponnesiorum copiæ retrocesserunt audita Codri morte
cognitoque mortis genere: neque enim ulla jam fuit victoriæ reliqua
spes ex Delphici Apollinis responso. Pars autem Lacedæmoniorum
noctu clam ingressi erant in urbem; quum vero orta luce se a suis
destitutos animadverterent et in eos Atheniensium concursus fierent,
ad aras dearum quæ Severæ appellantur in Areopagum se
receperunt; et tunc quidem incolumes dimissi sunt. (3) Post aliquot
deinde annos quum ipsi magistratus Minervæ supplices occidissent,
ex ea nimirum factione quæ cum Cylone arcem occupaverat, et ipsi
interfectores et omnes eorum posteri violatæ per cædem religionis
damnati obnoxii deæ fuere. Lacedæmonii etiam quum in eos viros
sævissent, qui supplices in templum Neptuni quod ad Tænarum est
evaserant, Sparta non multo post tam crebris tamque vehementibus
terræ impulsibus concussa est, ut nulla urbis domus ruinæ expers
fuerit. (4) Deleta est ad internecionem Helice Asteo Athenis
archontis magistratum gerente, Olympiadis primæ et centesimæ
anno quarto, qua Damon Thurius victor primum renunciatus est.
Agrum Helicensem, quum nemo ex incolis superstes manserit,
tenent Ægienses.
5. Ab Helice et ejus maritima ora divertens dextrorsum ad oppidum
pervenies in monte conditum supra militarem viam, cui Cerynea
nomen, sive ab eorum locorum regulo sive ab amne proximo qui
Cerynites dicitur. Profluit is e Cerynea Arcadiæ monte et Achæorum
finitimos agros præterlabitur. Ad hos aliquando commigrarunt
inquilini ex Argivorum finibus. (6) Nam quum Mycenæorum muros
Argivi dejicere non potuissent, quod validissimi essent, atque adeo
ut a Cyclopibus (sicuti Tirynthis etiam muri) exstructi dicerentur,
postremo fame victi urbem deserere Mycenæi coacti sunt. Eorum alii
Cleonas, sed major ac dimidia fere populi pars in Macedoniam ad
Alexandrum regem, eum nempe cui Mardonius Gobryæ filius
mandata ad Athenienses commisit; reliqua multitudo Ceryneam
confugit. Ea inquilinorum ex Messene accessio opulentiorem multo et
clariorem Ceryneam reddidit. (7) In eo oppido Eumenidum fanum
est; dedicatum ab Oreste tradunt. Huc si quis vel cæde vel quovis
incesti aut impietatis genere pollutus intrarit spectandi causa, statim
eum mente capi diris terroribus exagitatum credidere. Quare non
omnes, neque ut quisque accurrit, illico intrare potest. Dearum signa
e ligno ** modica magnitudine elaborata. In aditu templi positæ
sunt muliebres imagines marmoreæ exquisitæ artis. Sacerdotes
fuisse Eumenidum ab incolis dicebantur. (8) E Cerynea reversos in
militarem viam atque illinc aliquantum progressos devius trames
Buram ducit, quæ in dextera maris in monte ipsa etiam sita fuit;
appellatam vero aiunt a Bura Ionis Xutho nati et Helices filia.
Oppidum hoc idem terræ qui Helicen delevit motus tam vehementer
perculit, ut in templis prisca omnia deorum signa fuerint abolita. (9)
Civium ii duntaxat reliqui fuere qui tum forte vel militiæ vel negotii
cujuspiam obeundi causa domo abfuissent; atque ii quidem civitatem
restituere. Buræ ædes sunt Cereris, Veneris, Bacchi et Lucinæ;
simulacra e Pentelico lapide sunt, Atheniensis Euclidæ opera. Ceres
veste velatur. Habet etiam Isis templum. (10) Qua ad mare
descenditur amnis est Buraicus nomine. In proxima spelunca non
utique magnum Herculis signum: Buraico et ipsi cognomen. Oraculi
sortes capiuntur ex tabula per talos. Qui consultum venere ad hunc
deum, precatione ad signum peracta votisque nuncupatis, talos ex
ea quæ in promptu est copia jaciunt quattuor super mensam.
Inscripti sunt certis tali singuli notis, quæ in tabula apte habent
interpretationem. (11) Ab Helice ad Herculis, via ducit recta stadiûm
ferme triginta. Ab Hercule discedentes perennis aquæ fluvius excipit
ex Arcadico monte in mare defluens, nomen et monti in quo fons et
flumini Crathis; ab hac Crathide Italiæ fluvius Crathis prope
Crotonem nomen accepit. (12) Ad hanc Achaicam Crathidem celebris
olim fuit urbs Ægæ; quam postea desertam, quum pristinis fuisset
destituta opibus, ferunt. Hujus urbis mentionem etiam Homerus fecit
eo quem Junoni tribuit sermone:
Ast hi grata ferunt Helicen tibi munera et Ægas:

quod scilicet æque Helice atque Ægis Neptunus coleretur. (13) Non
ita procul a Crathide ad dexteram viæ monumentum offendas cum
viri equo adstantis jam prope abolita pictura. Ab eo tumulo triginta
circiter stadiûm via ducit ad Gæum qui dicitur. Telluris id fanum est
quam Eurysternon (lato pectore præditam) cognomento nuncupant.
Signum deæ est ex vetustissimis unum. Sacerdotium mulieri
decernitur: quo statim suscepto vitam illa agit cœlibem omne ætatis
reliquum tempus, quanquam et ante eam oportuit unum
tantummodo virum expertam esse. Taurini sanguinis haustu,
periculum faciunt; quo illa epoto si falsum dixerit extemplo pœnam
luit. Quodsi plures forte sacerdotium petant mulieres, sorti creatio
committitur.
 CAPUT XXVI.

De urbe Ægira ejusque navali — prisco urbis nomine Hyperesia et recentioris

origine — templis et signis Ægiræ memorandis — Phelloe oppido ejusque
memorandis — Pellene urbe — Donussa oppido — Aristonautis, Pelleneorum
navali.
Ad Ægiratarum navale, cui idem quod Ægiris urbi nomen est, stadia
intersunt septuaginta duo ab Hercule Buraica posito. Nihil vero in
maritima ora habent Ægiratæ memoratu dignum. A navali superior
urbs stadia abest duodecim: (2) appellata ab Homero in carminibus
est Hyperesia. Nomen quod nunc usurpat obtinuit quum Iones adhuc
eam tenerent, obtinuit autem ex hujuscemodi causa. Quum Sicyonii
comparato exercitu agrum invasuri essent, intelligerentque
Hyperesienses nullo se pacto pares illis numero et viribus futuros,
capras omnes quæ intra fines erant in unum coegerunt, alligatasque
ad cornua earum faces intempesta nocte accendere. (3) Sicyonii
ignes eos esse ab auxiliaribus qui Hyperesiensibus advenirent
suspicati, retro agmen egere. A capris itaque (αὶγας Græci vocant)
mutato veteri nomine urbs Ægira est appellata, quoque loco ex illis
una eximia specie quæque ceteris dux erat procubuerat, ibi templum
Dianæ Agroteræ erexere, quod illius propitio numine in mentem sibi
venisse interpretati sunt eo dolo hostem eludere. (4) Neque vero
continuo novum nomen Ægiræ inolevit: nam sic propemodum
Hyperesiæ nomen mansit, ut Oreum in Eubœa non desunt qui hac
ipsa ætate veteri nomine Hestiæam appellant. Habet Ægira quæ
literis mandentur digna Jovis templum, et in eo signum dei sedens e
Pentelico lapide, Euclidæ Atheniensis opus. Ligneum ibidem stat
Minervæ signum, facie, summis manibus ac pedibus eburneis;
reliquum corpus inauratum et coloribus distinctum est. (5) Habet et
Dianæ ædem cum simulacro, quod temporis nostri artem præ se
fert, Sacerdotio fungitur puella ad nubilem usque ætatem. Exstat
ibidem priscum signum, quod Iphigeniæ esse dictitant Ægiratæ
Agamemnonis filiæ. Id si ita est, manifesto apparet jam tum ab initio
ædem fuisse Iphigeniæ dedicatam. (6) Spectandum ipsa maxima
antiquitate Apollinis est delubrum. Vetera sunt fastigii ornamenta,
vetus ipsum dei ligneum signum; nudum id est atque insigni
magnitudine, neque quis fecerit opifex populares habent dicere; qui
tamen Sicyone Herculem viderit, facile ex operum similitudine
conjiciat, utrumque opus fuisse Phliasii Laphais. (7) Sunt præterea in
delubro signa aliquot Æsculapii stantia, et seorsum Serapidis et
Isidis, e lapide omnia Pentelico. Præ ceteris quidem diis
religiosissime Cœlestem Venerem colunt, in cujus ædem penetrare
hominibus est nefas. In ejus vero quam Syriam nominant deæ
ædem statis diebus intrant, ubi se et reliquis certo ritu expiationibus
et victus præcipue moderatione lustraverint. (8) Ædiculam etiam
quandam Ægiræ et in ea Fortunæ signum vidi, Amaltheæ cornu præ
se gerens; atque ei adsistit volucer Cupido. Significat hæc nimirum
Amoris cum Fortuna conjunctio, plus fere in amore homines ope
Fortunæ quam pulchritudine proficere. Facile autem mihi Pindarus in
suis canticis quum alia multa persuadet, tum vero unam esse
Parcarum Fortunam, et eam quidem potestate sororibus antecellere.
(9) Est in eadem ædicula vir, senex jam propemodum, ejulantis
facie; mulieres tres armillas sibi detrahunt, et adolescentes totidem;
ipse lorica est indutus. Hunc Achæi bellica virtute omnibus Ægiratis
præstitisse tradunt, qui quum fortissime pugnans cecidisset, fratres
ejus superstites mortem domum nuntiarunt. Sorores itaque luctus
causa usitati cultus ornamenta abjiciunt. Patrem ipsum populares
Commiserabundum nuncupant, quod ipsa etiam effigies
miserationem exprimit. (10) Recta ab Ægira discedentes a Jovis
templo et per montes ardua stadiûm quadraginta nihilo brevior via
ducit Phelloen. Castellum id est minime clari nominis. Nam ne
Ionibus quidem ea loca tenentibus perpetuo incolebatur. Ager vites
feliciter educat. Ea qua maxime saxosus est parte multæ passim
quercus, multæ item feræ, cervi inprimis et apri. (11) Ac si ulla
Græcorum castella maxime sunt perennibus aquis irrigua, inter ea
merito fuerit Phelloe numeranda. Sunt illic deorum templa Bacchi et
Dianæ: Diana ex ære fabricata sagittam e pharetra promens; Bacchi
Signum cinnabari illitum. Ab Ægira descendentibus ad navale atque
illinc progressis paulo longius, ad viæ dexteram est ædes Agroteræ
Dianæ quo loco capellam procubuisse memorant. (12) Ægiratis
contigui Pellenenses, Achæorum extremi Sicyonem versus et
Argolicæ terræ fines. Appellatos ipsi se prædicant a Pallante, qui
fuerit de Titanibus unus; at Argivi a Pellene putant Argivo, quem
esse dicunt Phorbantis filium, Triopæ nepotem. (13) Inter Ægiram et
Pellenen castellum est sub ditione Sicyoniorum, cui Donussa nomen,
deleta ab ipsis olim Sicyoniis; et ejus mentionem ab Homero factam
affirmant in Agamemnonis copiarum recensu, eo scilicet versu:
Quique colunt Hyperesiam atque altam Donoessam.

Sed enim Pisistratum, quum dissipata Homeri carmina et passim per

alia literarum monumenta dispersa in unum colligeret, vel ipsum vel
operis illius adjutorem loci ignoratione nomen immutasse (et
Gonoessam posuisse). (14) Pellenæorum navale Aristonautæ
(Argonautæ? ) appellatur. Distat ab Ægiræ maritima parte stadia
centum et viginti; dimidio brevior a navali Pellenen via.
Aristonautarum nomen navali inditum ferunt, quod in hunc quoque
portum appulerint Argonautæ. Pelleneorum oppidum ipsum in jugo
est situm, eujus supremus vertex in acutissimum assurgit fastigium;
sed nullæ ea in parte, quod maxime ardua et prærupta est, domus:
in planiore clivi parte conditum est oppidum non continuum illud
quidem, sed in duas partes divisum, arce videlicet inter utramque
urbis partem eminente.

CAPUT XXVII.

Memoranda in via Pellenen versus, Mercurius Dolius — templum et festum Bacchi

Lampteris et Apollinis Theoxenii — de Pellenæorum gymnasio et de Promacho
— Posidio, Neptuni templo, et Mysæo, templo Cereris Mysiæ — Cyro, templo
Æsculapii.
Qua Pellenen itur in ipsa via Mercurii signum est cui cognomen Dolio
(Astuti); hominum vota maxime rata facere creditur; figura est
quadrangula, barbatus, pileo caput velante. (2) In eadem via propius
urbem est Minervæ templum lapide exstructum vernaculo, deæ
signum ex ebore et auro, artificem Phidiam fuisse dicunt; atque hanc
quidem Minervam elaborasse illum antequam vel Atheniensibus eam
quæ in arce collocata est, vel suam Platæensibus Minervam fecisset.
Aiunt Pellenæi sub ipsa Minervæ basi in profondum terræ alte
descendere adytum, atque ex eo humidum halitum efflari qui sit
ebori tuendo peridoneus. (3) Supra Minervæ delubrum lucus est
muro circumseptus Dianæ Sospitæ sacer. Per hujus numen de rebus
maximis jusjurandum concipiunt; nulli vero cuiquam hominum
præterquam sacrificulis illuc aditus patet. Præsident sacris indigenæ
homines, generis potissimum dignatione electi. Contra lucum
Sospitæ est Bacchi templum, quem Lamptera (a facum splendore)
nuncupant, festumque ei diem Lampteria celebrant, illatis noctu intra
ædem accensis facibus passimque per urbem dispositis vini crateris.
(4) Est etiam apud Pellenæos Apollinis Theoxenii templum, cujus ex
ære simulacrum. Ludos faciunt in honorem ejus Apollinis Theoxenia;
argentum victoribus præmium exponitur; descendunt in certamen
soli cives. Prope Apollinis, ædes Dianæ est; jaculatricis ornatum dea
præ se fert. In foro structum videas aqua pluvialis conceptaculum.
Ad lavacra enim ex imbribus collectitia utuntur aqua. Nam poculentæ
pauci sunt infra urbem fontes; sunt autem eo loco quas Glyceas
appellant. (5) Priscum ibi gymnasium ubi potissimum se ephebi
exercent; neque vero in civitatis album quisquam inscribitur nisi ante
puberum exercitationes obierit. Hoc in gymnasio posita statua est
Promacho Pellenæo, Dryonis filio, una ex Olympicis, tribus ab
Isthmicis, duabus e Nemeis ludis de pancratio palmis reportatis.
Unam ei sui cives ex ære Olympia, alteram e marmore in gymnasio,
de quo modo diximus, statuam dedicarunt. Hunc Promachum etiam
in bello quod inter Pellenæos et Corinthios gestum est, unum hostes
quamplurimos pugnantem occidisse memoriæ proditum. (6) Ab
eodem etiam Olympiæ superatum Pulydamantem Scotussæum, quo
tempore a Persarum rege in patriam reversus Pulydamas in
Olympicum certamen iterum descenderit. At Thessali Pulydamantem
ex ullo unquam certamine inferiorem discessisse minime confitentes,
et alia ejus rei afferunt argumenta et inprimis elegos ad
Pulydamantis statuam adscriptos:
 O Scotoessa altrix invicti Pulydamantis.

(7) Pellenenses certe magno Promachum honore prosequuntur.

Chæronem vero etsi luctæ duas reportavit coronas ** et Olympiæ
quattuor, ne nominare quidem volunt, ob eam causam, credo, quod
Pellenensium rempublicam sustulerit. Corruptus enim ab Alexandro
Philippi filio invidiosissimo dominationis munere se patriæ suæ
tyrannum imponi facile passus est. Est Lucinæ etiam ædes a
Pellenensibus in parte oppidi minore dedicata. (8) Quod vero
Posidion dicitur, fuit olim curia, ætate nostra desertus plane locus
infra gymnasium; permansit tamen ei hæc usque ad præsens
sæculum dignatio, ut Neptuno sacer habeatur. (9) A Pellene stadia
circiter sexaginta abest Mysæum, Mysiæ Cereris sacrarium.
Dedicatum ferunt a Mysio Argivo homine; et ab eo quidem hospitio
Cererem esse acceptam Argivorum sermo vulgavit. Lucus est etiam
in Mysæo condensus omnis generis arboribus et perennium fontium
aquis irriguus. (10) Festos dies ibidem Cereri agitant septem,
quorum tertio e templo viri omnes exeunt; mulieres intus relictæ ritu
a majoribus tradito nocturnum peragunt sacrum. Neque vero viros
tantum excludunt, sed canes etiam masculos ejiciunt. Postero die
revisunt feminas in templo viri multoque cum risu ultro citroque
sales et dicta jaciuntur. (11) Modico a Mysæo intervallo surgit
Æsculapii templum: Cyros appellatur. Multa hic a deo monstrantur
morborum remedia. Aqua hic etiam effusissime scatet, et ad fontium
ibi maximum dei ipsius positum signum. Flumina item aliquot
descendunt e montibus qui supra Pellenen sunt. Eorum unus manat
ab ea parte quæ Ægiram spectat; is Crius appellatur; a Crio Titane
nomen inditum putant. (12) Alius etiam ejusdem nominis est fluvius,
qui e Sipylo monte descendens in Hermum influit. Qua vero parte
finitimi sunt Sicyoniis Pellenenses, amnis quidam Sythas, Achaicorum
fluminum postremus, in Sicyonium mare decurrit.
 PAUSANIÆ DESCRIPTIONIS GRÆCIÆ ARCADICA
SIVE LIBER VIII.

CAPUT I.

Arcadas mediterraneam Peloponnesi partem tenere, ex reliquarum civitatum

finium summa breviter repetita ostenditur — de Pelasgo.
Arcadiæ partem eam quæ fines Argivorum contingit, Tegeatæ et
Mantinenses tenent; ut hi, sic reliqui etiam Arcadici populi
mediterranea Peloponnesi incolunt. Corinthii enim primi Isthmum
obtinent. His mare versus Epidaurii vicini sunt. Quod vero attinet ad
Epidaurum, Trœzenem et Hermionem, eas excipit sinus Argolicus et
quidquid Argolicæ terræ ad mare situm est. Adjacent
Lacedæmoniorum civitates. His finitima Messenia quæ ad mare
descendit Methonen usque, Pylum et Cyparissias. (2) Ad Lechæum
vicini Corinthiis Sicyonii, postremi hi Argolicorum hac in parte finium.
Sicyonem excipiunt Achæi litoris accolæ. Ad alterum Peloponnesi
latus, quod Echinadibus insulis ex adverso est, habitant Elei. Ea Elidis
pars, in qua Olympia est et Alphei ostium, terminatur Messenia;
Achaiam versus Dymæi sunt finitimi. (3) Pertinent populi quos
enumeravi ad mare omnes. Interiores Arcades a mari undecumque
seclusi. Quare Homerus profectos ad Trojam dicit, non suis ipsorum,
sed acceptis ab Agamemnone navibus. (4) Ac primum quidem
omnium Pelasgum memorant Arcades in hac terra exstitisse: sed
consentaneum certe est non solum illum, sed alios etiam in iisdem
locis una cum eo fuisse. Nam quibus omnino imperasset hominibus?
Ceterum Pelasgus magnitudine, robore ac forma excelluit, quin etiam
animi dotibus reliquos superavit; atque hanc ob rem ei a suis
regnum decretum esse crediderim. Asius quoque ejusmodi in eum
fecit versus:
Montibus alticomis emisit nigra Pelasgum
Tellus dis similem, sæcli mortalis in ortum.

(5) Pelasgus igitur quum regnare cœpisset, primum quidem homines

docuit tuguria ad frigoris, imbrium et æstus incommoda arcenda
ædificare. Idem vero etiam tunicas facere instituit e suillis (ovillis?)
coriis, qualibus etiamnunc in Eubœa et Phocide tenuiores homines
utuntur. Ad hæc ne virente adhuc fronde herbisque ac radicibus non
modo non cibariis, sed interdum etiam perniciosis amplius
vescerentur homines prohibuit: (6) contra glandibus, neque omnibus
tamen, sed iis quæ e fago leguntur, pro cibo uti primus docuit. Isque
victus, Pelasgi institutum, tam diu apud nonnullos in usu permansit,
ut vel eo tempore quo Lacedæmonios bellum Arcadibus movere
vetuit Pythia, inter alia diceret etiam hæc:
Haud equidem invideo tibi ego; sed plurimus Arcas
glande alitus dura cœpto prohibebit inani.

Pelasgo regnante etiam regionem eam Pelasgiam appellatam esse

ferunt.

CAPUT II.

De Lycaone, Jove Lycæo, ludis Lycæis et Panathenæis — hominibus deorum

hospitibus et convivis — hominibus in deos relatis — fabulis vero
superstructis.
Hujus filius Lycaon nonnulla vel sapientius quam pater suus
excogitavit. Lycosuram enim urbem in monte Lycæo condidit, Jovem
Lycæum appellavit, et certamina instituit Lycæa. Facile ut credam
adducor eo tempore nondum apud Athenienses Panathenæa
celebrari cœpta; his enim ludis, quos initio Athenæa vocabant, sub
Theseo demum Panathenæorum nomen inditum esse dicunt,
propterea quod ab omnibus celebrarentur Atheniensibus in unam
congregatis civitatem. (2) Ludi vero Olympici, quorum initia vel ultra
humani generis memoriam adscendere volunt, dum Saturnum ibi et
Jovem luctatos atque Curetas cursu primos certasse fabulantur, ob
hæc ipsa a nostra oratione jam sint exclusi. Eadem vero ætate et
Cecropem Athenis, et Lycaonem in Arcadia regnasse arbitror;
prudentia tamen rerum divinarum multo Lycaonem inferiorem fuisse
censeo. (3) Ille enim quum primus Jovem cognomine Supremum
appellasset, nihil vita præditum ei immolandum duxit, sed liba
tantum patria (pelanos etiamnum Attici vocant) ut in aram
porricerentur sanxit. At Lycaon ad Jovis Lycæi aram infante mactato
humanum sanguinem libavit; quare inter ipsa sacra in lupum
mutatum tradunt. (4) Cui famæ equidem facile possum assentiri.
Nam præterquam quod Arcadum sermonibus jam tum ab initio
vulgatis prodita posteris est, a ratione etiam non abhorret. Erant
enim prisci illi homines dis ipsis hospites et convivæ pro justitiæ et
pietatis merito. Et sane bonis præmia certissima, sontibus ex deorum
ira supplicia erant exposita. Quin etiam recepti cœlo multi ex
hominibus, quibus adhuc sui permanent honores; in quo numero
fuere Aristæus, Britomartis Cretica, Alcmenæ filius Hercules et Œclis
Amphiaraus, ac præter hos Pollux et Castor. (5) Quare neque
absurdum dictu videbitur, Lycaonem in feram et Nioben Tantali filiam
in saxum conversam. At enim ætate nostra, qua gliscens fraus et
audacia omnes prope orbis terræ partes urbesque occupavit, nulli
jam homines in deorum numerum veniunt, nisi forte per inanes
titulos et eminentioris dignitatis adulationem; et noxam commeritis,
quum demum e vita excesserint, seræ deorum judicio pœnæ
irrogantur. (6) Ac omnibus quidem seculis, veteribus et obsoletis jam
rerum eventis neque minus etiam præsentibus fides eorum culpa in
vulgus est abrogata, qui veritatis tanquam fundamenta superstructis
fabulis obruerunt. Nam et post Lycaonem singulis Lycæi Jovis sacris
quendam ex homine lupum fieri tradunt: non tamen in omne vitæ
tempus, sed decimo post anno, si interea humana carne
abstinuisset, pristinam hominis figuram recipere; sin hominis carnes
gustasset, lupum esse nunquam desinere. (7) Eadem ratione Nioben
lacrimari in Sipylo monte æstivo tempore dicunt. Audivi etiam
quosdam quum narrarent et alia quædam rerum miracula, et grypes
uti pardos maculis esse distinctos; porro Tritones voce humana
præditos et eosdem perforatam concham inflantes canere. Ita vero
comparatum est, ut qui hujusmodi figmentorum portentis aures
præbent, et ipsi mox aliquid adfingant, quo fit ut mendaciorum quasi
colluvie veritas vitiata suam prorsus auctoritatem perdat.

CAPUT III.

De Nyctimo ac reliquis Lycaonis filiis, urbibusque ab iis conditis — Œnotrus natu

minimus in Italiam trajicit — de Callisto Lycaonis filia.
Tertia post Pelasgum ætate regio tota et urbium et hominum numero
magnos habuit processus. Nam quum Nyctimus Lycaonis liberûm
natu maximus summum teneret imperium, reliqui sibi diversis
arbitrio quisque suo agri partibus occupatis, oppida condiderunt;
Pallantium Pallas, Orestheus Oresthasium, Phigaliam Phigalus
ædificarunt. (2) Ac Pallantii quidem etiam Stesichorus Himeræus in
Geryoneide mentionem fecit; sed Phigalia et Oresthasium tempore
procedente nomina mutarunt; nam hoc ab Oreste Agamemnonis filio
Oresteum est appellatum, illa vero Phialia a Bucolionis filio Phialo.
Reliqui fuere Lycaonis filii, Trapezeus, Daseatas, Macareus, Helisson,
Acacus, Thocnus. Horum postremus urbem Thocniam condidit,
Acacus Acacesium. Ab hoc autem Acaco cognomen Mercurio ab
Homero datum Arcadum sermo asseverat. (3) Ab Helissonte et urbs
et fluvius Helisson nomina habent. Eodem modo Macaria quoque et
Dasea et Trapezus de nominibus filiorum Lycaonis appellatæ sunt.
Porro Orchomenus Methydrii conditor et Orchomeniorum, quos
pecudum divites Homerus nominavit; ab Hypsunte et * [Melæneo]
conditæ Melæneæ et Hypsus; ad hæc Thyræum et Hæmoniæ (a
Thyræo et Hæmone); quin Arcadum opinione etiam Thyrea in
Argivorum finibus et Thyreates sinus a Thyræo isto sua obtinuerunt
nomina. (4) Jam vero celebri olim nomine urbem Mænalum, Tegeam
et Mantineam, Mænalus, Tegeates et Mantineus constituere. Cromi a
Cromo nomen habuere, Charisia Charisium auctorem perhibet,
Tricoloni a Tricolono, Peræthenses a Perætho, Asea ab Aseate, * [a
Lyceo] Lycoa et a Sumateo Sumatia: postremo ab Aliphero et
Heræeo urbes nomina et origines accepere. (5) At natu minimus
inter filios Lycaonis Œnotrus, opibus et viris a fratre Nyctimo
acceptis, classe in Italiam transmisit, ubi de Œnotri regis nomine
Œnotria regio vocitata. Atque hæc prima Græcis colonia deducta:
sed neque barbaræ gentes ante Œnotrum, si quidem accuratissime
antiquitatis memoria revolvatur, ad exteras gentes commigrasse
reperiuntur. (6) In liberûm tanto sobolis numero unica Lycaoni filia
fuit, Callisto nomine: eam (quæ inter Græcos decantata sunt
memoro) vitiavit amore captus Juppiter, deprehensam Juno in ursam
vertit; ac deinde in gratiam Junonis puellam sagittis confixit Diana.
Juppiter quem illa ferebat utero puerum Mercurio servandum
mandavit; (7) ipsa vero Callisto ab eodem in sidus mutata est, quæ
Ursa major dicitur: ejus Homerus quoque, ubi de Ulysse a Calypsûs
insula in altum enavigante exponit, mentionem facit:
Pleiadasque aspectantem tardumque Booten,
atque Ursam, quam Plaustrum etiam cognomine dicunt.

Sed probabilius fortasse fuerit, quo honos puellæ haberetur, sidus illi
dicatum; præsertim quum sepulcrum ejus ostendant Arcades.
 CAPUT IV.

De Arcade et regione inde dicta — ejus uxore Erato, filiis et regno iis diviso —
eorum posteris — Æpyto a serpente sepe confecto — Aleo rege — Auge, Alei
filia — Lycurgo rege ejusque prole.
Mortuo Nyctimo Arcas Callistûs filius regnum suscepit. Hic et
frumentum a Triptolemo acceptum popularibus suis tradidit, panem
facere docuit, vestium texturam totumque lanificium, quod ab
Adrista [Aristea?] didicerat, monstravit. Ab hoc rege et ipsa, quæ
ante Pelasgia dicebatur, Arcadia terra, et gens Pelasgi qui fuerant,
Arcades nominati. (2) Habuisse vero illum uxorem non mortalem
feminam, sed unam e Dryadibus nymphis tradunt: etenim
Nympharum alias Dryades et Epimeliades, alias Naides appellare
solebant, atque Naidum quidem apud Homerum quoque
frequentissima est mentio. Ejus vero nymphæ, quæ cum Arcade
nupta fuit, Erato nomen fuisse memoriæ prodiderunt. Ex ea genitos
Arcadi Azanem, Aphidantem, Elatum; ante nuptias Autolaum
suscepit nothum. (3) Ac filiis quidem adultis regnum trifariam divisit.
Ab Azane itaque Azania quæ ei evenit pars appellata; ex qua deducti
coloni ii omnes qui circa Phrygiæ antrum, cui Steunos nomen, et
amnem Pencalam habitant. Aphidas Tegeam et quæ adjacent
sortitus est. Hinc poetæ Tegeam solent Aphidanteam sortem
nuncupare. (4) At Elatus montem obtinuit, quæ Cyllene nunc
vocatur, tunc vero nomine adhuc carebat. Postea Elatus in eam
terram abiit cui Phocis nunc nomen est, ibique Phocensibus a
Phlegyarium gente bello pressis opitulatus, Elateæ urbis exstitit
conditor. Filium Azani fuisse Clitorem, Aphidanti Aleum; quinque
Elato genitos memorant, Æpytum, Pereum, Cyllenem, Ischyn,
Stymphalum. (5) Azani Arcadis filio defuncto ludi funebres primum
instituti sunt, in quibus equorum certe cursu, nescio an aliis etiam
modis, est certatum. Clitor Azane natus Lycosuræ regiam constituit,
et fuit illorum regum potentissimus urbemque Clitorem de suo
nomine condidit. Aleus paternam obtinuit sortem. (6) Quod vero ad
Elati filios pertinet, a Cyllene mons nomen accepit, a Stymphalo fons
et urbs ad fontem sita Stymphalus. De Ischyis vero Elati filii morte
egimus dum res Argolicas exponeremus. At Pereo nullam fuisse
virilem prolem aiunt, sed filiam habuisse Neæram, quam Autolycus
Parnassi montis incola uxorem duxerit. Mercurii is filius dicebatur,
quum re ipsa Dædalionis esset. (7) At enim quum Clitor Azanis filius
nullos reliquisset liberos, ad Æpytum Elati filium Arcadum regnum
pervenit. Hunc venatum egressum non ferocior aliqua bellua, sed
incautum seps confecit. Vidi et ipse aliquando serpentem hanc:
magnitudine est minimæ viperæ, cineris colore, notis interpuncta
variis, capite lato, gracili collo, alvo obesiore, cauda brevi. In
serpentum genere seps et cerastes, quo ferme modo gradiuntur
cancri, in obliquum repunt. (8) Æpyto in imperium succedit Aleus.
Nam Agamedes et Gortys filii Stymphali quarto posteritatis gradu ab
Arcade aberant, a quo Aleus Aphidantis filius tertius numerabatur.
Ædificavit Aleus vetustum illud quod Tegeæ visitur Aleæ Minervæ
fanum, ibidemque regiam suam constituit. Gortys vero Stymphali
Gortynem urbem ad proximum amnem condidit; amni etiam ipsi fuit
Gortynius nomen. Mares habuit liberos Aleus Lycurgum,
Amphidamantem et Cepheum: filiam Augen. (9) Cum hac (quod
scriptum Hecatæus reliquit) Hercules concubuit quoties venit
Tegeam. Id ubi ex puerperio filiæ rescivit tandem Aleus, puerum
cum matre in arcam conclusos in mare abjecit. Delata est arca ad
Teuthrantem, pollentem dominatu hominem in campis ad Caicum
amnem. Is puellæ forma allectus sibi matrimonio junxit. Exstat
etiamnum Pergami (quæ supra Caicum urbs est) Auges
monumentum, terræ tumulus lapidea circumseptus crepidine.
Insigne ejus tumuli nuda mulier ex ære fabricata. (10) Aleo mortuo
regnum accepit Lycurgus utpote filiorum natu maximus. Is nihil ad
memoriam aliud edidit facinus, quam quod Areithoum, hominem
bellica virtute clarum, non æquo Marte, sed dolo interfecit. Filios
habuit duos, Ancæum et Epochum, quorum hic morbo est
absumptus; Ancæus sub Iasone expeditionis Colchicæ particeps fuit,
ac deinde una cum Meleagro ad profligandam belluam Calydoniam
egressus, a sue isto occisus est. Lycurgus quidem ipse ad
provectiorem ætatem pervenit, atque morte ablatum sibi filium vidit
utrumque.
 CAPUT V.

Echemo Arcadiæ regnum obtinente Dores Peloponnesum ingrediuntur et fugantur

— Agapenor rex Arcadas ad Trojam ducit et Paphum condit — de Hippothoo
et Æpyto, Arcadiæ regibus — Cypselo regnante Dores Peloponnesum navibus
invadunt — de Cypseli posteris — Polymestore regnante Lacedæmonii
Tegeatarum fines invadunt — Æchmide regnante bellum Messeniacum geritur
— Aristocratis regis nefandum facinus — de Aristocrate, prioris Aristocratis
nepote.
Post Lycurgum Arcadum regnum Echemus Aeropi filius, Cephei
nepos, Alei pronepos obtinuit. Hoc regnante Achæi ad Isthmum
Corinthiorum prœlio fuderunt, Dores, reditum sibi in Peloponnesum
Hyllo Herculis filio duce molientes, atque Echemus Hyllum occidit
cum eo singulari certamine ex provocatione congressus. Hæc mihi
propiora vero visa sunt, quam quod supra scripsi, penes Orestem
tunc Achæorum regnum fuisse, atque ejus temporibus Hyllum cum
Doribus reditum tentasse. Sed ea, quam posterius attuli, ratione hoc
quoque apparebit, quomodo Timandra, Tyndarei filia, Echemi qui
Hyllum interfecit, conjux esse potuerit. (2) Agapenor dehinc regnat,
Ancæi filius, Lycurgi nepos; quo duce Arcades ad Trojanum bellum
profecti. Ilio vero everso, quæ Græcos domum redeuntes disjecit
tempestas Arcadum classem detulit Cyprum. Ibi Agapenor Paphum
urbem condidit; et in Papho vetere (Palæpapho) Veneris fanum
erexit, quum ante apud Cyprios dea hæc in loco cui Golgi nomen
coleretur. (3) Interjecto dein tempore Laodice ex Agapenoris
posteritate Aleæ Minervæ donum Tegeam peplum misit; id ipsius
doni inscriptio et simul unde esset. Laodice oriunda indicabat:
Laodices peplum hoc. Sacrum ut foret illa Minervæ,
e Cypro celebrem transtulit in patriam.

(4) Quum ad suos Ilio non revertisset Agapenor, Arcadum imperium

suscepit Hippothous Cercyone patre, avo Agamede, Stymphalo
proavo genitus. Hujus vita nullo celebratur insigni rerum eventu,
præter illud unum quod regni sedem Tegea Trapezuntem transtulit.
Post mortem Hippothoi Æpytus filius regnum adeptus est, atque
Orestes Agamemnonis filius Mycenis oraculi Delphici monitu in
Arcadiam demigravit. (5) Æpytus quum in templum Neptuni quod
Mantineæ est penetrare esset ausus, quo nulli cuiquam homini hac
ipsa etiam ætate fas est accedere, oculis primum captus, deinde non
ita multo post e vita excessit. (6) Ejus filio Cypselo regnum deinceps
adepto Dores copiis contractis, non ut tribus ante ætatibus per
Isthmum Corinthiorum, sed classe ad Rhium promontorium profecti
in Peloponnesum invaserunt. Tam Cypselus res familiares Dorum
exquirens, cognoscit Cresphontem Aristomachi filium nullis
etiamnum nuptiis illigatum; quare desponsa ei filia, se atque ceteros
Arcades hac affinitate ex metu exemit. (7) Cypselo filius erat
Holæas, qui Æpytum sororis filium cum Herculis posteris, qui
Lacedæmone et Argis in auxilium venerant, Messenen reduxit.
Holææ filius Bucolion, hujus vero Phialus, qui Phigaliam urbem,
erepto suæ laudis monumento conditor Phigalo Lycaonis filio,
Phialiam de suo nomine voluit appellari; quod tamen non est omnino
constanter usurpatum. (3) Jam regnabat Simus Phiali filius, quum
apud Phigalenses Cereris cognomento Nigræ pervetustum signum
igne est consumtum, quæ res vitæ finem ipsi etiam Simo mox
adfuturum significavit. Paternum regnum adiit Pompus. Eo regnante
Æginetæ navibus primum Cyllenen appellere commercii causa
instituere; inde vero ad Arcadas jumentis impositas merces
pervehebant. Quos pro his magnopere honoravit Pompus, adeo, ut
filio etiam Æginetæ nomen propter Æginetarum amicitiam
imposuerit. Æginetam consecutus est ejus filius Polymestor. (9) Tunc
primum Lacedæmonii Charilli ductu Tegeatarum fines cum exercitu
adorti sunt. Eos non viri solum, sed feminæ etiam sumptis armis
prœlio fuderunt et cum magna hostium manu ipsum quoque ducem
vivum cepere. Verum de Charillo totaque hac ejus expeditione plura
memorabimus, ubi res Tegeatarum fuerint explicandæ. (10)
Polymestori quum nulli essent liberi, successit Æchmis, Polymestoris
fratre Briaca genitus; fuit enim Æginetæ Briacas etiam filius,
Polymestore natu minor. Dum Æchmis regnum obtinebat, bellum
inter Lacedæmonios et Messenios geri cœptum. Jam antiquitus
quidem Arcades benevolo fuerant in Messenios animo, tunc vero
etiam aperto fœdere cum Aristodemo Messeniorum rege in acie
contra Spartanos stetere. (11) Æchmidis vero filius Aristocrates et
alia fortasse contra suos populares insolenter egit, sed quod in deos
ipsos immortales eum admisisse nefarium facinus compertum habeo,
hoc loco non prætermiserim. Est in Orchomeniorum finibus
Mantinensi agro finitimum Dianæ Hymniæ cognomento fanum,
quam antiquissima religione Arcades venerantur universi. Deæ
sacerdotium tunc adhuc virgini committebatur; (12) eam quum ad
stuprum pellicere Aristocrates non potuisset, postremo in templum
confugientem prope statuam Dianæ violavit. Scelere in vulgus
patefacto hominem Arcades lapidibus obruerunt, et a virgine ad
mulierem sacerdotii honorem transtulerunt virorum congressibus jam
exsatiatam. (13) Huic filius fuit Hicetas; Hicetæ minor Aristocrates,
avo tam exitu vitæ quam nomine similis: nam et hunc lapidum
conjectu necarunt Arcades manifestæ proditionis damnatum;
constabat enim dona eum a Lacedæmoniis cepisse, ejusque maxime
scelere insigni clade Messenios ad Magnam Fossam affectos. Effecit
hoc flagitium ut a Cypseli domo Arcadum imperium removeretur.
Atque hæc quidem quæ de regum serie ac gentilitate sum
persecutus, omnia mihi studiose percontanti Arcades enarrarunt.

CAPUT VI.

Arcadum res bellis gestæ memorantur — de vario ad Arcadiam aditu.

Quod vero ad res eorum publicis totius gentis auspiciis gestas
attinet, antiquissima memoria est Iliacæ expeditionis; alterum locum
obtinent quæ pro Messeniis propugnantes gesserunt contra
Lacedæmonios; eorundem etiam partes fuerunt aliquæ in prœlio,
quod ad Platæas contra Medos est commissum. (2) Coacti potius
necessitate quam benevolentia ducti Spartanis contra Athenienses
auxilia misere, et in Asiam cum Agesilao transmiserunt, eosque in
Bœotiam secuti Leuctricæ pugnæ interfuerunt. Nam fuisse semper
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