Injbara University

College Of Natural Science

Department Of Physics

General Physics Lab Manual

Course Code Phy 1011

Injbara,Ethiopia
Preface
Welcome to the Laboratory Manual for Physics Experiments. This manual is designed to
provide students with a comprehensive guide to conducting experiments related to
measurement, the acceleration due to gravity, and Hooke's Law.
Purpose of the Manual
The purpose of this manual is to facilitate hands-on learning by providing detailed
instructions and background information for each experiment. By engaging in these practical
activities, students will gain a deeper understanding of fundamental physics concepts and
develop essential laboratory skills.
Scope
This manual covers three key areas:
Measurement: This section introduces the principles of accurate measurement, including the
use of various instruments and techniques to ensure reliable data collection.
Acceleration Due to Gravity: Here, students will explore methods to measure the
acceleration due to gravity, enhancing their understanding of gravitational forces and motion.
Hooke's Law: This section focuses on the relationship between force, extension, and
elasticity. Students will conduct experiments that illustrate Hooke's Law and its applications
in real-world scenarios.
Audience: This manual is intended for undergraduate students in physics and related fields,
as well as instructors looking for a structured approach to laboratory experiments.
How to Use the Manual?
Each experiment is presented in a clear and organized format, including objectives, required
materials, procedures, and questions for reflection. It is recommended to read through each
section thoroughly before conducting the experiments to ensure a successful and informative
experience.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the faculty and staff who contributed to the development of this
manual, as well as the students whose feedback has been invaluable in refining this
experiments. We hope this manual serves as a valuable resource in your study of physics and
encourages a spirit of inquiry and discovery. Happy experimenting!
The report for each experiment should be started on a page and should normally consist of the
following parts:

1. Title, name and date (cover page)

2. Introduction - it contains the objectives of the experiment and some background
information on the experiment.
3. Theory - it contains detailed explanations of the physical principles (laws, formulae, etc.)
of the experiment.
4. Apparatus - it contains a complete description of the devices used in the experiment.
5. Procedure - it contains a complete description of the experimental setup and the steps
employed in per-forming the experiment.
6. Data - the values of the measurements are displayed, usually in tabular form.
7. Data analysis and error analysis - it contains calculations of the observed data and the
corresponding errors.
8. Results and discussion - it contains the results of the experiment expressed in terms of
numbers, tables,figures, graphs, etc. obtained from the experiment are presented.
9. Conclusions - in this section the writer highlights the important results of the experiment.
10. Solutions or answers - it contains the solutions (showing all the necessary steps) or (and)
answers to the questions given at the end of each experiment.
If you do not complete an experiment during a session, a statement of the reasons for
discontinuing the exper iment should be given
Experiment 1: Measurement mass and length

1.1 Measurement of Length using Ruler, Vernier Caliper, and Micrometer

Objectives:

 To measure the length of objects using a ruler, vernier caliper, and micrometer.
 To measure the mass of different objects using beam balance or triple balance.
 To compare the precision and accuracy of each instrument for length measurements.
 To understand the principles and working mechanisms of the ruler, vernier caliper, and
micrometer.

Theory:

Ruler: is the simplest way to measure length and it is calibrated in centimeters and it is linear
measuring instrument with evenly spaced markings representing units of length. The length of an
object can be determined by aligning the zero mark of the ruler with one end of the object and
reading the measurement from the scale. Every tool or instrument used in making measurements
is limited in precision. This limit is typically described in terms of the least count of the
instrument. This is the size of the smallest division on a scale. The meter stick that will be used
today has a least count of 0.1 cm (= 1 mm).. All measurements should be reported to at least the
precision of the least count.
 Figure 1.reading of ruler

Vernier Caliper: The vernier caliper, shown in Figure 3, is used in length measurements that
require better precision compared to the meter stick. The vernier is convenient when measuring
small thicknesses, outer and inner diameters of round objects, and the depth of a hole. A vernier
caliper consists of a main scale and a movable jaw with a vernier scale. The main scale provides
a rough measurement, while the vernier scale allows for more precise readings. The length of an
object is obtained by adding the main scale reading to the vernier scale reading.

Fig. 2: The parts of the vernier calipers

As shown in Figure 2, the vernier caliper has a main scale (in millimeters) and a sliding vernier
scale. The vernier scale is divided into 20 equal divisions and thus the least count of the
instrument is 0.05 mm. The main scale reading is the mark on the main scale immediately to the
left of the zero of the vernier scale (34 mm), while the vernier scale reading is the mark on the
vernier scale which exactly coincides with a mark on the main scale (the 12TH mark from zero).
Therefore, the reading in Figure 3 is 34 mm + 12 x 0.05 mm = 34.6 mm. (Note that each division
on the vernier scale = 0.05 mm.)

Least count of VC= = =0.05mm

Fig. 3 Reading of VC (here is 34.6 mm)

Micrometer: A micrometer is a precision measuring instrument that uses a screw mechanism to

measure small distances. It consists of a sleeve scale, a thimble scale, and a spindle. The sleeve
scale provides a rough measurement, while the thimble scale allows for fine adjustments. The
length of an object is obtained by adding the sleeve scale reading to the thimble scale reading.
The micrometer screw gauge (Figure 4) is used to measure even smaller dimensions than the
vernier caliper.The micrometer screw gauge has a main scale and a rotating scale. The 50
divisions on the rotating scale (thimble) are equivalent to 0.5 mm on the main scale, so the
micrometer has a least count of 0.01 mm (more precise than the caliper). The jaws can be
adjusted by rotating the thimble using the small ratchet knob.
 LC of micrometer = = =0.01mm

Fig. 4 The micrometer screw gauge

In Figure 5 the last main-scale mark clearly visible to the left of the thimble is 7 mm and
the thimble lines up with the main scale at 38th mark. Therefore, the reading is
calculated as 7 mm+38*LC=7 mm+38*0.01mm=7.38mm . In Figure 6 b, the last mark
on the main scale clearly visible to the left of the thimble is 7.5 mm; therefore, the
reading is calculated as =.7.5mm+22*LC=7.5mm+22*0.01mm=7.72mm

Fig. 5: Readings of micrometer

Volume can also be calculated from other measurements. For example, for cylinder:

V=π L

Where: r = radius, L length and π = ratio of circumference to diameter.

1.2 Measurement of mass using triple beam balance or digital balance

One instrument for measuring mass is the triple-beam balance (Figure 6). The triple-
beam balance measures the mass of an object by balancing it with sliding masses of
known values. The triple beam balance is usually calibrated in grams with a least count of
0.01 g. Before the triple-beam balance is used to make a measurement, verify that the
balance is properly zeroed. Fine adjustments may be made by turning the knob under the
balance pan.To read the mass value on the triple beam balance in Figure 6 start with the
middle scale, then read from the upper scale and finally read from the lower scale.

Figure 6: triple beam balance

Figure 7: Reading of a triple beam balance Middle scale reading: 100 g Upper scale
reading: 90 g, Lower scale reading: 0.4 g, the mass is 190.4 g
 Digital an balance, is an exact weighing instrument used in laboratory setting for
measuring mass of object. It is designed to provide accurate and reliable measurements.
To measure mass of object put on it and read it.

Materials:

 Ruler (with millimeter markings)

 Vernier caliper
 Cylindrical object
 Spherical object
 Triple beam balance or digital balance
 Micrometer
 Objects of varying lengths and mass

Procedure:

For Ruler Measurement:

A. Place the object whose length is to be measured on a flat surface.

B. Align the ruler along the length of the object. Ensure that one end of the object
aligns with the zero mark on the ruler.
C. Read and record the length of the object from the ruler.
D. Calculate surface area, volume and density of block and enter in your data table 1.

For Vernier Caliper Measurement:

A. Open the jaws of the vernier caliper and place the object between them.
B. Gently close the jaws until they securely hold the object.
C. Read and record the length indicated by the main scale of the caliper at the left of
zero from vernier scale.
D. Locate the vernier scale on the caliper. Identify the line on the vernier scale that
aligns most closely with a line on the main scale.
E. Record the value corresponding to the line on the vernier scale.
 F. Add the main scale reading and the vernier scale reading to obtain the final
length measurement.( VC reading=MSR+VSR*LC )
G. Calculate surface area, volume and density of cylindrical object and enter in
your data table 2.

For Micrometer Measurement:

A. Open the micrometer and place the object between the measuring faces.
B. Slowly close the micrometer until the measuring faces come into contact with the
object.
C. Read and record the length indicated on the micrometer scale.
D. Identify the line on the thimble scale that aligns most closely with a line on the
sleeve scale.
E. Record the value corresponding to the line on the thimble scale. This value
represents the fraction of the smallest division (e.g., 0.01 mm) that the thimble
scale has moved.
F. Add the sleeve scale reading and the thimble scale reading to obtain the final
length measurement (micrometer reading=.MSR+RSR*LC).
G. Calculate volume and density of sphere and enter in your data table 3.

Mass Measurements with a Beam Balance

A. Places the object on the steel plate.

B. Move the balancing masses on the horizontal tracks until the indicator on
the right side points to the ‘0’ (zero) mark.
C. Then takes the sum of the readings on each of the scales to determine the
measured mass of the object
 Data table 1 for rectangular block (by ruler)

tria Length(cm Height(cm Width(cm Mass(g Area( volume Density(

l ) ) ) ) ⁄ )
1
2
3

Data table 2 for cylindrical object (by vernier caliper)

Trial Diameter(cm) Height(cm) Mass(g) area volume Density( ⁄ )

1
2
3

Data table 3 for spherical object (by micrometer)

Trial Diameter(cm) Mass(g) volume Density( ⁄ )

1
2
3
 EXPERMENT 2: DETERMINING ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY
USING SIMPLE PENDULUM

OBJECTIVES:
 To study the motion of a simple pendulum
 To determine the acceleration due to gravity using a simple pendulum.
 To determine the relationship between the period of a pendulum and its length.
THEORY
For small angular displacements less than about ten degrees, it can be shown that the motion of a
point mass attached to the end of a string of length L is a periodic motion with the period:

T= 2 √ ⁄ 1.0

We can calculate the gravitational acceleration, g, if we measure the length of the string and the period of
oscillations:

g= ⁄ 1.1

Where T is period of simple pendulum is length of string and g is gravity.

Figure 1: oscillation of simple pendulum

APPARATUS:
 A string of length L
 stopwatch,
 a metal ball(bob)
 Meter stick.
 Protractor
 Support(stand and ceiling)
Procedure:
1. Set up the pendulum: Tie one end of the string to the weight and the other end to a fixed
point, such as a support stand or a hook on the ceiling on a stable surface.
2. Measure the length: Use a ruler to measure the length of the string from the point of
attachment to the center of the weight and record this length as .
3. Pull the pendulum back and release it, allowing it to swing freely.
4. Using the stopwatch or timer, measure the time it takes for the pendulum to complete 10
oscillations (a full back-and-forth swing) and record this time as and .
5. Repeat step 4 two times to ensure accuracy and consistency of measurements.
6. Calculate the average time for 10 oscillations ( ).

7. Repeat steps 2-6 for different lengths of the pendulum, varying the length by adjusting
the position of the string on the clamp.
8. Record all measurements in a data table.
Data table: for simple pendulum
Length(cm) (sec) (sec) Time for each g( m/s^2)
oscillation
70
60
50
40
30
20

Table 1: Data table: for simple pendulum

Analysis:
1. Plot a graph of the length of the pendulum versus the time for 10 oscillations.
2. Analyze the relationship between these variables and draw conclusions based on the data.
3. Calculate acceleration due to gravity using average period.
4. Compare your calculated value for "g" to the accepted value of 9.81 m/s^2.
5. Find percentage error?
6. plot L VS g
EXPERMENT 3: HOOKS LAW

Objectives of experiment:

 To describe the relationship between the forces applied to a spring and the resulting
displacement of the spring.
 To provide a simple and accurate model for the behavior of springs and elastic materials
under various forces

Theory

Hooke's Law states that the force required to stretch or compress a spring is directly proportional
to the displacement of the spring from its equilibrium position. This means that if you were to
plot force versus displacement on a graph, you would expect to see a straight line passing
through the origin.

F=-K∆x 1.0

Where F is the force applied, k is the spring constant, and x is the displacement of spring.

Materials needed:

 Spring
 Ruler
 Set of masses (weights)
 Retort stand clamp
 Stopwatch

Figure 1: hooks material and set up

Procedure:

1. Set up the retort stand and attach the clamp to it.

2. Hang the spring from the clamp so that it is in a vertical position.
3. Measure the original length of the spring using the ruler and record this value as
4. Add a known mass to the bottom of the spring. Ensure that the mass is not too heavy, as
you want to be able to measure the extension of the spring accurately.
5. Allow the spring to come to rest and then measure the new length of the spring with the
added mass. Record this value as .
6. Calculate the extension of the spring by subtracting the original length ( ) from the new
length ( ).
7. Repeat steps 4-6 with different masses to gather a range of data points.
8. 9. Analyze the graph to determine if it forms a straight line, which would demonstrate
Hook's Law. If it does, calculate the spring constant (k) from the gradient of the line
using the formula k = F / ∆x.
9. Record your observations and conclusions based on your analysis of the data.
Data table for hooks law

Mass(g) Original Final Extension(cm) Force(N) Spring

length(cm) length(cm) constant( ⁄

Table 1: hooks law sheet

Analysis /questions

1. Calculate extension for each mass.

2. From your data calculate the spring constant, denoted as k
3. From your data calculate the force, denoted as F.
4. Plot a graph of force (weight) versus extension).
5. Verify hooks law from graph.