Mathematics All Social Science
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matiwosalemayehu2736Mathematics All Social Science
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matiwosalemayehu2736MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND HIGHER EDUCATION
ashkas
Mathematics for Social
Sciences
Prepared by:
1. Dr. Berhanu Bekele
2. Ato Mulugeta Naizghi
3. Dr. Simon Derkee
4. Ato Wondwosen Zemene
MOSHE
SEPTEMBER, 2019
Content Page
Chapter 1: Propositional Logic and set Theory ……………………………………. 1
1.1. Propositional Logic ……………………………………………………… 1
1.1.1 Definition and examples of Propositions ……………………….. 2
1.1.2 Logical connectives ..…………………………………………….. 2
1.1.3 Compound (or complex) proposition …………………………… 7
1.1.4 Tautology and contradiction …………………………………….. 10
1.2. Open propositions and quantifiers ………………………………………. 12
1.3. Arguments and Validity …………………………………………………. 20
1.4. Set Theory ……………………………………………………………….. 25
1.4.1 The Concept of a set ……………………………………………… 26
1.4.2 Description of sets ………………………………………………... 26
1.4.3 Set operations and Venn diagrams ……………………………….. 31
Chapter 2: Functions ……………………………………………………………….. 39
2.1 The real number system …………………………………………………. 40
2.2. Solving equations and inequalities; linear and quadratic equations ……. 44
2.3 Review of relations and functions ………………………………………. 53
2.4 Real valued functions and their properties ……………………………… 61
2.5 Types of functions and inverse of a function …………………………… 66
2.6 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs .. 70
2.7 Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, trigonometric
functions and their graphs. …………………………………………….... 83
Chapter 3: Matrices and determinant ………………………………………………. 105
3.1 Definition of a matrix …………………………………………………… 105
3.2 Matrix Algebra ………………………………………………………….. 108
3.3 Types of matrices ……………………………………………………….. 116
3.4 Elementary row operations ……………………………………………… 120
3.5 Row echelon form and reduced row echelon form of a matrix …………. 121
3.6 Rank of a matrix using elementary row operations …………………….. 125
3.7 Determinant and its properties ………………………………………….. 126
3.8 Adjoint and inverse of a matrix …………………………………………. 135
3.9 System of linear equations …………………………………………….. 140
3.9.1Gaussian elimination …………………………………………. 143
3.9.2 Cramer’s rule ………………………………………………… 149
3.9.3 Inverse method ………………………………………………. 152
Chapter 4: Introduction to Calculus
4.1 Limit and continuity …………………………………………………… 158
4.2 Derivatives …………………………………………………………….. 176
4.3 Application of derivative ……………………………………………… 185
4.4 Integrals and their applications ………………………………………... 197
References ………………………………………………………………………………. . 213
Chapter One
Propositional Logic and Set Theory
In this chapter, we study the basic concepts of propositional logic and some part of set theory. In the
first part, we deal about propositional logic, logical connectives, quantifiers and arguments. In the
second part, we turn our attention to set theory and discus about description of sets and operations of
sets.
Main Objectives of this Chapter
At the end of this chapter, students will be able to:-
Know the basic concepts of mathematical logic.
Know methods and procedures in combining the validity of statements.
Understand the concept of quantifiers.
Know basic facts about argument and validity.
Understand the concept of set.
Apply rules of operations on sets to find the result.
Show set operations using Venn diagrams.
1.1. Propositional Logic
Mathematical or symbolic logic is an analytical theory of the art of reasoning whose goal is to
systematize and codify principles of valid reasoning. It has emerged from a study of the use of language
in argument and persuasion and is based on the identification and examination of those parts of
language which are essential for these purposes. It is formal in the sense that it lacks reference to
meaning. Thereby it achieves versatility: it may be used to judge the correctness of a chain of reasoning
(in particular, a "mathematical proof") solely on the basis of the form (and not the content) of the
sequence of statements which make up the chain. There is a variety of symbolic logics. We shall be
concerned only with that one which encompasses most of the deductions of the sort encountered in
mathematics. Within the context of logic itself, this is "classical" symbolic logic.
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
Identify the difference between proposition and sentence.
Describe the five logical connectives.
Determine the truth values of propositions using the rules of logical connectives.
Construct compound propositions using the five logical connectives.
Determine the truth values of compound propositions.
Distinguish a given compound proposition is whether tautology or contradiction.
1.1.1. Definition and examples of propositions
Consider the following sentences.
a. 2 is an even number.
b. A triangle has four sides.
c. Emperor Menelik ate chicken soup the night after the battle of Adwa.
d. May God bless you!
e. Give me that book.
f. What is your name?
The first three sentences are declarative sentences. The first one is true and the second one is false. The
truth value of the third sentence cannot be ascertained because of lack of historical records but it is, by
its very form, either true or false but not both. On the other hand, the last three sentences have not
truth value. So they are not declaratives.
Now we begin by examining proposition, the building blocks of every argument. A proposition is a
sentence that may be asserted or denied. Proposition in this way are different from questions,
commands, and exclamations. Neither questions, which can be asked, nor exclamations, which can be
uttered, can possibly be asserted or denied. Only propositions assert that something is (or is not) the
case, and therefore only they can be true or false.
Definition 1.1: A proposition (or statement) is a sentence which has a truth value (either True or False
but not both).
The above definition does not mean that we must always know what the truth value is. For example,
the sentence “The 1000th digit in the decimal expansion of is 7” is a proposition, but it may be
necessary to find this information in a Web site on the Internet to determine whether this statement is
true. Indeed, for a sentence to be a proposition (or a statement), it is not a requirement that we be able
to determine its truth value.
Remark: Every proposition has a truth value, namely true (denoted by ) or false (denoted by ).
1.1.2. Logical connectives
In mathematical discourse and elsewhere one constantly encounters declarative sentences which have
been formed by modifying a sentence with the word “not” or by connecting sentences with the words
“and”, “or”, “if . . . then (or implies)”, and “if and only if”. These five words or combinations of words are
called propositional connectives.
Note: Letters such as etc. are usually used to denote actual propositions.
Conjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective “and,” the proposition formed is a logical
conjunction. “and” is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical conjunction of two propositions, and , is
written:
, read as “ and ,” or “ conjunction ”.
p and q are called the components of the conjunction. is true if and only if is true and is true.
The truth table for conjunction is given as follows:
Example 1.1: Consider the following propositions:
: 3 is an odd number. (True)
: 27 is a prime number. (False)
: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
a. : 3 is an odd number and 27 is a prime number. (False)
b. : 3 is an odd number and Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
Disjunction
When two propositions are joined with the connective “or,” the proposition formed is called a logical
disjunction. “or” is denoted by “ ”. So, the logical disjunction of two propositions, and , is written:
read as “ or ” or “ disjunction .”
is false if and only if both and are false.
The truth table for disjunction is given as follows:
Example 1.2: Consider the following propositions:
: 3 is an odd number. (True)
: 27 is a prime number. (False)
: Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
a. : 3 is an odd number or 27 is a prime number. (True)
b. : 27 is a prime number or Nairobi is the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Note: The use of “or” in propositional logic is rather different from its normal use in the English
language. For example, if Solomon says, “I will go to the football match in the afternoon or I will go to
the cinema in the afternoon,” he means he will do one thing or the other, but not both. Here “or” is
used in the exclusive sense. But in propositional logic, “or” is used in the inclusive sense; that is, we
allow Solomon the possibility of doing both things without him being inconsistent.
Implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “implies,” the proposition formed is called a
logical implication. “implies” is denoted by “ .” So, the logical implication of two propositions, and
, is written:
read as “ implies .”
The function of the connective “implies” between two propositions is the same as the use of “If … then
…” Thus can be read as “if , then .”
is false if and only if is true and is false.
This form of a proposition is common in mathematics. The proposition is called the hypothesis or the
antecedent of the conditional proposition while is called its conclusion or the consequent.
The following is the truth table for implication.
Examples 1.3: Consider the following propositions:
: 3 is an odd number. (True)
: 27 is a prime number. (False)
: Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
: If 3 is an odd number, then 27 is prime. (False)
: If 3 is an odd number, then Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
We have already mentioned that the implication can be expressed as both “If , then ” and “
implies .” There are various ways of expressing the proposition , namely:
If , then .
if .
implies .
only if .
is sufficient for .
is necessary for
Bi-implication
When two propositions are joined with the connective “bi-implication,” the proposition formed is called
a logical bi-implication or a logical equivalence. A bi-implication is denoted by “ ”. So the logical bi-
implication of two propositions, and , is written:
is false if and only if and have different truth values.
The truth table for bi-implication is given by:
Examples 1.4:
a. Let : 2 is greater than 3. (False)
: 5 is greater than 4. (True)
Then
: 2 is greater than 3 if and only if 5 is greater than 4. (False)
b. Consider the following propositions:
: 3 is an odd number. (True)
: 2 is a prime number. (True)
: 3 is an odd number if and only if 2 is a prime number. (True)
There are various ways of stating the proposition .
if and only if (also written as iff ),
implies and implies ,
is necessary and sufficient for
is necessary and sufficient for
is equivalent to
Negation
Given any proposition , we can form the proposition called the negation of . The truth value of
is if is and if is .
We can describe the relation between and as follows.
Example 1.5: Let : Addis Ababa is the capital city of Ethiopia. (True)
: Addis Ababa is not the capital city of Ethiopia. (False)
Exercises
1. Which of the following sentences are propositions? For those that are, indicate the truth
value.
a. 123 is a prime number.
b. 0 is an even number.
c. .
d. Multiply by 3.
e. What an impossible question!
2. State the negation of each of the following statements.
a. is a rational number.
b. 0 is not a negative integer.
c. 111 is a prime number.
3. Let : 15 is an odd number.
: 21 is a prime number.
State each of the following in words, and determine the truth value of each.
a. . e. .
b. . f. .
c. . a. .
d. . g. .
4. Complete the following truth table.
1.1.3. Compound (or complex) propositions
So far, what we have done is simply to define the logical connectives, and express them through
algebraic symbols. Now we shall learn how to form propositions involving more than one connective,
and how to determine the truth values of such propositions.
Definition 1.2: The proposition formed by joining two or more proposition by connective(s) is called a
compound statement.
Note: We must be careful to insert the brackets in proper places, just as we do in arithmetic. For
example, the expression will be meaningless unless we know which connective should apply
first. It could mean or , which are very different propositions. The truth value
of such complicated propositions is determined by systematic applications of the rules for the
connectives.
The possible truth values of a proposition are often listed in a table, called a truth table. If and are
propositions, then there are four possible combinations of truth values for and . That is, , ,
and . If a third proposition is involved, then there are eight possible combinations of truth values
for , and . In general, a truth table involving “ ” propositions , ,…, contains possible
combinations of truth values for these propositions and a truth table showing these combinations would
have columns and rows. So, we use truth tables to determine the truth value of a compound
proposition based on the truth value of its constituent component propositions.
Examples 1.6:
a. Suppose and are true and and are false.
What is the truth value of ?
i. Since is true and is false, is false.
ii. Since is true and is false, is true.
iii. Thus by applying the rule of implication, we get that is true.
b. Suppose that a compound proposition is symbolized by
and that the truth values of and are and , respectively. Then the truth value of is
, that of is , that of is . So the truth value of is .
Remark: When dealing with compound propositions, we shall adopt the following convention on the use
of parenthesis. Whenever “ ” or “ ” occur with “ ” or “ ”, we shall assume that “ ” or “ ” is
applied first, and then “ ” or “ ” is then applied. For example,
means
means
means
means
However, it is always advisable to use brackets to indicate the order of the desired operations. .
Definition 1.3: Two compound propositions and are said to be equivalent if they have the same
truth value for all possible combinations of truth values for the component propositions occurring in
both and . In this case we write .
Example 1.7: Let .
Then, is equivalent to , since columns 5 and 6 of the above table are identical.
Example 1.8: Let .
Then
Looking at columns 5 and 6 of the table we see that they are not identical. Thus .
It is useful at this point to mention the non-equivalence of certain conditional propositions. Given the
conditional , we give the related conditional propositions:-
: Converse of
: Inverse of
: Contrapositive of
As we observed from example 1.7, the conditional and its contrapositve are
equivalent. On the other hand, and .
Do not confuse the contrapositive and the converse of the conditional proposition. Here is the
difference:
Converse: The hypothesis of a converse statement is the conclusion of the conditional statement and
the conclusion of the converse statement is the hypothesis of the conditional statement.
Contrapositive: The hypothesis of a contrapositive statement is the negation of conclusion of the
conditional statement and the conclusion of the contrapositive statement is the negation of hypothesis
of the conditional statement.
Example 1.9:
a. If Kidist lives in Addis Ababa, then she lives in Ethiopia.
Converse: If Kidist lives in Ethiopia, then she lives in Addis Ababa.
Contrapositive: If Kidist does not live in Ethiopia, then she does not live in Addis
Ababa.
Inverse: If Kidist does not live in Addis Ababa, then she does not live in Ethiopia.
b. If it is morning, then the sun is in the east.
Converse: If the sun is in the east, then it is morning.
Contrapositive: If the sun is not in the east, then it is not morning.
Inverse: If it is not morning, then the sun is not the east.
Propositions, under the relation of logical equivalence, satisfy various laws or identities, which are listed
below.
1. Idempotent Laws
a. .
b. .
2. Commutative Laws
a. .
b. .
3. Associative Laws
a. .
b. .
4. Distributive Laws
a. .
b. .
5. De Morgan’s Laws
a. .
b.
6. Law of Contrapositive
7. Complement Law
.
1.1.4. Tautology and contradiction
Definition: A compound proposition is a tautology if it is always true regardless of the truth values of its
component propositions. If, on the other hand, a compound proposition is always false regardless of its
component propositions, we say that such a proposition is a contradiction.
Examples 1.10:
a. Suppose is any proposition. Consider the compound propositions and .
Observe that is a tautology while is a contradiction.
b. For any propositions and . Consider the compound proposition . Let us
make a truth table and study the situation.
T
We have exhibited all the possibilities and we see that for all truth values of the constituent
propositions, the proposition is always true. Thus, is a tautology.
c. The truth table for the compound proposition .
In example 1.10(c), the given compound proposition has a truth value for every possible combination
of assignments of truth values for the component propositions and . Thus is a
contradiction.
Remark:
1. In a truth table, if a proposition is a tautology, then every line in its column has as its
entry; if a proposition is a contradiction, every line in its column has as its entry.
2. Two compound propositions and are equivalent if and only if “ ” is a
tautology.
Exercises
1. For statements and , use a truth table to show that each of the following pairs of
statements is logically equivalent.
a. and .
b. and .
c. and .
d. and .
e. and .
2. For statements , and , show that the following compound statements are tautology.
a. .
b. .
c. .
3. For statements and , show that is a contradiction.
4. Write the contrapositive and the converse of the following conditional statements.
a. If it is cold, then the lake is frozen.
b. If Solomon is healthy, then he is happy.
c. If it rains, Tigist does not take a walk.
5. Let and be statements. Which of the following implies that is false?
a. is false. d. is true.
b. is true. e. is false.
c. is true.
6. Suppose that the statements and are assigned the truth values and ,
respectively. Find the truth value of each of the following statements.
a. . f. .
b. . g. .
c. . h. .
d. . i. .
e. . j. .
7. Suppose the value of is ; what can be said about the value of ?
8. a. Suppose the value of is ; what can be said about the values of and
?
b. Suppose the value of is ; what can be said about the values of and
?
9. Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
a. . d. .
b. . e. .
c. . f. .
10. For each of the following determine whether the information given is sufficient to decide
the truth value of the statement. If the information is enough, state the truth value. If it is
insufficient, show that both truth values are possible.
a. , where .
b. , where .
c. , where .
d. , where .
e. , where .
f. , where and .
1.2. Open propositions and quantifiers
In mathematics, one frequently comes across sentences that involve a variable. For example,
is one such. The truth value of this statement depends on the value we assign for the
variable . For example, if , then this sentence is true, whereas if , then the sentence is
false.
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
Define open proposition.
Analyze the difference between proposition and open proposition.
Differentiate the two types of quantifiers.
Convert open propositions into propositions using quantifiers.
Determine the truth value of a quantified proposition.
Convert a quantified proposition into words and vise versa.
Explain the relationship between existential and universal quantifiers.
Analyze quantifiers occurring in combinations.
Definition 1.4: An open statement (also called a predicate) is a sentence that contains one or more
variables and whose truth value depends on the values assigned for the variables. We represent an open
statement by a capital letter followed by the variable(s) in parenthesis, e.g., etc.
Example 1.11: Here are some open propositions:
a. is the day before Sunday.
b. is a city in Africa.
c. is greater than .
d. .
It is clear that each one of these examples involves variables, but is not a proposition as we cannot
assign a truth value to it. However, if individuals are substituted for the variables, then each one of them
is a proposition or statement. For example, we may have the following.
a. Monday is the day before Sunday.
b. London is a city in Africa.
c. 5 is greater than 9.
d. –13 + 4= –9
Remark
The collection of all allowable values for the variable in an open sentence is called the universal set (the
universe of discourse) and denoted by .
Definition 1.5: Two open proposition and are said to be equivalent if and only if
for all individual . Note that if the universe is specified, then and are
equivalent if and only if for all .
Example 1.12: Let .
.
Let .
Then for all ; and have the same truth value.
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Therefore for all .
Definition 1.6: Let be the universal set. An open proposition is a tautology if and only if is
always true for all values of .
Example 1.13: The open proposition is a tautology.
As we have observed in example 1.11, an open proposition can be converted into a proposition by
substituting the individuals for the variables. However, there are other ways that an open proposition
can be converted into a proposition, namely by a method called quantification. Let be an open
proposition over the domain . Adding the phrase “For every ” to or “For some ” to
produces a statement called a quantified statement.
Consider the following open propositions with universe .
a. .
b. .
c. .
Then is always true for each ,
is true only for and ,
is always false for all values of .
Hence, given an open proposition , with universe , we observe that there are three possibilities.
a. is true for all .
b. is true for some .
c. is false for all .
Now we proceed to study open propositions which are satisfied by “all” and “some” members of the
given universe.
a. The phrase "for every " is called a universal quantifier. We regard "for every ," "for all ,"
and "for each " as having the same meaning and symbolize each by “ .” Think of the
symbol as an inverted (representing all). If is an open proposition with universe , then
is a quantified proposition and is read as “every has the property .”
b. The phrase "there exists an " is called an existential quantifier. We regard "there exists an ,"
"for some ," and "for at least one " as having the same meaning, and symbolize each by
“ .” Think of the symbol as the backwards capital (representing exists). If is an
open proposition with universe , then is a quantified proposition and is read as “there
exists with the property .”
Remarks:
i. To show that is , it is sufficient to find at least one such that is
. Such an element is called a counter example.
ii. is if we cannot find any having the property .
Example 1.14:
a. Write the following statements using quantifiers.
i. For each real number .
Solution: .
ii. There is a real number such that .
Solution: .
iii. The square of any real number is nonnegative.
Solution: .
b.
i. Let . The truth value for [i.e ] is .
ii. Let . The truth value for is . is a
counterexample since but . On the other hand, is true, since
such that .
iii. Let . The truth value for is since there is no real
number whose absolute value is .
Relationship between the existential and universal quantifiers
If is a formula in , consider the following four statements.
a. .
b. .
c. .
d. .
We might translate these into words as follows.
a. Everything has property .
b. Something has property .
c. Nothing has property .
d. Something does not have property .
Now (d) is the denial of (a), and (c) is the denial of (b), on the basis of everyday meaning. Thus, for
example, the existential quantifier may be defined in terms of the universal quantifier.
Now we proceed to discuss the negation of quantifiers. Let be an open proposition. Then
is false only if we can find an individual “ ” in the universe such that is false. If we
succeed in getting such an individual, then is true. Hence will be false if
is true. Therefore the negation of is . Hence we conclude that
Similarly, we can easily verified that
Remark: To negate a statement that involves the quantifiers and , change each to , change each
to , and negate the open statement.
Example 1.15:
Let .
a.
.
b.
.
Given propositions containing quantifiers we can form a compound proposition by joining them with
connectives in the same way we form a compound proposition without quantifiers. For example, if we
have and we can form .
Consider the following statements involving quantifiers. Illustrations of these along with translations
appear below.
a. All rationals are reals. .
b. No rationals are reals. .
c. Some rationals are reals. .
d. Some rationals are not reals. .
Example 1.16:
Let The set of integers.
Let : is a prime number.
: is an even number.
: is an odd number.
Then
a. is ; since there is an , say 2, such that is .
b. is . As a counterexample take 7. Then is and is .
Hence .
c. is .
d. is .
Quantifiers Occurring in Combinations
So far, we have only considered cases in which universal and existential quantifiers appear simply.
However, if we consider cases in which universal and existential quantifiers occur in combination, we
are lead to essentially new logical structures. The following are the simplest forms of combinations:
1.
“for all and for all the relation holds”;
2.
“there is an and there is a for which holds”;
3.
“for every there is a such that holds”;
4.
“there is an which stands to every in the relation .”
Example 1.17:
Let The set of integers.
Let .
a. means that there is an integer and there is an integer such that
. This statement is true when and , since 4 + 1 = 5.
Therefore, the statement is always true for this universe. There are
other choices of and for which it would be true, but the symbolic statement merely
says that there is at least one choice for and which will make the statement true, and
we have demonstrated one such choice.
b. means that there is an integer such that for every , . This is
false since no fixed value of will make this true for all in the universe; e.g. if , then
is false for some .
c. means that for every integer , there is an integer such that
. Let , then will always be an integer, so this is a true statement.
d. means that for every integer and for every integer , . This is
false, for if and , we get .
Example 1.18:
a. Consider the statement
For every two real numbers and , .
If we let
where the domain of both and is , the statement can be expressed as
or as .
Since and for all real numbers and , it follows that and so is true
for all real numbers and . Thus the quantified statement is true.
b. Consider the open statement
where the domain of the variable is the set of even integers and the domain of the variable is the
set of odd integers. Then the quantified statement
can be expressed in words as
There exist an even integer and an odd integer such that .
Since is true, the quantified statement is true.
c. Consider the open statement
where the domain of both and is the set of positive rational numbers. Then the quantified
statement
can be expressed in words as
For every positive rational number , there exists a positive rational number such that .
It turns out that the quantified statement is true. If we replace by , then we have
Since and for every real number , is false.
d. Consider the open statement
is odd
where the domain of both and is the set of natural numbers. Then the quantified statement
expressed in words, is
There exists a natural number such that for every natural numbers , is odd. The statement is false.
In general, from the meaning of the universal quantifier it follows that in an expression
the two universal quantifiers may be interchanged without altering the sense of the sentence. This also
holds for the existential quantifies in an expression such as .
In the statement , the choice of is allowed to depend on - the that works for one
need not work for another . On the other hand, in the statement , the must work
for all , i.e., is independent of . For example, the expression , where and are
variables referring to the domain of real numbers, constitutes a true proposition, namely, “For every
number , there is a number , such that is less that ,” i.e., “given any number, there is a greater
number.” However, if the order of the symbol and is changed, in this case, we obtain:
, which is a false proposition, namely, “There is a number which is greater than every
number.” By transposing and , therefore, we get a different statement.
The logical situation here is:
Finally, we conclude this section with the remark that there are no mechanical rules for translating
sentences from English into the logical notation which has been introduced. In every case one must first
decide on the meaning of the English sentence and then attempt to convey that same meaning in terms
of predicates, quantifiers, and, possibly, individual constants.
Exercises
1. In each of the following, two open statements and are given, where the
domain of both and is . Determine the truth value of for the
given values of and .
a. . and . .
b. . and . .
c. . and .
.
2. Let denote the set of odd integers and let is even, and is even.
be open statements over the domain . State and in words.
3. State the negation of the following quantified statements.
a. For every rational number , the number is rational.
b. There exists a rational number such that .
4. Let is an integer. be an open sentence over the domain . Determine, with
explanations, whether the following statements are true or false:
a. .
b. .
5. Determine the truth value of the following statements.
a. .
b. .
c. .
d. .
e. .
f. .
g. .
h.
6. Consider the quantified statement
For every and , is prime.
where the domain of the variables and is .
a. Express this quantified statement in symbols.
b. Is the quantified statement in (a) true or false? Explain.
c. Express the negation of the quantified statement in (a) in symbols.
d. Is the negation of the quantified in (a) true or false? Explain.
7. Consider the open statement where the domain of is and the
domain of is .
a. State the quantified statement in words.
b. Show quantified statement in (a) is true.
8. Consider the open statement where the domain of is
and the domain of is .
a. State the quantified statement in words.
b. Show quantified statement in (a) is true.
1. 3. Argument and Validity
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
Define argument (or logical deduction).
Identify hypothesis and conclusion of a given argument.
Determine the validity of an argument using a truth table.
Determine the validity of an argument using rules of inferences.
Definition 1.7: An argument (logical deduction) is an assertion that a given set of statements
, called hypotheses or premises, yield another statement , called the conclusion. Such
a logical deduction is denoted by:
or
Example 1.19: Consider the following argument:
If you study hard, then you will pass the exam.
You did not pass the exam.
Therefore, you did not study hard.
Let : You study hard.
: You will pass the exam.
The argument form can be written as:
pq
q
p
When is an argument form accepted to be correct? In normal usage, we use an argument in order to
demonstrate that a certain conclusion follows from known premises. Therefore, we shall require that
under any assignment of truth values to the statements appearing, if the premises became all true, then
the conclusion must also become true. Hence, we state the following definition.
Definition 1.8: An argument form is said to be valid if is true whenever all the
premises are true; otherwise it is invalid.
Example 1.20: Investigate the validity of the following argument:
a. p q, q p
b. p q, qr p
c. If it rains, crops will be good. It did not rain. Therefore, crops were not good.
Solution: First we construct a truth table for the statements appearing in the argument forms.
a.
The premises and are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this case is also true, the
argument is valid.
b.
The 1st, 2nd, 5th, 6th and 7th rows are those in which all the premises take value . In the 5th, 6th and 7th
rows however the conclusion takes value . Hence, the argument form is invalid.
c. Let : It rains.
: Crops are good.
: It did not rain.
: Crops were not good.
The argument form is
Now we can use truth table to test validity as follows:
The premises and are true simultaneously in row 4 only. Since in this case is also true, the
argument is valid.
Remark:
1. What is important in validity is the form of the argument rather than the meaning or content of
the statements involved.
2. The argument form is valid iff the statement
is a tautology.
Rules of inferences
Below we list certain valid deductions called rules of inferences.
1. Modes Ponens
2. Modes Tollens
3. Principle of Syllogism
4. Principle of Adjunction
a.
b.
5. Principle of Detachment
6. Modes Tollendo Ponens
7. Modes Ponendo Tollens
8. Constructive Dilemma
9. Principle of Equivalence
10. Principle of Conditionalization
Formal proof of validity of an argument
Definition 1.9: A formal proof of a conclusion given hypotheses is a sequence of
stapes, each of which applies some inference rule to hypotheses or previously proven statements
(antecedent) to yield a new true statement (the consequent).
A formal proof of validity is given by writing on the premises and the statements which follows from
them in a single column, and setting off in another column, to the right of each statement, its
justification. It is convenient to list all the premises first.
Example 1.21: Show that is valid.
Solution:
1. is true premise
2. premise
3. contrapositive of (2)
4. Modes Ponens using (1) and (3)
Example 1.22: Show that the hypotheses
It is not sunny this afternoon and it is colder than yesterday.
If we go swimming, then it is sunny.
If we do not go swimming, then we will take a canoe trip.
If we take a canoe trip, then we will be home by sunset.
Lead to the conclusion:
We will be home by sunset.
Let : It is sunny this afternoon.
: It is colder than yesterday.
: We go swimming.
: We take a canoe trip.
: We will be home by sunset.
Then
1. hypothesis
2. simplification using (1)
3. hypothesis
4. Modus Tollens using (2) and (3)
5. hypothesis
6. Modus Ponens using (4) and (5)
7. hypothesis
8. Modus Ponens using (6) and (7)
Exercises
1. Use the truth table method to show that the following argument forms are valid.
i. .
ii. .
iii. .
iv. .
v. .
2. For the following argument given a, b and c below:
i. Identify the premises.
ii. Write argument forms.
iii. Check the validity.
a. If he studies medicine, he will get a good job. If he gets a good job, he
will get a good wage. He did not get a good wage. Therefore, he did not
study medicine.
b. If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here,
then the team is can play the game. The team is late. Therefore, the
referee is not here.
c. If the professor offers chocolate for an answer, you answer the
professor’s question. The professor offers chocolate for an answer.
Therefore, you answer the professor’s question
3. Give formal proof to show that the following argument forms are valid.
a. .
b. .
c. .
d. .
e. .
f. .
g. .
h. .
i. .
4. Prove the following are valid arguments by giving formal proof.
a. If the rain does not come, the crops are ruined and the people will starve. The crops are
not ruined or the people will not starve. Therefore, the rain comes.
b. If the team is late, then it cannot play the game. If the referee is here then the team can
play the game. The team is late. Therefore, the referee is not here.
1.4. Set theory
In this section, we study some part of set theory especially description of sets, Venn diagrams
and operations of sets.
Section objectives:
After completing this section, students will be able to:-
Explain the concept of set.
Describe sets in different ways.
Identify operations of sets.
Illustrate sets using Venn diagrams.
1.4.1. The concept of a set
The term set is an undefined term, just as a point and a line are undefined terms in geometry. However,
the concept of a set permeates every aspect of mathematics. Set theory underlies the language and
concepts of modern mathematics. The term set refers to a well-defined collection of objects that share a
certain property or certain properties. The term “well-defined” here means that the set is described in
such a way that one can decide whether or not a given object belongs in the set. If is a set, then the
objects of the collection are called the elements or members of the set . If is an element of the set
, we write . If is not an element of the set , we write .
As a convention, we use capital letters to denote the names of sets and lowercase letters for elements
of a set.
Note that for each objects and each set , exactly one of or but not both must be true.
1.4.2. Description of sets
Sets are described or characterized by one of the following four different ways.
1. Verbal Method
In this method, an ordinary English statement with minimum mathematical symbolization of
the property of the elements is used to describe a set. Actually, the statement could be in any
language.
Example 1.23:
a. The set of counting numbers less than ten.
b. The set of letters in the word “Addis Ababa.”
c. The set of all countries in Africa.
2. Roster/Complete Listing Method
If the elements of a set can all be listed, we list them all between a pair of braces without
repetition separating by commas, and without concern about the order of their appearance.
Such a method of describing a set is called the roster/complete listing method.
Examples 1.24:
a. The set of vowels in English alphabet may also be described as .
b. The set of positive factors of 24 is also described as .
Remark:
i. We agree on the convention that the order of writing the elements in the list is
immaterial. As a result the sets and contain the same elements,
namely and
ii. The set contains just two distinct elements; namely and , hence it is the
same set as We list distinct elements without repetition.
Example 1.25:
a. Let Elements of are and
Notice that and are different objects. Here but .
b. Let . The only element of is . But .
c. Let Then C has four elements.
The readers are invited to write down all the elements of C.
3. Partial Listing Method
In many occasions, the number of elements of a set may be too large to list them all; and in
other occasions there may not be an end to the list. In such cases we look for a common
property of the elements and describe the set by partially listing the elements. More precisely,
if the common property is simple that it can easily be identified from a list of the first few
elements, then with in a pair of braces, we list these few elements followed (or preceded) by
exactly three dotes and possibly by one last element. The following are such instances of
describing sets by partial listing method.
Example 1.26:
a. The set of all counting numbers is .
b. The set of non-positive integers is .
c. The set of multiples of 5 is .
d. The set of odd integers less than 100 is
4. Set-builder Method
When all the elements satisfy a common property , we express the situation as an open
proposition and describe the set using a method called the Set-builder Method as
follows:
We read it as “ is equal to the set of all ’s such that is true.” Here the bar and the colon “ ”
mean “such that.” Notice that the letter is only a place holder and can be replaced throughout by
other letters. So, for a property , the set { and are all the same set.
Example 1.27: The following sets are described using the set-builder method.
a. .
b.
c. –
d. – –
e. – –
Exercise: Express each of the above by using either the complete or the partial listing method.
Definition 1.10: The set which has no element is called the empty (or null) set and is denoted by or .
Example 1.28: The set of such that is an empty set.
Relationships between two sets
Definition 1.11: Set is said to be a subset of set (or is contained in ), denoted by , if every
element of is an element of , i.e.,
.
It follows from the definition that set is not a subset of set if at least one element of is not an
element of . i.e., . In such cases we write or .
Remarks: For any set and .
Example 1.29:
a. If , and , then and On the
other hand, it is clear that: , and .
b. If and , then since
every multiple of 6 is even. However, while . Thus .
c. If then and . On the other hand, since ,
, and .
Definition 1.12: Sets and are said to be equal if they contain exactly the same elements. In this case,
we write . That is,
Example 1.30:
a. The sets are all equal.
b.
Definition 1.13: Set is said to be a proper subset of set if every element of is also an element of ,
but has at least one element that is not in . In this case, we write . We also say is a proper
super set of A, and write . It is clear that
Remark: Some authors do not use the symbol . Instead they use the symbol for both subset and
proper subset. In this material, we prefer to use the notations commonly used in high school
mathematics, and we continue using and differently, namely for subset and proper subset,
respectively.
Definition 1.14: Let be a set. The power set of , dented by , is the set whose elements are all
subsets of . That is,
Example 1.31: Let . As noted before, and are subset of . Moreover,
and are also subsets of . Therefore,
Frequently it is necessary to limit the topic of discussion to elements of a certain fixed set and regard all
sets under consideration as a subset of this fixed set. We call this set the universal set or the universe
and denoted by .
Exercises
1. Which of the following are sets?
a. 1,2,3
b. {1,2},3
c. {{1},2},3
d. {1,{2},3}
e. {1,2,a,b}.
2. Which of the following sets can be described in complete listing, partial listing and/or
set-builder methods? Describe each set by at least one of the three methods.
a. The set of the first 10 letters in the English alphabet.
b. The set of all countries in the world.
c. The set of students of Addis Ababa University in the 2018/2019 academic year.
d. The set of positive multiples of 5.
e. The set of all horses with six legs.
3. Write each of the following sets by listing its elements within braces.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e. .
4. Let be the set of positive even integers less than 15. Find the truth value of each of the
following.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
5. Find the truth value of each of the following and justify your conclusion.
a.
b.
c. for any set A
d. , for any set A
e.
f.
g. For any set
h.
6. For each of the following set, find its power set.
a.
b.
c.
d.
7. How many subsets and proper subsets do the sets that contain exactly and
elements have?
8. If is a whole number, use your observation in Problems 6and 7 to discover a formula
for the number of subsets of a set with elements. How many of these are proper subsets
of the set?
9. Is there a set A with exactly the following indicated property?
a. Only one subset
b. Only one proper subset
c. Exactly 3 proper subsets
d. Exactly 4 subsets
e. Exactly 6 proper subsets
f. Exactly 30 subsets
g. Exactly 14 proper subsets
h. Exactly 15 proper subsets
10. How many elements does A contain if it has:
a. 64 subsets?
b. 31 proper subsets?
c. No proper subset?
d. 255 proper subsets?
11. Find the truth value of each of the following.
a.
b.
c.
d.
12. For any three sets , and , prove that:
a. If and , then .
b. If and , then .
1.4.3. Set Operations and Venn diagrams
Given two subsets and of a universal set , new sets can be formed using and in many ways,
such as taking common elements or non-common elements, and putting everything together. Such
processes of forming new sets are called set operations. In this section, three most important
operations, namely union, intersection and complement are discussed.
Definition 1.15: The union of two sets and , denoted by , is the set of all elements that are
either in or in (or in both sets). That is,
As easily seen the union operator “ ” in the theory of set is the counterpart of the logical operator “ ”.
Definition 1.16: The intersection of two sets and , denoted by , is the set of all elements that
are in and . That is,
As suggested by definition 1.15, the intersection operator “ ” in the theory of sets is the counterpart of
the logical operator “ ”.
Note: - Two sets and are said to be disjoint sets if .
Example 1.32:
a. Let and . Then,
and .
b. Let = The set of positive even integers, and
= The set of positive multiples of 3. Then,
Definition 1.17: The difference between two sets and , denoted by , is the of all elements in
and not in ; this set is also called the relative complement of with respect to . Symbolically,
Example 1.33: If , , then and .
Note: The above example shows that, in general, are disjoint.
Definition 1.18: Let be a subset of a universal set . The absolute complement (or simply
complement) of , denoted by (or or , is defined to be the set of all elements of that are not
in . That is,
or .
Notice that taking the absolute complement of is the same as finding the relative complement of
with respect to the universal set . That is,
Example 1.34:
a. If , and if , then .
b. Let
and .
Then, , ,
, ,
, and
c. Let and
. Then
, , – ,
– , and .
Find , , . Which of these are equal?
Theorem 1.1: For any two sets and , each of the following holds.
1. .
2. – .
3. – .
4. .
5. .
6. .
Now we define the symmetric difference of two sets.
Definition 1.17: The symmetric difference of two sets and , denoted by , is the set
Example 1.35: Let be the universal set, and . Then
and . Thus .
Theorem 1.2: For any three sets , and , each of the following holds.
a. . ( is commutative)
b. . ( is commutative)
c. . ( is associative)
d. . ( is associative)
e. . ( is distributive over )
f. . ( is distributive over
)
Let us prove property “e” formally.
(definition of )
(definition of )
( is distributive over )
) (definition of )
(definition of )
Therefore, we have .
The readers are invited to prove the rest part of theorem (1.2).
Venn diagrams
While working with sets, it is helpful to use diagrams, called Venn diagrams, to illustrate the
relationships involved. A Venn diagram is a schematic or pictorial representative of the sets involved in
the discussion. Usually sets are represented as interlocking circles, each of which is enclosed in a
rectangle, which represents the universal set .
In some occasions, we list the elements of set inside the closed curve representing .
Example 1.36:
a. If and , then a Venn diagram representation
of these two sets looks like the following.
b. Let
.
A Venn diagram representation of these sets is given below.
Example 1.37: Let U = The set of one digits numbers
A = The set of one digits even numbers
B = The set of positive prime numbers less than 10
We illustrate the sets using a Venn diagram as follows.
A B U
0 4 3 1
2
6 5 9
8
7
a. Illustrate by a Venn diagram
A B U
A B : The shaded portion
b. Illustrate A’ by a Venn diagram
U
A’ : The shaded portion
c. Illustrate A\B by using a Venn diagram
A B U
A \ B: The shaded portion
Now we illustrate intersections and unions of sets by Venn diagram.
Cases Shaded is Shaded
Only some common A B A B
elements
B B
A A
A B A B
No common
element
A B =
Exercises
1. If , and , find .
2. Let ,
and
{ or }. Find
a. .
b. Is ?
3. Suppose The set of one digit numbers and
{ is an even natural number less than or equal to 9}
Describe each of the sets by complete listing method:
a. .
b. .
c. .
d.
e. .
f.
g.
4. Suppose The set of one digit numbers and
{ is an even natural number less than or equal to 9}
Describe each of the sets by complete listing method:
h. .
i. .
j. .
k.
l. .
m.
n.
5. Use Venn diagram to illustrate the following statements:
a. .
b. .
c. If , then .
d. .
6. Let and . Then show that .
7. Perform each of the following operations.
a.
b. –
c. –
d. –
8. Let
{ is a positive prime factor of 66}
{ is composite number } and – . Then find each of
the following.
– – – – – – – –
9. Let and .
a. – , then
b. – , then
c. , then –
10. Let
and . Verify each of the following.
a. .
b. .
c.
d. –
e. – –
11. Depending on question No. 10 find.
a. .
b. .
c. .
d.
12. For any two subsets and of a universal set , prove that:
a. .
b. – .
c. .
d. .
13. Draw an appropriate Venn diagram to depict each of the following sets.
a. U = The set of high school students in Addis Ababa.
A = The set of female high school students in Addis Ababa.
B = The set of high school anti-AIDS club member students in Addis Ababa.
C = The set of high school Nature Club member students in Addis Ababa.
b. U = The set of integers.
A = The set of even integers.
B = The set of odd integers.
C = The set of multiples of 3.
D = The set of prime numbers.
Chapter Two
Functions
Our everyday lives are filled with situations in which we encounter relationships between two sets. For
example,
To each automobile, there corresponds a license plate number
To each circle, there corresponds a circumference
To each number, there corresponds its square
In order to apply mathematics to a variety of disciplines, we must make the idea of a “relationship”
between two sets mathematically precise.
On completion of this chapter students will be able to:
understand the concept of real numbers
use properties of real numbers to solve problems
determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
solve linear equations and inequalities
solve quadratic equations and inequalities
understand the notion of relation and function
determine the domain and range of relations and functions
find the inverse of a relation
define polynomial and rational functions
perform the fundamental operations on polynomials
find the inverse of an invertible function
apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
define exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve
problems
In this chapter, before discussing the idea of relations and functions we first review the system of real
numbers, linear and quadratic equations and inequalities.
a. The real number systems
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
understand the concept of real numbers
use properties of real numbers to solve problems
determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
In this section we will define what the real numbers are and what are their properties? To answer, we
start with some simpler number systems.
The integers and the rational numbers
The simplest numbers of all are the natural numbers,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
With them we can count: our books, our friends, and our money. If we adjoin their negatives and zero,
we obtain the integers;
, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,
When we try to measure length, weight, or voltage, the integers are inadequate. They are spaced too far
apart to give sufficient precision. Thus, we are led to consider quotients (ratios) of integers, numbers
such as:
3 7 21 19 16 17
, , , , and
4 8 5 2 2 1
16 17
Note that we included 2 and 1 , though we would normally write them as 8 and – 17, since they are
5 9
equal to the latter by the ordinary meaning of division. We did not include 0 or 0 , since it is
impossible to make sense out of these symbols. In fact, let us agree once and for all to banish division by
m
zero from this section. Numbers which can be written in the form n , where m and n are integers
with n 0 , are called rational numbers.
Do the rational numbers serve to measure all lengths? No. This surprising fact was discovered by the
ancient Greeks long ago. They showed that while 2 measures the hypotenuse of a right triangle with
sides of length 1, it cannot be written as a quotient of two integers(see exercise…). Thus, Thus, 2 is an
irrational (not rational) number. So are 3, 5, 3 7 , and a host of other numbers.
The real numbers
Consider the set of all numbers (rational and irrational) that can measure lengths, together with their
negatives and zero. We call these numbers the real numbers.
The set of real numbers denoted by can be described as the union of the set of rational and irrational
numbers. i.e = {x : x is a rational number or an irrational number}.
The real numbers may be viewed as labels for points along a horizontal line. There they measure the
distance to the right or left (the directed distance) from a fixed point called the origin and labeled 0.
Each point on the number line corresponds a unique real number and vice-versa.
Most students will remember that the number system can be enlarged still more to the so-called
complex numbers. These are numbers of the form a b 1 , where a and b are real numbers.
The four arithmetic operations
Give two real numbers x and y , we may add or multiply them to obtain two new real numbers x y
and x y (also written simply as xy ). The real numbers along with the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication ( ) , obey the 11 properties listed below. Most of these properties are straightforward and
may seem trivial. Nevertheless, we shall see that these 11 basic properties are quite powerful in that
they are the basis for simplifying algebraic expressions.
The commutative Properties
1. For addition: a b b a
2. For multiplication: ab ba
The associative properties
3. For addition: a (b c) (a b) c
4. For multiplication: a(bc) (ab)c
The distributive property
5. a(b c) ab ac or (b c)a ba ca
Identities
6. For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity, represented by 0,
which has the property that a 0 a 0 a for all real numbers a .
7. For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplicative identity,
represented by 1, which has the property that a 1 a 1 a for all real numbers a .
Inverses
8. For addition: Each real number a has a unique additive inverse, represented by a ,
which has the property that a (a) 0 (a) a
9. For multiplication: Each real number a , except 0, has a unique multiplicative inverse,
represented by a1 , which has the property that a ( a1 ) 1 ( a1 )a .
Closure properties
10. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
11. For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.
Subtraction and division are defined by:
x y x ( y ) and x y x 1y , where y 0 .
In the product ab , a and b are called factors, in the sum a b , a and b are called terms.
Example 2.1: The set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition and multiplication, because
2 ( 2 ) 0 and 2 8 16 4 , which are rational numbers.
The order relation on the set of real numbers
The nonzero real numbers separate nicely into two disjoint sets – the positive real numbers and the
negative real numbers. This fact allows us to introduce the order relation < (read “is less than”) by
x y y x is positive
We agree that x y and y x will mean the same thing. The order relation (read”is less than or
equal to”) is a first cousin of <. It is defined by
x y yx is positive or zero
The order relation < has the following properties:
The order property
1. Trichotomy: If x and y are numbers, exactly one of the following
holds:
x y or x y or x y
2. Transitivity: x y and y z x z
3. Addition: y x z y z
4. Multiplication: When z is positive, x y xz yz ,
When z is negative, x y xz yz
Intervals
Let a and b be two real numbers such that a b, then the intervals which are subsets of R with end
points a and b are denoted and defined as below:
i) (a, b) x : a x b open interval from a to b.
ii) [a, b] x : a x b closed interval from a to b.
iii) (a, b] x : a x b open-closed interval from a to b.
iv) [a, b) x : a x b closed-open interval from a to b.
Exercise 2.1
1. Simplify as much as possible:
a) 4 3(8 12) 6 c) 5
6 ( 14 23 )
1
43 87
b) 2[3 2(4 8)] d) 2
1
2 43 87
2. Which of the following statements are true and which of them are false?
a) The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
b) The sum of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
c) The product of any two rational numbers is rational.
d) The product of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
3. Find the value of each of the following, if undefined, say so.
a) 0 0 c) 00 e) 80
b) 8
0 d) 80 f) 08
4. Show that division by 0 is meaningless as follows: Suppose a 0 . If a
0 b , then
a 0 b 0 , which is a contradiction. Now find a reason why 0
0 is also meaningless.
5. Prove each if a 0 , b 0
a) a b a 2 b2 b) a b a1 1
b
6. Which of the following are always correct if a b ?
a) a 4 b 4 b) a b c) a 2 ab d) a 2 a 2 b
2.2 Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
solve linear equations and inequalities
solve quadratic equations and inequalities identify the notions of the common sets of
numbers
Linear Equations and inequalities
An equation is a symbolic statement of equality. That is, rather than writing “twice a number is four less
than the number,” we write 2 x x 4 . Our goal is to find the solution to a given equation. By solution
we mean the value or values of the variable that make the algebraic statement true.
Definition 2.1: (Linear Equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form ax b 0 , where a and b are
constants, and a 0 .
Equations that have the same solutions are called equivalent equations. For example, 3x 1 5 and
3x 6 are equivalent equations because the solution set of both equations is {2}. Our goal here is to
take an equation and with the help of a few properties, gradually, change the given equation into an
equivalent equation of the form x a , where x is the variable for which we are solving. These
properties are:
1. The addition property
If a b , then a c b c . That is, adding the same quantity to both sides of an
equation will produce an equivalent equation.
2. The multiplication property
If a b , then ac bc . That is, multiplying both sides of an equation by the same
nonzero quantity will produce an equivalent equation.
Example 2.2:
1. Solve for x
a) 820 x 10 x 30(50 x) b) 3(2 x 1) 2(1 5x) 6 x 11
Solution:
a) 820 x 10 x 30(50 x) Simplify the right hand side
820 x 10 x 1500 30 x
820 x 1500 20 x Applying the addition property (add 20 x to both sides)
840 x 1500
1500 25
Thus, x .
840 14
25
Remember to check by substituting 14 for x in the original equation.
b) 3(2 x 1) 2(1 5x) 6 x 11 (The given equation)
6 x 3 2 10 x 6 x 11 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
6 x 10 x 6 x 2 11 3 (Collecting like terms: ‘variables to the left and
numbers to the right’ )
10 x 10
x 1 (Dividing both sides by 10)
Therefore, the solution set (S.S) is {1}.
8x 3 5
2. Find the solution set of 5( x 2) 3( x )
2 6
8x 3 5
Solution: 5( x 2) 3( x ) (The given equation)
2 6
This gives us:
3 5
4x 5 x 10 3x
2 2
5 3
4 x 5 x 3x 10 Using addition property
2 2
2x 6
Hence, x 3 . That is, the solution set is {3}.
3. A computer discount store held an end of summer sale on two types of computers. They
collected Birr 41,800 on the sale of 58 computers. If one type sold for Birr 600 and the
other type sold for Birr 850, how many of each type were sold?
Solution: If we let x to be the number of Birr 600 computers sold, then 58 x = the number of
computers that are sold for Birr 850 (since 58 were sold all together).
Our equation involves the amount of money collected on the sale of each type of computer that is, the
value of computers sold). Thus we have:
600 x 850(58 x) 41,800 , which yields
x 30
Hence, there were 30 computers sold at Birr 600 and 28 computers sold at 850.
Remark: The solution set of some equation can be the set of all rational numbers. This is the case when
the equation is satisfied by every rational number.
Example 2.3: Find the solution set of 5x 2( x 1) 4 3( x 2)
Solution: 5x 2( x 1) 4 3( x 2) (The given equation)
5 x 2 x 2 4 3x 6 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
3x 6 3 x 6 (Combining like terms)
This is always true whatever the value of x is. In fact, subtracting 3x from both sides of the last equation
we get 6=6 which is always true. This means the given equation is satisfied if you take any number for x
as you wish. Thus, S.S = .
Remark: There are also some equations which cannot be satisfied by any number. For example, the
equation x+10 = x says ‘If you increase a number x by 10, the result is x itself (unchanged)’. Obviously,
there is no such a number. The solution set of such equation is empty set. If you try to solve such
equation, you end up with a false statement (false equality). For example, an attempt to solve x+10 = x
leads to the following:
10+x x = x x (Subtracting x from both sides of the equation)
10 = 0, which is false.
Hence, the solution set of x+10 = x is (empty set).
Example 2.4: Find the solution set of 6 3(1 x) 2(1 5x) 7 x
Solution: 6 3(1 x) 2(1 5x) 7 x (The given equation)
6 3 3x 2 10 x 7 x (Removing parentheses by distribution)
9 3x 2 3 x (Combining like terms)
9 3x 3x 2 3 x 3 x (Adding 3x to both sides)
9 = 2, which is false.
This means the solution set of the given equation is empty, .
Example 2.5: A man has a daughter and a son. The man is five times older than his daughter. Moreover,
his age is twice of the sum of the ages of his daughter and son. His daughter is 3 years younger than his
son. How old is the man and his children?
Solution: The unknowns in the problem are age of the man, age of his daughter, and age of his son. So,
let m = Age of the man; d = Age of the daughter; and s = Age of the son. Then, ‘The man is 5 times older
than his daughter’ means m=5d . Moreover, ‘Age of the man is twice the sum of the ages of his daughter
and son’ means m=2(d+s) . ‘His daughter is 3 years younger than his son’ means d = s 3.
Now, from the last (3rd ) equation you can get s = d +3. Substitute this in the 2nd equation to get m=2(d
+d+3) = 2(2d+3). Thais is, m=4d+6. Next substitute this in the 1st equation to get
4d+6 = 5d or 6 = 5d4d=d. Hence, d= 6. From this, s = d +3 = 6+3 = 9, and m=5d =56= 30.
Therefore, the age of the man is 30, age of his daughter is 6 and age of his son is 9.
Definition 2.2: (Linear Inequalities)
A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form ax b 0 , where a and b are constants with
a 0 . (The symbol can be replaced with , or )
To solve inequalities, we will need the following properties of inequalities.
For a, b, c , if a b , then
1) a c b c 2) ac bc, when c 0 3) ac bc, when c 0
Thus, to produce an equivalent inequality, we may add (subtract) the same quantity to (from) both sides
of an inequality, or multiply (divide) both sides by the same positive quantity. On the other hand, we
must reverse the inequality symbol to produce an equivalent inequality if we multiply (divide) both sides
by the same negative quantity.
Example 2.6:
1. Solve the linear inequality 5x 8(20 x) 2( x 5) .
Solution: 5x 8(20 x) 2( x 5) Simplify each side
5x 160 8x 2 x 10
160 3x 2 x 10 Now apply the inequality property
5x 170 Divide both sides by – 5
x 34 Note that the inequality symbol is reversed
Thus, the solution set is {x : x 34} (,34] .
Example 2.7: Find the solution set of the inequality 3x 5(x+2) 0.
Solution: 3x 5(x 2) 0 (The given inequality)
3x 5x + 10 0 (Removing the parentheses by distribution)
2x + 10 0 (Combining like terms)
2x 10 (Subtracting 10 from both sides)
x 10 (Dividing both sides by 2 reverse the inequality)
2
That is, x 5. Therefore, S.S = {x: x 5}, the set of all real numbers less 5.
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given domain (set). If so, a solution
set should contain only those solutions that belong to the specified domain.
Example 2.8: Find the solution set of x 4( x 1) 13 ( x 2) in the set of natural numbers, .
Solution: x 4( x 1) 13 ( x 2) (The given inequality)
x 4x 4 13 x 2 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
3x 4 11 x (Combining like terms; i.e., x 4 x 3x and 13+2= 11)
3x x 11 4 (Collecting like terms)
2 x 7 (Next, division of both sides of this by 2 reverses the
inequality)
7
x ; i.e., x 3.5
2
Thus, the solution of the given inequality in is {1, 2, 3}. (Recall: = {1, 2, 3, … })
Some inequalities may have no solution in the specified domain as in the following example.
Example 2.9: Find the solution set of 7 x 6 3x 2 in the set of whole numbers, W.
Solution: 7 x 2 3x 6 (The given inequality)
7 x 3x 6 2 (Collecting like terms)
4 x 4
4 x 4
or x 1
4 4
However, there is no negative whole number. Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality in W is
, empty set. (Recall: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … } )
1 1 3 3
Example 2.10: Find the solution set of the inequality ( x 3) x ( x 1) in .
6 2 2 2
Solution: The inequality involves fractional numbers. Thus, like for the case of linear equations, clear the
denominators by multiplying both sides of the inequality by the LCM of the denominators. The
denominators in this equation are 6 and 2; and their LCM is 6. Thus, multiply every term in both sides of
the given inequality by 6. That is,
1 1 3 3
6 ( x 3) 6 x 6 6 ( x 1) (The inequality is not reversed because 60)
6 2 2 2
x 3 3x 9 9( x 1) (Simplifying/clear denominators)
4x 6 9 x 9
4x 9x 9 6 (Collecting like terms)
5x 15 (Next, division of both sides by 5)
15
x or x 3 .
5
Therefore, S.S = { x | x 3 }.
Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation in which the highest degree of the variable is 2. We
define the standard form of a quadratic a quadratic equation as Ax Bx c 0 , where A 0 .
2
As with linear equations, the solutions of quadratic equations are values of the variable that make the
equation a true statement. The solutions of Ax Bx C 0 are also called the roots of the
2
polynomial equation Ax Bx C 0 .
2
In solving the equation Ax Bx C 0 , if the polynomial Ax Bx C can be factored, the we
2 2
can use the zero product rule (which is stated below) to reduce the problem to that of solving two linear
equations. For example, to solve the equation x x 6 0 , we van factor the left hand side to get
2
( x 2)( x 3) 0 . Hence, we can conclude that x 2 0 or x 3 0 , which yields x 2 or
x 3 .
The Zero-Product Rule: If a b 0 , then a 0 or b 0
Another method is to apply the Square Root Theorem.
The Square Root Theorem: If x 2 d , then x d .
Example 2.11: Solve the following
a) 4 x 2 10 x 6 b) 5x 2 6 8 c) ( x 2) 2 6
Solution: a) 4 x 2 10 x 6 Put into standard form
4 x 2 10 x 6 0 Factor the left hand side
2(2 x 1)( x 3) 0 Hence we have
2 x 1 0 or x 3 0 Solving each linear equation, we get
x 1
2 or x 3
b) We note that there is no first-degree term, so our approach will be to apply the Square
Root Theorem.
5x 2 6 8 Isolate x 2 on the left-hand side before applying the
square root theorem
5x 2 14
x 2 145 Applying the square root theorem we get
x 14
5
c) Since it is in the form of a squared quantity equal to a number, we will apply the
Square Root Theorem to get x 2 6 .
Part (c) of the above example illustrates that if we can construct a perfect square binomial from a
quadratic equation (i.e., get the equation in the form ( x p) 2 d ) , then we can apply the Square
Root Theorem and solve for x to get x p d .
The method of constructing a perfect square is called completing the square. It is based on the fact that
in multiplying out the perfect square ( x p) 2 , with p a constant, we get
( x p) 2 x 2 2 px p 2
Notice the relationship between the constant term, p 2 , and the coefficient of the middle term, 2 p :
The constant term is the square of half the coefficient of the middle term.
Example 2.12: Solve by completing the square: 2 x 8x 4 6 .
2
Solution: 2 x 2 8x 4 6 Divide both sides by 2, the coefficient of x
2
x2 4x 2 3 Isolate the constant term on the right-hand side
x2 4x 1 Take half the middle term coefficient, square it
12 (4)2 4 , we add 4 to both sides of the
equation
x2 4x 4 1 4 Factor the left hand side
( x 2) 2 5 Solve for x using the Square Root Theorem
x 2 5.
Unlike the factoring method, all quadratic equations can be solved by completing the square. If we were
to complete the square for the general quadratic equation Ax 2 Bx C 0, A 0 , we would arrive
at the formula given below.
B B 2 4 AC
The Quadratic Formula: If Ax 2 Bx C 0 and A 0 , then x
2A
Example 2.13: Solve the following using the quadratic formula: x 8 6 x .
2
Solution: Writing the equation in standard form we get, x 6 x 8 0 . By the quadratic formula we
2
have:
6 62 4(1)( 8) 6 68 6 2 17
x 3 17
2(1) 2 2
Thus, the solution set is 3 17 , 3 17 .
A quadratic inequality is in standard form if it is in the form Ax Bx C 0 . (We can replace
2
with , , or .)
If we keep in mind that u 0 means u is positive, then solving an inequality such as 2 x 5x 3 0
2
means we are interested in finding the values of x that will make 2x + 5 x 3 positive. Or, since
2
2 x 2 5x 3 (2 x 1)( x 3) , we are looking for values of x that make (2 x 1)( x 3) positive.
For (2 x 1)( x 3) to be positive, the factors must be either both positive or both negative. To
determine when this happens, we first find the values of x for which (2 x 1)( x 3) is equal to 0; we
call these the cut points of (2 x 1)( x 3) . The cut points are 1
2 and 3 .
Thus, our approach in solving quadratic inequalities will be primarily algebraic. After putting the
inequality in standard form, we will determine the sign of each factor of the expression for various
values of x . Then, we determine the solution by examining the sign of the product. This process is
called a sign analysis.
Returning to the problem 2 x 5x 3 0 , we draw a number line and examine the sign of each
2
factor as x takes on various values on the number line, especially around the cut points.
Sign of x 3 ++ + + + + + + + + + + +
Sign of 2 x 1 + + + + + + +
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The above figure illustrates that the factor x 3 is negative when x 3 and positive when x 3 . It
is also shown that 2 x 1 is negative when x 1
2 and positive when x 12 . Thus the product of the two
factors is positive when x 3 and x 12 . Therefore, the solution set is ( ,3) ( 12 , ) .
Remark: 1. The cut points of the inequalities will break up the number line into intervals.
2. The sign of the product does not change within an interval, i.e., if the expression is
positive (or negative) for one value within the interval, it is positive (or negative) for all
values within the interval.
Example 2.14: Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 x 2 0 .
2
Solution: Since we cannot factor x 2 x 2 , we use the quadratic formula to find that its roots are
2
1 3 . This gives the cut points for the polynomial x 2 2 x 2 . We use the sign analysis (see the
figure below) with the test points given. Note: 1 3 2.7 & 1 3 0.7 .
Sign of x 2 x 2
2
+ 0 – 0 +
x 10 1 3 x 1 1 3 x 100
Substituting the test values – 10, 1, and 100 for x in the expression x 2 x 2 , we find that
2
x 2 2 x 2 is negative only when x is in the interval (1 3,1 3) .
Exercise 2.2
1. Solve the linear equations
2 5 x
a) 2 3( x 4) 2( x 1) d) 4
x3 x3
6 12 1
b) 3x [2 3(2 x)] 5 (3 x) e) 2
x 3x x x 3
c) 3
4 (2 x 3) 23 x 5
2. Solve the linear inequalities
5x 2 x 3
a) 4 x 23 2 x (3x 1) b) 5x 2 3x ( x 15 ) c)
3 4
3. A truck carries a load of 50 boxes; some are 20 kg boxes and the rest are 25 kg boxes. If
the total weight of all boxes is 1175 kg, how many of each type are there?
4. The product of two numbers is 5. If their sum 92 , find the numbers.
5. Solve
a) 2 x 2 7 x 15 c) x 2 2 x 4 0 e) 3x 2 6 x 5 0
1 1 3
b) x 3 d) 4
x3 x 5 x 2
6. Solve the quadratic inequalities
a) x 2 2 x 24 0 d) 2 x 2 x 2 0
b) x 2 5x 24 e) x 2 16
c) x 2 3x 3 0
3
7. A student was given the inequality: 4 . The first step the student took in solving
x2
this inequality was to transform it into 3 4( x 2) . Explain what the student did wrong.
2.3. Review of relations and functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define Cartesian product of two sets
understand the notion of relation and function
know the difference between relation and function
determine the domain and range of relations and functions
find the inverse of a relation
The student is familiar with the phrase ordered pair. In the ordered pair (2,3), ( 2,4) and (a, b) ;
2, 2 and a are the first coordinates while 3, 4 and b are the second coordinates.
Cartesian Product
Given sets A {3, 4} and B { 4, 5, 9} . Then, the set {(3,4), (3,5), (3,9), (4,4), (4,5), (4,9)} is the
Cartesian product of A and B , and it is denoted by A B .
Definition 2.3: Suppose A B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B , denoted by A B , is the set
and
which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate is an element of A and second coordinate is an
element of B , i.e.
A B {(a, b) : a A and b B} .
Example 2.15: For A {2, 4} and A {1, 3} , we have
a) A B {(2,1), (2,3), (4,1), (4,3)} , and
b) B A {(1,2), (1,4), (3,2), (3,4)} .
From this example, we can see that A B and B A are not equal. Recall that two sets are equal if
one is a subset of the other and vice versa. To check equality of Cartesian products we need to define
equality of ordered pairs.
Definition 2.4: (Equality of ordered Pairs)
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d ) are equal if and only if a c and b d .
Example 2.16: Let A {1,2,3} and B {a, b, c} . Then,
A B {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c)} .
Definition 2.5: (Relation)
If A and B are sets, any subset of A B is called a relation from A into B.
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R A×B and hence for each (a, b) A B , we
have either (a, b) R or (a, b) R . If (a, b) R , we say “a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and
write aRb . If (a, b) R , we say that “a is not related to b”.
In particular if R is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.
Example 2.17:
1. Let A {1,3,5,7} and B {6,8} . Let R be the relation “less than” from A to B . Then,
R {(1,6), (1,8), ((3,6), (3,8), (5,6), (5,8), (7,8)} .
2. Let A {1,2,3,4,5} and B {a, b, c} .
a) The following are relations from A into B ;
i) R1 {(1, a )}
ii) R2 {(2, b), (3, b), (4, c), (5, a)}
iii) R3 {(1, a ), ((2, b), (3, c)}
b) The following are relations from B to A ;
i) R4 {(a,3), (b,1)}
ii) R5 {(b,2), (c,4), (a,2), (b,3)}
iii) R6 {(b,5)}
R be a relation from A into B . Then,
Definition 2.6: Let
a) the domain of R , denoted by Dom(R) , is the set of first coordinates of the elements of
R , i.e
Dom( R) {a
A : (a, b) R}
b) the range of R , denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second coordinates of elements of R
, i.e
Range( R) {b B : (a, b) R}
Remark: If R is a relation form the set A to the set B , then the set B is called the codomain of the
relation R . The range of relation is always a subset of the codomain.
Example 2.18:
1. The set R {(4,7), (5,8), (6,10)} is a relation from the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6} to the set
B {6,7,8,9,10] . The domain of R is {4,5,6} , the range of R is {7,8,10} and the
codomain of R is {6,7,8,9,10} .
2. The set of ordered pairs R {(8,2), (6,3), (5,7), (5,3)} is a relation between the sets
{5,6,8} and {2,3,7} , where {5,6,7} is the domain and {2,3,7} is the range.
Remark:
1. If (a, b) R for a relation R , we say a is related to (or paired with) b . Note that a may
also be paired with an element different from b . In any case, b is called the image of a
while a is called the pre-image of b .
2. If the domain and/or range of a relation is infinite, we cannot list each element
assignment, so instead we use set builder notation to describe the relation. The situation
we will encounter most frequently is that of a relation defined by an equation or formula.
For example,
R {( x, y ) : y 2 x 3, x, y IR}
is a relation for which the range value is 3 less than twice the domain value. Hence,
(0, 3), (0.5, 2) and ( 2,7) are examples of ordered pairs that are of the assignment.
Example 2.19:
1. Let A {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
Let R be the relation on A defined by R {(a, b) : a, b A, a is a factor of b} . Find the
domain and range of R .
Solution: We have
R {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,6), (2,2), (2,4), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (4,4), (6,6)} .
Then, Dom( R) {1,2,3,4,6} and Range( R) {1,2,3,4,6} .
2. Let A {1,2,3,4,5} and B {1, 2, 3,, 67} .
Let R {( x, y ) A B : x is cube root of y . Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R)
Solution: We have 1 1, 2 3 8, 3 3 27 , 4 3 64 , 5 3 125 and 1,8,27 and 64 are in B whereas
3,
125 is not in B . Thus, R {(1,1), (2,8), (3,27), (4,64)} , Dom( R) {1,2,3,4} and R {1,8,27,64} .
Remark:
1. A relation R on a set A is called
i) a universal relation if R A A
ii) identity relation if R {(a, a) : a A}
iii) void or empty relation if R
2. If R is a relation from A to B , then the inverse relation of R , denoted by R 1 , is a
relation from B to A and is defined as:
R 1 {( y, x) : ( x, y ) R} .
Observe that Dom( R) Range( R 1 ) and Range( R) Dom( R 1 ) . For instance, if
R {(1,4), (9,15), (10,2)} is a relation on a set A {1,2,3,,20} , then R {(4,1), (15,9), (2,10)}
1
Example 2.20: Let R be a relation defined on IN by R {(a, b) : a, b IN , a 2b 11} .
1
Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R) d) R
Solution: The smallest natural number is 1.
b 1 a 2(1) 11 a 9
b2 a 2(2) 11 a 7
b3 a 2(3) 11 a 5
b4 a 2(4) 11 a 3
b5 a 2(5) 11 a 1
b6 a 2(6) 11 a 1 IN
Therefore, R {(9,1), (7,2), (5,3), (3,4), (1,5)} , Dom( R) {1,3,5,7,9} , Range ( R) {1,2,3,4,5} and
R 1 {(1,9), (2,7), (3,5), (4,3), (5,1)} .
Functions
Mathematically, it is important for us to distinguish among the relations that assign a unique range
element to each domain element and those that do not.
Definition 2.7: (Function)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.
Example 2.21: Determine whether the following relations are functions.
a) R {(5,2), (3,5), (3,7)} b) {(2,4),(3,4),(6,-4)}
Solution:
a) Since the domain element 3 is assigned to two different values in the range, 5 and 7, it is
not a function.
b) Each element in the domain, {2,3,6} , is assigned no more than one value in the range, 2 is
assigned only 4, 3 is assigned only 4, and 6 is assigned only – 4. Therefore, it is a
function.
Remark: Map or mapping, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word function. If
f is a function and ( x, y ) f , we say x is mapped to y.
Definition 2.8: A relation f from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted by
f : A B or A f
B
if and only if
(i) Dom( f ) A
(ii) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e. if ( x, y ) f
and ( x, z ) f , then y z .
Remark: 1. If to the element x of A corresponds y ( B) under the function f , then we write
f ( x) y and y is called the image of x under y and x is called a pre-image of y under f .
2. The symbol f (x ) is read as “ f of x” but not “ f times x”.
3. In order to show that a relation f from A into B is a function, we first show that the
domain of f is A and next we show that f well defined or single-valued, i.e. if x y in
A, then f ( x) f ( y ) in B for all x, y A .
Example 2.22:
1. Let A {1,2,3,4} and B {1,6,8,11,15} . Which of the following are functions from A to
B.
a) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (3) 8, f (4) 8
b) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (3) 15
c) f defined by f (1) 6, f (2) 6, f (3) 6, f (4) 6
d) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (2) 8, f (3) 8, f (4) 11
e) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 8, f (3) 11, f (4) 15
Solution:
a) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of B.
b) f is not a function because there is no element of B which correspond to 4( A).
c) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B. In the given function, the images of all element of A are the same.
d) f is not a function because there are two elements of B which are corresponding to 2.
In other words, the image of 2 is not unique.
e) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B.
As with relations, we can describe a function with an equation. For example, y=2x+1 is a function, since
each x will produce only one y .
2. Let f {( x, y ) : y x } . Then, f maps:
2
1 to 1 -1 to 1
2 to 4 -2 to 4
3 to 9 -3 to 9
More generally any real number x is mapped to its square. As the square of a number is unique, f
maps every real number to a unique number. Thus, f is a function from into .
We will find it useful to use the following vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered pair notation ( x, y ) , x is the
independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
Domain, Codomain and range of a function
For the function f : A B
(i) The set A is called the domain of f
(ii) The set B is called the codomain of f
(iii) The set { f ( x) : x A} of all image of elements of A is called the range of f
Example 2.23:
1. Let A {1,2,3} and B {1,2,3,,10} . Let f : A B be the correspondence which
assigns to each element in A , its square. Thus, we have f (1) 1, f (2) 4, f (3) 9 .
Therefore, f is a function and Dom( f ) {1,2,3} , Range ( f ) {1,4,9} and codomain of
f is {1,2,3,,10} .
2. Let A {2,4,6,7,9}, B IN . Let x and y represent the elements in the sets A and B ,
respectively. Let f : A B be a function defined by f ( x) 15x 17, x A .
The variable x can take values 2, 4, 6, 7, 9. Thus, we have
f (2) 15(2) 17 47, f (4) 77, f (6) 107, f (7) 122, f (9) 152 .
This implies that Dom( f ) {2,4,6,7,9}, Range( f ) {47,77,107,122,152} and codomain
of f is IN .
3. Let f be the subset of Q Z defined by f q , p : p, q Z , q 0. Is f a function?
p
Solution: First we note that Dom( f ) Q . Then, f satisfies condition (i) in the
definition of a function. Now, 3 ,2 f , 6 ,4 f and 3 6 but f 3 2 4 f 6 .
2 4 2 4 2 4
Thus f is not well defined. Hence, f is not a function from Q to Z .
4. Let f be the subset of Z Z defined by f {(mn, m n) : m, n Z } . Is f a function?
Solution: First we show that f satisfies condition (i) in the definition. Let x be any
element of Z . Then, x x 1 . Hence, ( x, x 1) ( x 1, x 1) f . This implies that
x Dom( f ) . Thus, Z Dom( f ) . However, Dom( f ) Z and so Dom( f ) Z . Now,
4 Z and 4 4 1 2 2 . Thus, (4 1,4 1) and (2 2,2 2) are in f . Hence we find that
4 1 2 2 and f (4 1) 5 4 f (2 2) . This implies that f is not well defined, i.e, f
does not satisfy condition (ii). Hence, f is not a function from Z to Z .
5. Determine whether the following equations determine y as a function of x , if so, find
the domain.
2x
a) y 3x 5 b) y c) y x
2
3x 5
Solution:
a) To determine whether y 3x 5 gives y as a function of x , we need to know
whether each x-value uniquely determines a y-value. Looking at the equation
y 3x 5 , we can see that once x is chosen we multiply it by – 3 and then add 5.
Thus, for each x there is a unique y . Therefore, y 3x 5 is a function.
2x
b) Looking at the equation y carefully, we can see that each x-value uniquely
3x 5
determines a y-value (one x-value can not produce two different y-values). Therefore,
2x
y is a function.
3x 5
As for its domain, we ask ourselves. Are there any values of x that must be
2x
excluded? Since y is a fractional expression, we must exclude any value of
3x 5
x that makes the denominator equal to zero. We must have
5
3x 5 0 x
3
5
Therefore, the domain consists of all real numbers except for . Thus, Dom( f )
3
5
{x : x } .
3
c) For the equation y x , if we choose x 9 we get y 9 , which gives y 3 . In
2 2
other words, there are two y values associated with x 9 . Therefore, y x is not
2
a function.
6. Find the domain of the function y 3x x .
2
Solution: Since y is defined and real when the expression under the radical is non-
negative, we need x to satisfy the inequality
3x x 2 0 x ( 3 x ) 0
This is a quadratic inequality, which can be solved by analyzing signs:
Sign of 3x x
2
0 3
Since we want 3x x x(3 x) to be non-negative, the sign analysis shows us that the
2
domain is {x : 0 x 3} or [0,3] .
Exercise 2.3
1. Let R be a relation on the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6} defined by R {(a, b) : a b 9} .
i) List the elements of R
1
ii) Is R R
2. Let R be a relation on the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} defined by R {(a, b) : 4 divides a b.
i) List the elements of R
ii) Find Dom( R) & Range( R)
1
iii) Find the elements of R
1 1
iv) Find Dom( R ) & Range( R )
3. Let A {1,2,3,4,5,6}. Define a relation on A by R {( x, y ) : y x 1} . Write down the
1
domain, codomain and range of R . Find R .
4. Find the domain and range of the relation {( x, y ) : x y 2} .
5. Let A {1,2,3} and B {3,5,6,8} . Which of the following are functions from A to B ?
a) f {(1,3), (2,3), (3,3)} c) f {(1,8), (2,5)}
b) f {(1,3), (2,5), (1,6)} d) f {(1,6), (2,5), (3,3)}
6. Determine the domain and range of the given relation. Is the relation a function?
a) {(4,3), (2,5), (4,6), (2,0)} d) {( 2 , 6 ), ( 1,1), ( 3 , 8 )}
1 1 1 1
b) {(8,2), (6, 2 ), ( 1,5)}
3
e) {(0,5), (1,5), (2,5), (3,5), (4,5), (5,5)}
c) {( 3,3), ( 1,1), (0,0), (1,1), ( 3,3)} f) {(5,0),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)}
7. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
f ( x) 1 8x 2 x 2 c) f ( x ) x 6 x 8
2
a)
1 3x 4, 1 x 2
b) f ( x) d) f ( x )
x 5x 6 1 x, 2 x 5
2
3x 5, x 1
8. Given f ( x ) 2 .
x 1, x 1
Find a) f (3) b) f (1) c) f (6)
2.4 Real Valued functions and their properties
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials
compose functions to get a new function
determine the domain of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions
define equality of two functions
Let f be a function from set A to set B . If B is a subset of real number system , then f is called a
real valued function, and in particular if A is also a subset of , then f : A B is called a real
function.
Example 2.24: 1. The function f : defined by f ( x ) x 2 3x 7 , x is a real function.
2. The function f : defined as f ( x ) x is also a real valued function.
Operations on functions
Functions are not numbers. But just as two numbers a and b can be added to produce a new number
a b , so two functions f and g can be added to produce a new function f g . This is just one of
the several operations on functions that we will describe in this section.
x3
Consider functions f and g with formulas f ( x) , g ( x ) x . We can make a new
2
x3
function f g by having it assign to x the value x , that is,
2
x 3
( f g )( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) x .
2
Definition 2.9: Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions
Let f (x ) and g (x ) be two functions. We define the following four functions:
1. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The sum of the two functions
2. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The difference of the two functions
3. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The product of the two functions
f f ( x)
4. ( x ) The quotient of the two functions (provided g ( x ) 0)
g g ( x)
Since an x value must be an inout into both f and g , the domain of ( f g )( x) is the set of all x common
to the domain of f and g . This is usually written as Dom( f g ) Dom( f ) Dom( g ) . Similar statements
hold for the domains of the difference and product of two functions. In the case of the quotient, we must impose
the additional restriction that all elements in the domain of g for which g ( x) 0 are excluded.
Example 2.25:
1. Let f ( x ) 3x 2 2 and g ( x) 5x 4 . Find each of the following and its domain
f
a) ( f g )( x) b) ( f g )( x) c) ( f .g )( x) d) (x )
g
Solution:
a) ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) (3x 2 2) (5x 4) 3x 2 5x 2
b) ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) (3x 2 2) (5x 4) 3x 2 5x 6
c) ( f g )( x) (3x 2 2)(5x 4) 15x 3 12 x 2 10 x 8
f f ( x ) 3x 2 2
d) ( x )
g g ( x) 5x 4
We have
Dom( f g ) Dom( f g ) Dom( fg ) Dom( f ) Dom( g )
f 5
Dom Dom( f ) Dom( g ) \ {x : g ( x ) 0} \
g 4
2. Let f ( x ) 4 x 1 and g ( x ) 9 x 2 , with respective domains [1, ) and [3,3] .
f
Find formulas for f g , f g , f g , and f 3 and give their domains.
g
Solution:
Formula Domain
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
f f ( x) 4
x 1
( x ) [1, 3)
g g ( x) 9 x2
f 3 ( x) f ( x)
3
4
x 1 x 14
3 3
[1, )
There is yet another way of producing a new function from two given functions.
Definition 2.10: (Composition of functions)
Given two functions f (x ) and g (x ) , the composition of the two functions is denoted by f g and is defined
by:
( f g )( x) f [ g ( x)] .
( f g )( x) is read as " f composed with g of x" . The domain of f g consists of those x s in the
domain of g whose range values are in the domain of f , i.e. those x s for which g (x ) is in the domain of f .
Example 2.26:
1. Suppose f {(2, z ), (3, q)} and g {(a,2), (b,3), (c,5)} . The function
( f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) is found by taking elements in the domain of g and evaluating as
follows: ( f g )(a) f ( g (a)) f (2) z, ( f g )(b) f ( g (b)) f (3) q
If we attempt to find f ( g (c)) we get f (5) , but 5 is not in the domain of f (x ) and so we cannot find
( f g )(c) . Hence, f g {(a, z ), (b, q)} . The figure below illustrates this situation.
g
f
2
a 3 z
Domain
b q
c of f
5
Domain of Range of g Range of f
g 2
2. Given f ( x) 5x 3x 2 and g ( x) 4 x 3 , find
a) ( f g )( 2) b) ( g f )(2) c) ( f g )( x) d) ( g f )( x)
Solution:
a) ( f g )( 2) f ( g (2)) …… First evaluate g (2) 4(2) 3 5
f (5)
5( 5) 2 3( 5) 2 142
b) ( g f )(2) g ( f (2)) …….First evaluate f (2) 5(2) 2 3(2) 2 16
g (16)
4(16) 3 67
c) ( f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) ……. But g ( x) 4 x 3
f (4 x 3)
5(4 x 3) 2 3(4 x 3) 2
80 x 2 108x 38
d) ( g f )( x) g ( f ( x)) ……. But f ( x) 5x 2 3x 2
g (5x 2 3x 2)
4(5x 2 3x 2) 3
20 x 2 12 x 11
x 2
3. Given f ( x ) and g ( x ) , find
x 1 x 1
a) ( f g )( x) and its domain b) ( g f )( x) and its domain
2
2 x 1 2 . Thus, Dom( f g ) {x : x 1} .
Solution: a) ( f g )( x ) f
x 1 2
1
x 1
x 1
2
b) ( g f )( x ) g ( f ( x )) 2 x 2 . Since x must first be an input into f (x )
x
1
x 1
and so must be in the domain of f , we see that Dom( g f ) {x : x 1} .
6x
4. Let f ( x ) and g ( x ) 3x . Find ( f g )(12) and ( g f )( x) and its domain.
x 9
2
Solution: We have ( f g )(12) f ( g (12)) f ( 36 ) f (6) 36
27 43 .
6 3x 6 3x 2 3x
( f g )( x ) f ( g ( x )) f ( 3x ) .
( 3x ) 9 3x 9 x 3
2
The domain of f g is [0,3) (3, ) .
We now explore the meaning of equality of two functions. Let f : A B and g : A B be two
functions. Then, f and g are subsets of A B . Suppose f g . Let x be any element of A . Then,
( x, f ( x)) f g and thus ( x, f ( x)) g . Since g is a function and ( x, f ( x)), ( x, g ( x)) g , we
must have f ( x) g ( x). Conversely, assume that g ( x) f ( x) for all x A . Let ( x, y ) f . Then,
y f ( x) g ( x) . Thus, ( x, y ) g , which implies that f g . Similarly, we can show that g f . It
now follows that f g . Thus two functions f : A B and g : A B are equal if and only if
f ( x) g ( x) for all x A . In general we have the following definition.
Definition 2.11: (Equality of functions)
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
i) The functions have the same domain;
ii) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.
Example 2.27:
1. Let f : Z Z {0} and g : Z Z {0} be defined by f {(n, n 2 ) : n Z } and
g {(n, n ) : n Z } . Now, for all n Z , f (n) n 2 n g (n) . Thus, f g .
2 2
x 2 25
2. Let f ( x ) , x \ {5} , and g ( x) x 5, x . The function f and g are not
x 5
equal because Dom( f ) Dom( g ).
Exercise 2.4
2
1. For f ( x ) x 2 x and g ( x ) , find each value:
x3
a) ( f g )(2) c) g 2 (3) e) ( g f )(1)
f
b) (1) d) ( f g )(1) f) ( g g )(3)
g
2
2. If f ( x ) x 3 2 and g ( x ) , find a formula for each of the following and state its
x 1
domain.
g
a) ( f g )( x) c) (x )
f
b) ( f g )( x) d) ( g f )( x)
3. Let f ( x ) x 2 and g ( x ) x .
a) Find ( f g )( x) and its domain.
b) Find ( g f )( x) and its domain
c) Are ( f g )( x) and ( g f )( x) the same functions? Explain.
4. Let f ( x) 5x 3 . Find g (x ) so that ( f g )( x) 2 x 7 .
5. Let f ( x) 2 x 1. Find g (x ) so that ( f g )( x) 3x 1 .
x 1 3 f ( x) 1
6. If f is a real function defined by f ( x ) . Show that f (2 x ) .
x 1 f ( x) 3
7. Find two functions f and g so that the given function h( x) ( f g )( x) , where
1
a) h( x ) ( x 3) 3 c) h( x ) 6
x
1
b) h( x ) 5x 3 d) h( x )
x6
1
8. Let f ( x ) 4 x 3, g ( x ) and h( x ) x 2 x . Find
x
a) f (5x 7) c) f ( g (h(3))) e) f ( x a )
b) 5 f ( x) 7 d) f (1) g (2) h(3) f) f ( x ) a
2.5 Types of functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define one to oneness and ontoness of a function
check invertibility of a function
find the inverse of an invertible function
In this section we shall study some important types of functions.
One to One functions
Definition 2.12: A function f : A B is called one to one, often written 1 – 1, if and only if for all
x1 , x2 A , f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) implies x1 x2 . In words, no two elements of A are mapped to one
element of B .
Example 2.28:
1. If we consider the sets A {1,2,3,,6} and B {7, a, b, c, d ,8, e} and if f {(1,7), (2, a ),
(3, b) , (4, b), (5, c), (6,8)} and g {(1,7), (2, a), (3, b), (4, c), (5,8), (6, d )} , then both f and
g are functions from A into B . Observe that f is not a 1 – 1 function because
f (3) f (4) but 3 4 . However, g is a 1 – 1 function.
2. Let A {1,2,3,4} and B {1,4,7,8} . Consider the functions
i) f : A B defined as f (1) 1, f (2) 4, f (3) 4, f (4) 8
ii) g : A B defined as f (1) 4, f (2) 7, f (3) 1, f (4) 8
Then, f is not 1 – 1, but g is a 1 – 1 function.
Onto functions
Definition 2.13: Letf be a function from a set A into a set B . Then f is called an onto function(or f
maps onto B ) if every element of B is image of some element in A , i.e, Range( f ) B.
Example 2.29:
1. Let A {1,2,3} and B {1,4,5} . The function f : A B defined as f (1) 1 , f (2) 5 ,
f (3) 1 is not onto because there is no element in A , whose image under f is 4. The
function g : A B given by g {(1,4), (2,5), (3,1)} is onto because each element of B is
the image of at least one element of A .
Note that if A is a non-empty set, the function i A : A A defined by i A ( x ) x for all
x A is a 1 – 1 function from A onto A . i A is called the identity map on A .
2. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) n 2 for all n Z . Now,
domain of f is Z . Also, if n n , then n 2 (n ) 2 , i.e. f (n) f (n ) . Hence, f is well
defined and a function. However, f (1) 1 f ( 1) and 1 1 , which implies that f is
not 1 – 1. For all n Z , f (n ) is a non-negative integer. This shows that a negative
integer has no preimage. Hence, f is not onto. Note that f is onto {0,1,4,9,} .
3. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) 2n for all n Z . As in the
previous example, we can show that f is a function. Let n, n Z and suppose that
f (n) f (n ) . Then 2n 2n and thus n n . Hence, f is 1 – 1. Since for all n Z ,
f (n ) is an even integer; we see that an odd integer has no preimage. Therefore, f is not
onto.
1 – 1 Correspondence
Definition 2.14: A function f : A B is said to be a 1 – 1 correspondence if f is both 1 – 1
and onto.
Example 2.30:
1. Let A {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25}. Suppose f : A B given by
f ( x ) 5x for all x A . One can easily see that every element of B has a preimage in
A and hence f is onto. Moreover, if f ( x) f ( y ) , then 5x 5 y , i.e. x y . Hence, f
is 1 – 1. Therefore, f is a 1 – 1 correspondence between A and B .
2. Let A be a finite set. If f : A A is onto, then it is one to one.
Solution: Let A {a1 , a2 ,, an } . Then Range( f ) { f (a1 ), f (a2 ),, f (an )} . Since f is onto we
have Range( f ) A .Thus, A { f (a1 ), f (a2 ),, f (an )} , which implies that f (a1 ) , f (a 2 ) , ,
f (a n ) are all distinct. Hence, ai a j implies f (ai ) f (a j ) for all 1 i, j n . Therefore, f is 1 –
1.
Inverse of a function
1
Since a function is a relation , the inverse of a function f is denoted by f and is defined by:
f 1 {( y, x) : ( x, y ) f}
For instance, if f {(2,4), (3,6), (1,7)} , then f 1
{(4,2), (6,3), (7,1)} . Note that the inverse of a
function is not always a function. To see this consider the function f {(2,4), (3,6), (5,4)} . Then,
f 1 {(4,2), (6,3), (4,5)} , which is not a function.
As we have seen above not all functions have an inverse, so it is important to determine whether or not
a function has an inverse before we try to find the inverse. If the function does not have an inverse, then
we need to realize that it does not have an inverse so that we do not waste our time trying to find
something that does not exist.
A one to one function is special because only one to one functions have inverse. If a function is one to
one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps below:
1. Interchange x and y in the equation y f (x )
2. Solving the resulting equation for y , we will obtaining the inverse function.
Note that the domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function and the range of the
inverse function is the domain of the original function.
Example 2.31:
1. Given y f ( x) x 3 . Find f 1 and its domain.
Solution: We begin by interchanging x and y , and we solve for y .
y x3 Interchange x and y
x y3 Take the cube root of both sides
3
xy This is the inverse of the function
1
Thus, f ( x ) 3 x . The domain of f 1 is the set of all real numbers.
x
2. Let y f ( x ) . Find f 1 ( x ) .
x2
Solution: Again we begin by interchanging x and y , and then we solve for y .
x
y Interchange x and y
x2
y
x Solving for y
y2
2x
x( y 2) y xy 2 x y 2 x y (1 x ) y
1 x
1 2x
Thus, f ( x) .
1 x
Remark: Even though, in general, we use an exponent of 1 to indicate a reciprocal, inverse function
1
notation is an exception to this rule. Please be aware that f ( x ) is not the reciprocal of f . That is,
1
f 1 ( x )
f ( x)
If we want to write the reciprocal of the function f (x ) by using a negative exponent, we must
write
f ( x ) .
1 1
f ( x)
Exercise 2.5
1. Consider the function f {( x, x 2 ) : x S} from S {3,2,1,0,1,2,3} into Z . Is f one
to one? Is it onto?
2. Let A {1,2,3} . List all one to one functions from A onto A .
3. Let f : A B . Let f be the inverse relation, i.e. f {( y, x) B A : f ( x) y} .
a) Show by an example that f need not be a function.
b) Show that f is a function from Range( f ) into A if and only if f is 1 – 1.
c) Show that f is a function from B into A if and only if f is 1 – 1 and onto.
d) Show that if f is a function from B into A , then f 1 f .
4. Let A {x : 0 x 1} and B {x : 5 x 8} . Show that f : A B defined by
f ( x) 5 (8 5) x is a 1 – 1 function from A onto B .
5. Which of the following functions are one to one?
a) f : defined by f ( x) 4, x
b) f : defined by f ( x) 6 x 1, x
c) f : defined by f ( x) x 2 7, x
d) f : defined by f ( x ) x 3 , x
2x 1
e) f : \ {7} defined by f ( x ) , x \ {7}
x7
6. Which of the following functions are onto?
a) f : defined by f ( x) 115x 49, x
b) f : defined by f ( x ) x , x
c) f : defined by f ( x ) x 2 , x
d) f : defined by f ( x) x 2 4, x
1
7. Find f ( x ) if
4 x
a) f ( x) 7 x 6 d) f ( x ) g) f ( x) ( x 2) 2 1
3x
2x 9 5x 3 2x
b) f ( x) e) f ( x ) h) f ( x )
4 1 2x 1 x
3
c) f ( x) 1 f) f ( x ) 3 x 1
x
2.6 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define polynomial and rational functions
apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
use the division algorithm to find quotient and remainder
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
The functions described in this section frequently occur as mathematical models of real-life situations.
For instance, in business the demand function gives the price per item, p , in terms of the number of
items sold, x . Suppose a company finds that the price p (in Birr) for its model GC-5 calculator is related
to the number of calculators sold, x (in millions), and is given by the demand function p 80 x 2 .
The manufacturer’s revenue is determined by multiplying the number of items sold ( x ) by the price per
item ( p ). Thus, the revenue function is
R xp x(80 x 2 ) 80 x x 3
These demand and revenue functions are examples of polynomial functions. The major aim of this
section is to better understand the significance of applied functions (such as this demand function). In
order to do this, we need to analyze the domain, range, and behavior of such functions.
Polynomial functions
Definition 2.15: A polynomial function is a function of the form
y an x n an1 x n1 a1 x a0 , an 0.
Each a i is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer, a n is called the leading
coefficient. Such a polynomial is said to be of degree n.
Remark:
1. The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
2. (Types of polynomials)
- A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
- A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
- A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
i.e p( x) a3 x 3 a2 x 2 a1 x a0 , a3 0.
Example 2.32: p( x ) 2 x 2 1 , q( x ) 3x 4 2 x and f ( x ) 2 x 3 are examples of polynomial
functions.
Properties of polynomial functions
1. The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word smooth means that the graph
does not have any sharp corners as turning points.
2. If p is a polynomial of degree n , then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a quadratic polynomial has
at most 2 zeros.
3. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n 1 turning points. Thus, the
graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning points.
4. The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as x gets very large, y gets
very large.
Zeros of a polynomial
The zeros of a polynomial function provide valuable information that can be helpful in sketching its
graph. One can find the zeros by factorizing the polynomial. However, we have no general method for
factorizing polynomials of degree greater than 2. In this subsection, we turn our attention to methods
that will allow us to find zeros of higher degree polynomials. To do this, we first need to discuss about
the division algorithm.
Division Algorithm
Let p(x ) and d (x ) be polynomials with d ( x ) 0 , and with the degree of d (x ) less than or equal
to the degree of p(x ) . Then there are polynomials q(x ) and R(x ) such that
p( x) d
( x) R
( x). q ( x) , where either R( x ) 0 or the degree of R(x ) is less than degree of
dividend divisor quotient remainder
d (x ) .
x4 1
Example 2.33: Divide 4 .
x 2x
Solution: Using long division we have
x2 2x 4
x 2 2x x 4 0x 3 0x 2 0x 1
(x4 2x3 )
2x 3 0x 2
( 2 x 3 4 x 2 )
4x 2 0x
(4 x 2 8 x )
8x 1
x 4
This long division means 1 (
2
x 2
x ). ( 2 x
x 2
4) (
x
81) .
dividend divisor quotient remainder
With the aid of the division algorithm, we can derive two important theorems that will allow us to
recognize the zeros of polynomials.
If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, d (x ) , is linear (that is of the form x r ), we get
p( x) ( x r)q( x) R
Note that since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder R , must be a constant. If we now
substitute x r , into this equation, we get
P(r) (r r)q(r) R 0 q(r) R
Therefore, p( r ) R .
The result we just proved is called the remainder theorem.
The Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial p(x ) of degree at least 1 is divided by x r , then the remainder is p(r ) .
Example 2.34: The remainder when P( x ) x 3 x 2 3x 1 is divided by x 2 is p(2) 9 .
As a consequence of the remainder theorem, if x r is a factor of p(x ) , then the remainder must be 0.
Conversely, if the remainder is 0, then x r , is a factor of p(x ) . This is known as the Factor Theorem.
The Factor Theorem
x r is a factor of p(x ) if and only if p( r ) 0 .
The next theorem, called location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere within an
interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value.
Location theorem
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a b . If f (a) f (b) 0 , then there
is at least one zero of f between a and b .
The Factor and Remainder theorems establish the intimate relationship between the factors of a
polynomial p(x ) and its zeros. Recall that a polynomial of degree n can have at most n zeros.
Does every polynomial have a zero? Our answer depends on the number system in which we are
working. If we restrict ourselves to the set of real number system, then we are already familiar with the
fact that the polynomial p( x ) x 2 1 has no real zeros. However, this polynomial does have two zeros
in the complex number system. (The zeros are i and i ). Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), in his
doctoral dissertation, proved that within the complex number system, every polynomial of degree 1
has at least one zero. This fact is usually referred to as the Fundamental theorem of Algebra.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If p(x ) is a polynomial of degree n 0 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then p(x ) has at
least one zero in the complex number system.
Note that since all real numbers are complex numbers, a polynomial with real coefficients also satisfies
the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. As an immediate consequence of the Fundamental theorem of
Algebra, we have
The linear Factorization Theorem
If p( x ) an x n an 1 x n1 a1 x a0 , where n 1 and an 0 , then
p( x) an ( x r1 ) ( x r2 ) ( x rn ) , where the ri are complex numbers (possible real and not
necessarily distinct).
From the linear factorization theorem, it follows that every polynomial of degree n 1 has exactly n
zeros in the complex number system, where a root of multiplicity k counted k times.
Example 2.35: Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear Factorization
Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.
a) p( x) x 3 6 x 2 16 x
b) q( x ) 3x 2 10 x 8
c) f ( x) 2 x 4 8x 3 10 x 2
Solution:
a) We may factorize p(x ) as follows:
p( x ) x 3 6 x 2 16 x x( x 2 6 x 16)
x( x 8)( x 2)
x( x 8)( x ( 2))
The zeros of p(x ) are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.
b) We may factorize q(x ) as follows:
q( x ) 3x 2 10 x 8 (3x 4) ( x 2)
4
3( x )( x 2)
3
4
Thus, the zeros of q(x ) are and 2, each of multiplicity one.
3
c) We may factorize f (x ) as follows:
f ( x ) 2 x 4 8 x 3 10 x 2 2 x 2 ( x 2 4 x 5)
2 x 2 ( x ( 2 i ))( x ( 2 i ))
Thus, the zeros of f(x) are 0 with multiplicity two and 2 i and 2 i each with multiplicity one.
Example 2.36:
1. Find a polynomial p(x ) with exactly the following zeros and multiplicity.
zeros multiplicity
1 3
2 4
5 2
Are there any other polynomials that give the same roots and multiplicity?
2. Find a polynomial f (x) having the zeros described in part (a) such that f(1) = 32.
Solution:
1. Based on the Factor Theorem, we may write the polynomial as:
p( x) ( x (1)) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2 ( x 1) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2
which gives the required roots and multiplicities.
Any polynomial of the form kp(x ) , where k is a non-zero constant will give the same roots
and multiplicities.
2. Based on part (1), we know that f ( x) k ( x 1) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2 . Since we want f ( x ) 32 ,
we have
f (1) k (1 1) 3 (1 2) 4 (1 5) 2
32 k (8)(1)(16) k 1
4
Thus, f ( x ) 14 ( x 1) ( x 2) ( x 5) .
3 4 2
Our experience in using the quadratic formula on quadratic equations with real coefficients has shown
us that complex roots always appear in conjugate pairs. For example, the roots of x 2 x 5 0 are
2
1 2i and 1 2i . In fact, this property extends to all polynomial equations with real coefficients.
Conjugate Roots Theorem
Let p(x ) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number a bi (where a and b are real
numbers) is a zero of p(x ) , then so is its conjugate a bi .
Example 2.37: Let r ( x) x 4 2 x 3 9 x 2 26 x 20. Given that 1 3 i is a zero, find the other zero
of r (x ) .
Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1 3 i is a zero, then its conjugate, 1 3 i
must also be a zero. Therefore, x (1 3 i ) and x (1 3 i ) are both factors of r (x ) , and so their
product must be a factor of r (x ) . That is, [ x (1 3 i )] [ x (1 3 i )] x 2 x 4 is a factor of
2
r (x ) . Dividing r (x ) by x 2 2 x 4 , we obtain
r( x) ( x 2 2 x 4)( x 2 4 x 5) ( x 2 2 x 4) ( x 5) ( x 1).
Thus, the zeros of r (x ) are 1 3 i , 1 3 i , 5 and 1.
The theorems we have discussed so far are called existence theorems because they ensure the existence
of zeros and linear factors of polynomials. These theorems do not tell us how to find the zeros or the
linear factors. The Linear Factorization Theorem guarantees that we can factor a polynomial of degree at
least one into linear factors, but it does not tell us how.
We know from experience that if p(x ) happens to be a quadratic function, then we may find the zeros
of p( x ) Ax 2 Bx C by using the quadratic formula to obtain the zeros
B B 2 4 AC
x .
2A
The rest of this subsection is devoted to developing some special methods for finding the zeros of a
polynomial function.
As we have seen, even though we have no general techniques for factorizing polynomials of degree
greater than 2, if we happen to know a root, say r , we can use long division to divide p(x ) by x r
and obtain a quotient polynomial of lower degree. If we can get the quotient polynomial down to a
quadratic, then we are able to determine all the roots. But how do we find a root to start the process?
The following theorem can be most helpful.
The Rational Root Theorem
Suppose that f ( x) an x n an1 x n1 a1 x a0 , where n 1, an 0 is an n th degree
p
polynomial with integer coefficients. If is a rational root of f ( x ) 0 , where p and q have no
q
common factor other than 1 , then p is a factor of a 0 and q is a factor of a n .
3
To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose is a root of
2
a3 x 3 a2 x 2 a1 x a0 0 .
3 2
3 3 3
Then, a3 a 2 a1 a0 0 which implies that
2 2 2
27a3 9a 2 3a1
a0 0 multiplying both sides by 8
8 4 2
27a3 18a 2 12a1 8a 0 ...................................................(1)
27a3 18a 2 12a1 8a 0 ...................................................(2)
If we look at equation (1), the left hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right hand side must also
be divisible by 3. Since 8 is not divisible by 3, a 0 must be divisible by 3. From equation (2), a 3 must be
divisible by 2.
Example 2.38: Find all the zeros of the function p( x) 2 x 3x 23x 12.
3 2
p
Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if is a rational root of the given equation, then p
q
must be a factor of 12 and q must be a factor of 2. Thus, we have
possible values of p : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
possible values of q : 1, 2
p 1 3
possible rational roots : 1, , 2, 3, , 4, 6, 12
q 2 2
We may check these possible roots by substituting the value in p(x ) . Now p(1) 30 and
p( 1) 12 . Since p(1) is negative and p(1) is positive, by intermediate value theorem, p(x ) has a
zero between 1 and 1. Since P 1
2 0 , then x 12 is a factor of p(x ) . Using long division, we
obtain
p( x ) 2 x 3 3x 2 23x 12 ( x 12 )(2 x 2 2 x 24)
2( x 12 )( x 4)( x 3)
Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are 12 , 4 and 3.
Rational Functions and their Graphs
n( x )
A rational function is a function of the form f ( x) where both n(x) and d(x) are polynomials and
d ( x)
d ( x) 0 .
3 x 1 x 5 2x3 x 1
Example 2.39: The functions f ( x) , f ( x) 2 and f ( x) are
x5 x 4 x 5x
examples of rational function.
n( x )
Note that the domain of the rational function f ( x) is {x : d ( x) 0}
d ( x)
3x 5
Example 2.40: Find the domain and zeros of the function f ( x) .
x x 12
2
Solution: The values of x for which x 2 x 12 0 are excluded from the domain of f . Since
x 2 x 12 ( x 4)( x 3) , we have Dom( f ) {x : x 3,4} . To find the zeros of f (x) , we solve
the equation
n ( x)
0 n ( x) 0 & q ( x) 0
d ( x)
5 5
Therefore, to find the zeros of f (x) , we solve 3x 5 0 , giving x . Since does not make the
3 3
denominator zero, it is the only zero of f (x) .
The following terms and notations are useful in our next discussion.
Given a number a,
x approaches a from the right means x takes any value near and near to a but x a. This is
denoted by: xa+ (read: ‘x approaches a from the right’ ).
For instance, x 1+ means x can be 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001, 1.000001, etc.
x approaches a from the left means x takes any value near and near to a but x a.
This is denoted by: xa– (read: ‘x approaches a from the left’ ).
For instance, x1– means x can be 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.9999, etc.
x (read: ‘x approaches or tends to infinity’) means the value of x gets indefinitely larger and
larger in magnitude (keep increasing without bound). For instance, x can be 106, 1010, 1012, etc.
x – (read: ‘x approaches or tends to negative infinity’) means the value of x is negative and gets
indefinitely larger and larger negative in magnitude (keep decreasing without bound). For instance, x
can be –106, –1010, –1012, etc.
The same meanings apply also for the values of a function f if we wrote f(x) or f(x). The
following figure illustrates these notion and notations.
y y f(x),
f(x),
asxa
asx
x – xa –
xa + x y =f(x)
x a
f(x) –,
y
a f(x) –, asxa+
asx–
Fig. 2.1. Graphical illustration of the idea of xa+, f(x), etc.
We may also write f(x)b (read: ‘f(x) approaches b’) to mean the function values, f(x), becomes
arbitrarily closer and closer to b (i.e., approximately b) but not exactly equal to b. For instance, if
1 1
f ( x) , then f(x)0 as x; i.e., is approximately 0 when x is arbitrarily large.
x x
The following steps are usually used to sketch (or draw) the graph of a rational function f(x).
1. Identify the domain and simplify it.
2. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible. Recall the following:
y–intercept is the point on y-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the y-axis. At this
point x=0. Thus, y = f(0), or (0, f(0) ) is the y-intercept if 0 Dom(f).
x–intercept is the point on x-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the x-axis. At this
point y=0. Thus, x=a or (a, 0) is x-intercept if f(a)=0.
3. Determine the asymptotes of the graph. Here, remember the following.
Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x=a is called a vertical asymptote(VA) of f(x) if
i) a dom(f), i.e., f is not defined at x=a; and
ii) f(x) or f(x) – when xa+ or xa– . In this case, the graph of f is almost vertically rising
upward (if f(x)) or sinking downward (if f(x)) along with the vertical line x=a when x
approaches a either from the right or from the left.
1
Example 2.41: Consider f ( x) n
, where a 0 and n is a positive integer.
( x a)
Obviously a Dom(f). Next, we investigate the trend of the values of f(x) near a. To do this, we consider
two cases, when n is even or odd:
Suppose n is even: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all x \{a}; and since (x – a)n 0 as xa+ or xa– .
1
Hence, f ( x) n
as xa+ or xa– . Therefore, x=a is a VA of f(x). Moreover, y= 1/an or (0,
( x a)
1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0)=1/an. However, it has no x-intercept since f(x) 0 for all x in its domain
(See, Fig. 2.2 (A)).
Suppose n is odd: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all xa and 1/ (x – a)n when xa+ as in the above
case. Thus, x=a is its VA. However, 1/(x–a)n – when xa– since (x – a)n< 0 for xa. Moreover, y= –
1/an or (0, –1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0) = –1/an. However, it has no x-intercept also in this case.
(See, Fig. 2.2 (B)).
1
Note that in both cases, f ( x) n
0 as xor x –.
( x a)
y 1 y 1
y n
y n
( x a) ( x a)
n-even n-odd
n
1/a
a x a x
1/a
x=a
n x=a
VA VA
Fig. 2.2 (A) Fig. 2.2 (B)
n( x )
Remark: Let f ( x) be a rational function. Then,
d ( x)
1. if d (a) 0 and n(a) 0 , then x=a is a VA of f .
2. if d (a) 0 n(a) , then x=a may or may not be a VA of f . In this case, simplify f(x) and look for VA of
the simplest form of f.
Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y=b is called horizontal asymptote (HA) of f(x) if the value of
the function becomes closer and closer to b (i.e., f(x)b)as x or as x –.
In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a horizontal line along with (or near) the line y=b as x
1
and as x–. For instance, from the above example, the HA of f ( x) n
is y=0 (the x-axis) ,
( x a)
for any positive integer n (See, Fig. 2.2).
n( x )
Remark: A rational function f ( x) has a HA only when degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)).
d ( x)
In this case, (i) If degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)), then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the HA of f.
n 1
n
an x an 1 x a1 x a0
(ii) If degree(n(x)) =degree(d(x))=n, i.e., f ( x) n 1
,
n
bn x bn 1 x b1 x b0
an
then y is the HA of f.
bn
Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y=ax+b, a0, is called an oblique asymptote (OA) of f if the
value of the function, f(x), becomes closer and closer to ax+b(i.e., f(x) becomes approximately ax+b)
as either x or x –. In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a straight line along with (or
near) the oblique line y=ax+b as x and as x –.
n( x )
Note: A rational function f ( x) has an OA only when degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1. In this case,
d ( x)
using long division, if the quotient of n(x) ÷d(x) is ax +b, then y=ax+b is the OA of f.
x2 x 2 3x 2
Example 2.42: Sketch the graphs of (a) f ( x) (b) g ( x)
x 1 x2 1
Solution: (a) Since x1=0 at x=1, dom(f) = \{1}.
Intercepts: y-intercept: x=0 y=f (0) = –2. Hence, (0, – 2) is y-intercept.
x-intercept: y=0 x+2=0 x= –2. Hence, (–2, 0) is x-intercept.
Asymptotes:
VA: Since x1=0 atx=1 and x+20 at x=1, x=1 is VA of f. In fact, if x1+ , then x+2 3 but the
denominator x–1 is almost 0 (but positive).
Consequently, f(x) as x1+.
Moreover, f(x) – as x1– (since , if x1– then x–1 is almost 0 but negative ) .
(So, the graph of f rises up to + at the right side of x=1, and sink down to at the left side of
x=1)
HA: Note that if you divide x+2 by x–1, the quotient is 1 and remainder is 3. Thus,
x2 3 3
f ( x) 1 . Thus, if x (or x –), then 0 so that f(x)1. Hence,
x 1 x 1 x 1
y=1 is the HA of f.
Using these information, you can sketch the graph of f as displayed below in Fig. 2.3 (A).
(b) Both the denominator and numerator are 0 at x=1. So, first factorize and simplify them:
x2+3x+2=(x+2)(x+1) and x2–1 = (x –1)( x+1) . Therefore,
x 2 3x 2 ( x 2)( x 1 )
g ( x) , x –1
x 1
2
( x 1)( x 1 )
x2
. (So, dom(g) = \{1, –1} )
x 1
This implies that only x=1 is VA.
x2 x2
Hence, the graph of g ( x) , x 1, is exactly the same as that of f ( x) except that
x 1 x 1
g(x) is not defined at x= –1. Therefore, the graph of g and its VA are the same as that of f except that
there should be a ‘hole’ at the point corresponding to x= –1 on the graph of g as shown on Fig. 2.3(B)
below.
x2 x2
y y , x 1
x 1 x 1
y=1 (HA) y=1
1
2 2
2 2
x=1 ‘hole’ x=1
VA atx=1
Fig 2.3 (A) f ( x) x 2 x 2 3x 2 x 2
x 1 (B) g ( x) , x 1
x2 1 x 1
Exercise 2.6
1. Perform the requested divisions. Find the quotient and remainder and verify the Remainder
Theorem by computing p(a ) .
a) Divide p( x) x 2 5x 8 by x 4
b) Divide p( x) 2 x 3 7 x 2 x 4 by x 4
c) Divide p( x) 1 x 4 by x 1
d) Divide p( x) x 2 x 3 by x 1
5 2
2. Given that p(4) 0 , factor p( x) 2 x 11x 10 x 8 as completely as possible.
3 2
3. Given that r ( x) 4 x 3 x 2 36 x 9 and r 14 0 , find the remaining zeros of r (x ) .
4. Given that 3 is a double zero of p( x) x 4 3x 3 19 x 2 87 x 90 , find all the zeros of p(x )
.
5. a) Write the general polynomial p(x ) whose only zeros are 1, 2 and 3, with multiplicity 3, 2 and
1 respectively. What is its degree?
b) Find p(x ) described in part (a) if p(0) 6 .
6. If 2 3i is a root of p( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 14 x 39, find the remaining zeros of p(x).
7. Determine the rational zeros of the polynomials
a) p( x) x 3 4 x 2 7 x 10
b) p( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 28x 15
c) p ( x) 6 x 3 x 2 4 x 1
8. Find the domain and the real zeros of the given function.
3 x3 ( x 3) 2 x 2 16
a) f ( x) b) g ( x) c) f ( x ) d) f ( x )
x 25
2
x 2 4 x 12 x 3 3x 2 2 x x2 4
9. Sketch the graph of
1 x x2 1 1 x2
a) f ( x) b) f ( x) c) f ( x) 2 d) f ( x)
x3 x x x2 4
x 3 8x 3
10. Determine the behavior of f ( x) when x is near 3.
x3
11. The graph of any rational function in which the degree of the numerator is exactly one
more than the degree of the denominator will have an oblique (or slant) asymptote.
a) Use long division to show that
x2 x 6 8
y f ( x) x 1
x2 x2
b) Show that this means that the line y x 1 is a slant asymptote for the graph and
sketch the graph of y f (x) .
2.7 Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, and
trigonometric functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions
understand the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions
sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve
problems
Exponents and radicals
Definition 2.16: For a natural number n and a real number x , the power x n , read “ the n th power of x ” or “
x raised to n ”, is defined as follows:
xn x
xx
n factors each equal to x
n
In the symbol x , x is called the base and n is called the exponent.
For example, 2 2 2 2 2 2 32 .
5
n
Based of the definition of x , n must be a natural number. It does not make sense for n to be
negative or zero. However, we can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and negative
exponents.
Definition 2.17: (Zero and Negative Exponents)
Definition of zero Exponent Definition of Negative Exponent
x 0 1 ( x 0) x n
1
x 0
xn
Note: 0 0 is undefined.
1
As a result of the above definition, we have x n . We have the following rules of exponents for
x n
integer exponents:
Rules for Integer Exponents
1. x n x m x n m 4. ( xy ) n x n y n
xn
2. ( x n ) m x nm 5. m
x n m
x
n
x xn
3. n y 0
y y
Next we extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational number exponents. To do
this, we assume that we want the rules for integer exponents also to apply to rational exponents and
1
then use the rules to show us to define a rational exponent. For example, how do we define a 2 ?
1
Consider 9 2 .
If we apply rule 2 and square 9 2 , we get 9 2
1
9
1 2 1
2
1
9 . Thus, 9 2 is a number that, when squared,
yields 9. There are two possible answers: 3 and – 3, since squaring either number will yield 9. To avoid
1
ambiguity, we define a 2 (called the principal square root of a ) as the non-negative quantity that, when
1
squared, yield a . Thus, 9 2 3 .
1 1 1
We will arrive at the definition of a 3 in the same way as we did for a 2 . For example, if we cube 8 3 , we
get 8 3 8
1 3 3
3
1
8 . Thus, 8 3 is the number that, when cubed, yields 8. Since 2 3 8 we have 8 3 2 .
1
Similarly, 273 3 . Thus, we define a 3 (called the cube root of a ) as the quantity that, when
1 1
cubed yields a .
1
Definition 2.18: (Rational Exponent an )
1
If n is an odd positive integer, then a b if and only if b n a n
1
If n is an even positive integer and a 0 , then a n b if and only if b n a
1 1
th
We call a n the principal n root of a . Hence, a n is the real number (nonnegative when n is even)
th
that, when raised to the n power, yields a . Therefore,
16 4 since 4 2 16
1
2
125 5 since ( 5) 3 125
1
3
1
4
1 4 1 1 1
since
81 3 3 81
1
27 3 3 since 33 27
16
1
4
is not a real number
1
Thus far, we have defined a n , where n is a natural number. With the help of the second rule for
m
m
exponent, we can define the expression a n , where m and n are natural numbers and n is reduced to
lowest terms.
m
Definition 2.19: (Rational Exponent an )
1
If a n is a real number, then
m
an an
1 m
(i.e. the n th root of a raised to the m th power)
We can also define negative rational exponents:
a
mn
1
m
a 0
an
Example 2.43: Evaluate the following
2
12 53
a) 27 3 b) 36 c) ( 32)
Solution: We have
2
a) 27 3 27 3 3 1 2
2
9
12 1 1
b) 36 1
36 2 6
53 1 1 1 1
c) ( 32)
( 32)
3
5
(32) 1
5
3
( 2) 3
8
Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents. We define for
th
real number a , the n root of a as follows:
1
th
Definition 2.20 ( n root of a ): n a = a n , where n is a positive integer.
The number n
a is also called the principal n th root of a . If the n th root of a exists, we have:
For a a real number and n a positive integer,
a , if n is even
n
an
a, if n is odd
For example, 3
53 5 and 4
( 3) 4 3 .
Exponential Functions
In the previous sections we examined functions of the form f ( x ) x n , where n is a constant. How is
this function different from f ( x ) n x .
Definition 2.21: A function of the form y f ( x) b x , where b 0 and b 1 , is called an exponential
function.
x
1
Example 2.44: The functions f ( x ) 2 , g ( x ) 3 and h( x ) are examples of exponential
x x
2
functions.
As usual the first question raised when we encounter a new function is its domain. Since rational
exponents are well defined, we know that any rational number will be in the domain of an exponential
function. For example, let f ( x ) 3 x . Then as x takes on the rational values x 4, – 2 , 1
2 and 4
5 , we
have
f (4) 34 3 3 3 3 81 f ( 2) 32 312 19
1 4
f ( 12 ) 3 2 3 f ( 45 ) 3 5 5 34 5 81
5
Note that even though we do not know the exact values of 3 and 81 , we do know exactly what
they mean. However, what about f (x ) for irrational values of x ? For instance, f ( 2 ) 3 2
?
x
We have not defined the meaning of irrational exponents. In fact, a precise formal definition of b
2
where x is irrational requires the ideas of calculus. However, we can get an idea of what 3 should be
by using successive rational approximations to 2 . For example, we have
1.414 2 1.415
Thus, it would seem reasonable to expect that 31.414 3 2
31.415 . Since 1.414 and 1.415 are rational
1.414 1.415
numbers, 3 and 3 are well defined, even though we cannot compute their values by hand. Using
a calculator, we get 4.7276950 3 2
4.7328918 . If we use better approximations to 2 , we get
31.4142 3 2
31.4143 . Using a calculator again, we get 4.7287339 3 2
4.7292535 . Computing 3 2
directly on a calculator gives 3 2
4.7288044 . This numerical evidence suggests that as x approaches
2 , the values of 3 x approach a unique real number that we designate by 3 2 , and so we will accept
without proof, the fact that the domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers.
The exponential function y b x , where b 0 and b 1 , is defined for all real values of x . In addition all
the rules for rational exponents hold for real number exponents as well.
Before we state some general facts about exponential functions , let’s see if we can determine what the
graph of an exponential function will look like.
Example 2.45:
1. Sketch the graph of the function y 2 x and identify its domain and range.
Solution: To aid in our analysis, we set up a short table of values to give us a frame of
reference.
x y
3 2 3 81
2 2 2 1
4
1 2 1 1
2
0 20 1
1 21 2
2 22 4 y
3 23 8 y = 2x
2 (1,2)
1
O 1 x
With these points in hand, we draw a smooth curve through the points obtaining the graph appearing
above. Observe that the domain of y 2 x is IR , the graph has no x intercepts, as
x , the y values are increasing very rapidly, whereas as x , the y values are getting
closer and closer to 0. Thus, x axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y intercept is 1 and the range of
y 2 x is the set of positive real numbers.
x
1
2. Sketch the graph of y f ( x ) .
2
Solution: It would be instructive to compute a table of values as we did in example 1 above (you are
urged to do so). However, we will take a different approach. We note that
x
1 1
y f ( x ) x 2 x . If f ( x ) 2 x , then f ( x ) 2 x . Thus by the graphing principle for
2 2
f ( x ) , we can obtain the graph of y 2 x by reflecting the graph of y 2 x about the y axis .
y 12 x
(1,2) 2
1
1 O 1 x
Here again the x axis is a horizontal asymptote, there is no x intercept, 1 is y intercept and the
range is the set of positive real numbers. However, the graph is now decreasing rather than increasing.
The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential functions and their graphs.
The Exponential function y f ( x) b x
1. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
2. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
3. The graph of y b x exhibits exponential growth if b 1 or exponential decay if
0 b 1.
4. The y intercept is 1.
5. The x intercept is a horizontal asymptote
6. The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if b x b y , then x y
Example 2.46: Sketch the graph of each of the following. Find the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
a) y 3x 1 b) y 3 x 1 c) y 9 x 3
Solution:
a) To get the graph of y 3x 1 . We start with the graph of y 3 x , which is the basic
exponential growth graph, and shift it up 1 unit.
x From the graph we see that
y=3 +1
- Dom( f )
10
- Range( f ) (1, )
- The y intercept is 2
2 - The line y 1 is a horizontal
y=1
1 asymptote
1 2
b) To get the graph of y 3 x 1 , we start with the graph of y 3 x , and shift 1 unit to the left.
From the graph we see that
y=3x+1 - Dom( f )
- Range( f ) (0, )
9
- The y intercept is 3
- The line y 0 is a horizontal
asymptote
1
c) To get the graph of y 9 x 3 , we start with the basic exponential decay y 9 x . We
then reflect it with respect to the x axis , which gives the graph of y 9 x . Finally,
we shift this graph up 3 units to get the required graph of y 9 x 3 .
y y
y
(1,9) 9 1
1 y=3
1 x 3
2 y = 9 x +3
y = 9 x
1 1
y = 9
x
1
1 x
1 O 1 x (1,9) 9
From the graph of y 9 x 3 , we can see that Dom(h) , Range(h) ( ,3) , the line y 3
is a horizontal asymptote, 2 is the y intercept and x 12 is the x intercept.
Remark: When the base b of the exponential function f ( x ) b x equals to the number e , where
e 2.7182 , we call the exponential function the natural exponential function.
Logarithmic Functions
In the previous subsection we noted that the exponential function f ( x ) b x (where b 0 and b 1 )
is one to one. Thus, the exponential function has an inverse function. What is the inverse of f ( x ) b x ?
To find the inverse of f ( x ) b x , let’s review the process for finding an inverse function by comparing
the process for the polynomial function y x 3 and the exponential function y 3 . Keep in mind that
x
x is our independent variable and y is the dependent variable and so whenever possible we want a
function solved explicitly for y .
To find the inverse of y x3 To find the inverse of y 3x
y x3 Interchange x and y y 3x Interchange x and y
xy 3
solve for y x3 y
solve for y
y3 x y ??
There is no algebraic procedure we can use to solve x 3 for y . By introducing radical notations we
y
could express the inverse of y x 3 explicitly in the form y 3 x . In words, y 3 x and y 3 x both
mean exactly the same thing: y is the number whose cube is x . Similarly, if we want to express x 3
y
explicitly as a function of x , we need to invent a special notation for this. The key idea is to take the
equation x 3 and express it verbally.
y
x 3 y means y is the exponent to which 3 must be raised to yield x
We introduce the following notation, which expresses this idea in a much more compact form.
Definition 2.22: For b 0 and b 1 , we write y log b x to mean y is the exponent to which b must
be raised to yield x . In other words,
x b y y log b x
We read y log b x as “ y equals the logarithm of x to the base b ”.
REMEMBER: y log b x is an alternative way of writing x b y
When an expression is written in the form x b , it is said to be in exponential form. When an
y
expression is written in the form y log b x , it is said to be in logarithmic form. The table below
illustrates the equivalence of the exponential and logarithmic forms.
Exponential form Logarithmic form
4 2 16 log 4 16 2
2 4 16 log 2 16 4
53 125
1 1
log 5 125 3
log 6 6
1
62 6
1
2
70 1 log 7 1 0
Example 2.47:
1. Write each of the following in exponential form.
1
a) log 3 9 2 b) log16 2 1
4
1
Solution: We have a) log 3 9 2 means 32 19 .
1
b) log16 2 1
4 means 16 4 2
2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.
2
a) 10 3 0.001 b) 27 3 9
3
Solution: We have a) 10 0.001 means log10 0.001 3
2
b) 27 3 9 means log 27 9 2
3
3. Evaluate each of the following.
a) log 3 81 b) log 8 641
Solution:
a) To evaluate log 3 81 , we let t log 3 81 , and then rewrite the equation in exponential
form, 3t 81 . Now, if we can express both sides in terms of the same base, we can
solve the resulting exponential equation, as follows:
Let t log 3 81 Rewrite in exponential form
3t 81 Express both sides in terms of the same base
3t 34 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t4
Therefore, log 3 81 4 .
b) We apply the same procedure as in part (a).
Let t log 8 641 Rewrite in exponential form
8t 1
64 Express both sides in terms of the same base
8t 82 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t 2
Therefore, log 8 641 2 .
As was pointed out at the beginning of this subsection, logarithm notation was invented to
express the inverse of the exponential function. Thus, log b x is a function of x . We usually
write f ( x ) log b x rather than writing f ( x ) log b ( x) and use parenthesis only when needed to
clarify the input to the log function. For example,
If f ( x) log 5 (4 x) , then f ( 1) log 5 (4 ( 1)) log 5 5 1 , whereas if f ( x) 4 log 5 x ,
then f ( 1) 4 log 5 ( 1) , which is undefined.
Example 2.48: Given f ( x ) log 5 x , find
1
a) f (25) b) f ( 25 ) c) f (0) d) f (125)
Solution:
a) f (25) log 5 25 2 (since 52 25 )
1
b) f ( 25 ) log 5 25
1
2 (since 52 1
25 )
c) f (0) log 5 0 is not defined (what power of 5 will yield 0?). We say that 0 is not in the
domain of f .
d) f ( 125) log 5 ( 125) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield -125?). We say that -
125 is not in the domain of f .
Acknowledging that the logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses, we can derive a great deal
of information about the logarithmic function and its graph from the exponential function and its graph.
Example 2.49: Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain and range of each.
a) y log 3 x b) y log 1 x
2
Solution: a) Since y log 3 x is the inverse of y 3 x , we can obtain the graph of y log 3 x by
reflecting the graph of y 3 x about the line y x , as shown below.
y
y = 3x
y=x
y = log3x
1
1 x
b) To get the graph of y log 1 x , we reflect the graph of y 12 x about the line y x as
2
shown below. y
y 12 x y=x
1 x
y log 1 x
2
Taking note of the features of the two graphs we have the following important informations about the
graph of the log function:
The Logarithmic Function y log b x
1. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers
2. Its range is the set of real numbers.
3. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b 1 and logarithmic decay if 0 b 1 .
4. The x intercept is 1. There is no y intercept.
5. The y axis is a vertical asymptote.
Example 2.50:
1. Sketch the graph of f ( x) 1 log 3 ( x 2) . Find the domain, range, asymptote and
intercepts.
Solution: We can obtain the graph of y 1 log 3 ( x 2) by applying the graphing
principle to shift the basic logarithmic growth graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit up.
y
x= 2
y = 1+ log3(x2)
1
1 2 3 x
We have Dom( f ) {x : x 2} , Range ( f ) and the graph has the line x 2 as a
vertical asymptote. To find the intercept, we set y 0 and solve for x . Setting y 0
and solving for x , we will obtain x 73 . Thus, the x intercept is 7
3 .
2. Find the inverse function for
a) y f ( x) 3x 4 b) y g ( x) log 3 ( x 2)
Solution: Following the procedure for finding an inverse function, we have
(a) y 3x 4 Interchange x and y (b) y log 3 ( x 2) Interchange x and y
x 3y 4 solve explicitly for y x log 3 ( y 2) Write in logarithmic form
x 4 3 y Write in logarithmic form y 2 3x solve explicitly for y
y log 3 ( x 4) y 3x 2
Thus, f 1 ( x) log 3 ( x 4) Thus, g 1 ( x) 3x 2
The following table contains the basic properties of logarithm:
Properties of logarithm
Assume that b, u and v are positive and b 1 . Then
1. log b (uv) log b u log b v
In words, logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logs of the factors.
2. log b ( uv ) log b u log b v
In words, the log of a quotient is the log of the numerator minus the log of the
denominator.
3. log b u r r log b u
In words, the log of a power is the exponent times the log.
4. log b (b x ) x log b b x
5. b logb x x
Example 2.51:
1. Express in terms of simpler logarithms.
a) log b ( x 3 y ) b) log b ( x 3 y ) c) log b
xy
z3
Solution:
a) log b ( x 3 y ) log b x 3 log b y 3log b x log b y
b) Examining the properties of logarithms, we can see that they deal with log of a
product, quotient and power. Thus, log 3 ( x 3 y ) which is the log of a sum cannot be
simplified using log properties.
c) We have
log b log
xy
z3 b xy log b ( z 3 ) = log b xy 2 3 log b z (log b x log b y ) 3 log b z .
1 1
2
2. Show that log b 12 log b 2 .
Solution: We have log b 12 log b 1 log b 2 0 log b 2 log b 2 .
The logarithmic function was introduced without stressing the particular base chosen. However, there
are two bases of special importance in science and mathematics, namely, b 10 and b e .
Definition 2.23: (Common Logarithm)
f ( x ) log10 x is called the common logarithm function. We write log10 x log x .
The inverse of the natural exponential function is called the natural logarithmic function and has its own
special notation.
Definition 2.24: (Natural Logarithm)
f ( x) log e x is called the natural logarithmic function. We write log e x ln x .
Example 2.52:
1. Evaluate log1000
Solution: Let a log1000 . Then, a log10 1000 log10 (103 ) 3 .
2. Find the inverse function of f ( x ) e x 1 .
Solution: Let y ex 1 Interchange x and y
x e y 1 Solve for y
x 1 e y Rewrite in logarithmic form
y ln( x 1)
Thus, f 1 ( x) ln( x 1) .
Trigonometric functions and their graphs
For the functions we have encountered so far, namely polynomial, rational and exponential functions, as
the independent variable goes to infinity the graph of each of these three functions either goes to
infinity(very quickly) for exponential functions or approaches a finite horizontal asymptote. None of
these functions can model the regular periodic patterns that play an important role in the social,
biological, and physical sciences: business cycles, agricultural seasons, heart rhythms, and hormone level
fluctuations, and tides and planetary motions. The basic functions for studying regular periodic
behaviour are the trigonometric functions. The domain of the trigonometric functions is more naturally
the set of all geometric angles.
Angle Measurement
An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end point. The common end point
is called the vertex of the angle.
A
In forming the angle, one side remains fixed and the other side rotates. The fixed side is called the initial
side and the side that rotates is called the terminal side. If the terminal side rotates in a counter
clockwise direction, we call the angle positive angle, and if the terminal side rotates in a clockwise
direction, we call the angle negative angle.
B B
What attribute of an angle are we trying to measure when we measure the size of an angle? A moment
of thought will lead us to the conclusion that when we measure an angle we are trying to answer the
question: Through what part of a complete rotation has the terminal side rotated?
We will use degree () as the unit of measurement for angles. Recall that the measure of a full round
angle (full circle) is 360, straight angle is 180, and right angle is 90.
An alternative unit of measure for angles which will indicate their size is the radian measure. To see the
connection between the degree measure and radian measure of an angle, let us consider an angle
and draw a circle of radius r with the vertex of at its center O . Let s represent the length of the arc
of the circle intercepted by (as shown below).
s
O
r
Basic geometry tells us that the central angle will be the same fractional part of one complete
rotation as s will be of the circumference of the circle. For example, if is 1
10 of a complete rotation,
1
then s will be 10 of the circumference of the circle. In other words, we can set up the following
proportion:
s s
1 complete rotation circumfere nce of circle 2r
Thus, we have the following conversion formula:
in deg rees in radians
180
Example 2.53:
1. Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees.
a) 6 b) 35
, which implies that 30 .
6
Solution: a) By the conversion formula, we have
180
3
b) Again using the conversion formula, we get 5
, which implies that 108 .
180
2. Convert to radian measures
a) 90 b) 270
Solution: a) Let represent the radian measure of 90 . Using the conversion formula, we obtain:
90
, which implies that .
180
2
b) Rather than using the conversion formula, we notice that 270 3(90 ) . In part (a) we found that
3
90 , and so we have 270
.
2 2
Y Y
P(x,y)
To define the trigonometric functions, we will
ϴ r
X X
view all angles in the context of a Cartesian coordinate system: that is, given an angle , we begin by
putting in standard position, meaning that the vertex of is placed at the origin and initial side of
is placed along the positive x axis . Thus the location of the terminal side of will, of course,
depend on the size of .
We then locate a point (other than the origin) on the terminal side of and identify its coordinates
( x, y ) and its distance to the origin, dented by r . Then, r is positive.
With in standard position, we define the six trigonometric functions of as follows:
Definition 2.25
Name of function Abbreviation Definition
y
Sine sin sin
r
x
Cosine cos cos
r
y
Tangent tan tan
x
r
Cosecant csc csc
y
r
Secant sec sec
x
x
Cotangent cot cot
y
s
Recall that the radian measure of an angle is defined as , where is angle in radians
r
s is the length of the arc intercepted by and r is the length of the radius. Since s and r are both
s
lengths, the quotient is a pure number without any units attached. Thus, any angle can be
r
interpreted as a real number. Conversely, any real number can be interpreted as an angle. Thus, we can
describe the domains of the trigonometric functions in the frame work of the real number systems. If we
let f ( ) sin , the domain consists of all real numbers for which sin is defined. Since
y
sin and r is never equal to zero, the domain for sin is the set of all real numbers. Similarly,
r
x
the domain of f ( ) cos is also the set of all real numbers.
r
The graph of y sin
To analyze f ( ) sin , we keep in mind that once we choose a real number , we draw the angle,
in standard position, that corresponds to . To simplify our analysis, we choose the point ( x, y ) on the
terminal side so that r 1 . That is, ( x, y ) is a point on the unit circle x y 1. Note that
2 2
y
sin y.
1
(0,1)
(x,y)
θ
(-1,0) (1,0)
(0,-1)
As the terminal side of moves through the first quadrant, y increases from 0 (when 0 ) to
1(when
2 ). Thus, as increases from 0 to
2 , y sin steadily increases from 0 to 1.
As increases from
2 to , y sin decreases form 1 to 0. A similar analysis reveals that as
increases from to 3
2 , sin decreases from 0 to – 1; and as increases from 3
2 to 2 , sin
increases from – 1 to 0.
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) sin in the interval [0,2 ] as show below.
y = sin x
Since the values of f ( ) sin depend only on the position of the terminal side, adding or
subtracting multiples of 2 to will leave the value of f ( ) sin unchanged. Thus, the values of
f ( ) sin will
repeat every 2 units. The
complete graph of
f ( ) sin
appears below.
The graph of y sin x , which is called the basic sine curve.
The graph of y cos
Applying the same type of analysis to f ( ) cos , we will able to get a good idea of what its graph
looks like. The figure below shows the angle corresponding to as it increases through quadrant I, II, III
and IV.
x
Keeping in mind that cos x , we have the following:
1
1. As increases from 0 to
2 , x cos decreases from 1 to 0.
2. As increases from
2 to , x cos decreases from 0 to – 1.
3. As increases from to 3
2 , x cos increases from – 1 to 0.
4. As increases from 3
2 to 2 , x cos increases from 0 to 1.
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) cos as shown below:
The graph of y tan
y
Since tan is undefined whenever x 0 , tan is undefined whenever the terminal side of the
x
angle corresponding to falls on the y axis . This happens for 2 , to which we can add or
subtract any multiple of that will again bring the terminal side back to the y axis . Thus, domain of
tan is { : 2 n } , where n is an integer.
1. As increases from 0 to
2 , x decreases from 1 to 0 and y increases from 0 to 1;
therefore, tan y
x increases from 0 to .
2. As increases from
2 to , x decreases from 0 to – 1 and y decreases from 1 to 0;
therefore, tan y
x increases from to 0.
3. As increases from to 3
2 , x increases from – 1 to 0 and y decreases from 0 to –
1; therefore, tan y
x
increases from 0 to .
4. As increases from 3
2 to 2 , x increases from 0 to 1 and y increases from – 1 to
0; therefore, tan y
x increases from to 0.
You may want to add some more specific values to this analysis. In any case, we get the following as the
graph of the tangent function.
Definition 2.26: (Periodic function)
A function y f (x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that f ( x p) f ( x) for all x in
the domain of f . The smallest such number p is called the period of the function.
A periodic function keeps repeating the same set of y values over and over again. The graph of a
periodic function shows the same basic segment of its graph being repeated. In the case of sine and
cosine functions, the period is 2 . The period of the tangent function is .
Definition 2.27: (Amplitude of a periodic function)
The amplitude of a periodic function f (x ) is
1
A [ maximum value of f (x ) minimum value of f (x )]
2
Thus, the amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.
The portion of the graph of a sine or cosine function over one period is called a complete cycle of the
graph. In other words, the minimal portion of a sine or cosine graph that keeps repeating itself is called a
complete cycle of the graph.
Definition 2.28: (Frequency of a periodic function)
The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of length equal to 2 is called its
frequency.
The frequency of the basic sine curve y sin x and the basic cosine curve y cos x is 1, because
each graph makes 1 complete cycle in the interval [0,2 ] .
If a sine function has period of 2 (see the figure below), then the number of complete cycles its graph
2
will make in an interval of length 2 is 4.
2
Y
Thus if a sine function has a period of 2 , its frequency is 4 and its graph will make 4 complete cycles in
an interval of length 2 .
Example 2.54: Sketch the graph of y sin 2 x and find its amplitude, period and frequency.
Solution: We can obtain this graph by applying our knowledge of the basic sine graph. For the basic
curve, we have
sin 0 0 sin 2 1 sin 0 sin 32 1 sin 2 0
These quadrantal values serve as guide points, which help us draw the graph. To obtain similar guide
points for y sin 2 x , we ask for what values of x is
2x 0 2 x 2 2x 2x 3
2 2 x 2
and we get
x0 x 4 x 2 x 3
2 x
Thus, y sin 2 x will have the values 0, 1, 0, 1 , 0 at x 0, 4 , 2 , 3
4 , and , respectively. The
graph of y sin 2 x will thus complete one cycle in the interval [0, ] , and will repeat the same values
in the interval [ ,2 ] .
From this graph we see that y sin 2 x has an amplitude of 1, a period , and a frequency of 2.
For convenience we summarize our discussion on the domains of the trigonometric functions in the
table.
1. f ( x) sin x Domain = All real numbers
Domain = All real numbers
2. f ( x) cos x
Domain = {x : x 2 n }
3. f ( x) tan x
Domain = { x : x n }
4. f ( x) csc x
Domain = {x : x 2 n }
5. f ( x) sec x
Domain = {x : x n }
6. f ( x) cot x
where n is an integer
We have the following trigonometric identities
1. sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
2. tan 2 x 1 sce 2 x
3. 1 cot 2 x csc 2 x
Exercise 2.7
1. Find the domain of the given function.
1 1
a) f ( x ) x b) g ( x ) 3 x 1 c) h( x ) 2 x 8 d) f ( x ) 3 x
6 2 2
2. Sketch the graph of the given function. Identify the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
a) y 5 x b) y 9 3x c) y 1 e x d) y e x 2
3. Solve the given exponential equation.
a) 2 x 1 8 b) 32 x 243 c) 8 x 2 d) 163a 2 1
4
4. Let f ( x ) 2 x . Show that f ( x 3) 8 f ( x) .
1
5. Let g ( x ) 5 x . Show that g ( x 2) g ( x) .
25
f ( x 2) f ( 2)
6. Let f ( x ) 3x . Show that 4(3 x ) .
2
7. Evaluate the given logarithmic expression (where it is defined).
a) log 2 32 c) log 3 ( 9) e) log 5 (log 3 243)
b) log 1 9 d) log 6 1
6
f) 2 log2 5
3
8. If f ( x) log 2 ( x 2 4) , find f (6) and the domain of f .
9. If g ( x) log 3 ( x 2 4 x 3) , find f (4) and the domain of g .
10. Show that log 1 x log 6 x
6
11. Sketch the graph of the given function and identify the domain, range, intercepts and
asymptotes.
a) f ( x) log 2 ( x 3) b) f ( x) 3 log 2 x c) f ( x) log 3 ( x) d)
f ( x ) 3log 5 x
12. Find the inverse of f ( x ) e ( 3 x 1) .
13. Let f ( x ) e x
. Find a function so that ( f g )( x) ( g f )( x) x .
14. Convert the given angle from radians to degrees
a) 3 b) 52 c) 43
15. Convert the given angle from degrees to radians
a) 315 b) 40 c) 330
16. Sketch the graph of
a) f ( ) sec c) f ( ) csc e) f ( ) cot
b) f ( x) 1 cos x d) f ( x) sin( x 2 ) f) f ( x) tan 2 x
17. Verify the following identities:
a) (sin x cos x)(csc x sec x) tan x cot x
b) sec 2 x csc 2 x tan 2 x cot 2 x
18. Given tan 12 and sin 0 , find cos .
Chapter Two
Functions
Our everyday lives are filled with situations in which we encounter relationships between two sets. For
example,
To each automobile, there corresponds a license plate number
To each circle, there corresponds a circumference
To each number, there corresponds its square
In order to apply mathematics to a variety of disciplines, we must make the idea of a “relationship”
between two sets mathematically precise.
On completion of this chapter students will be able to:
understand the concept of real numbers
use properties of real numbers to solve problems
determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
solve linear equations and inequalities
solve quadratic equations and inequalities
understand the notion of relation and function
determine the domain and range of relations and functions
find the inverse of a relation
define polynomial and rational functions
perform the fundamental operations on polynomials
find the inverse of an invertible function
apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
define exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve
problems
In this chapter, before discussing the idea of relations and functions we first review the system of real
numbers, linear and quadratic equations and inequalities.
b. The real number systems
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
understand the concept of real numbers
use properties of real numbers to solve problems
determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
In this section we will define what the real numbers are and what are their properties? To answer, we
start with some simpler number systems.
The integers and the rational numbers
The simplest numbers of all are the natural numbers,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
With them we can count: our books, our friends, and our money. If we adjoin their negatives and zero,
we obtain the integers;
, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,
When we try to measure length, weight, or voltage, the integers are inadequate. They are spaced too far
apart to give sufficient precision. Thus, we are led to consider quotients (ratios) of integers, numbers
such as:
3 7 21 19 16 17
, , , , and
4 8 5 2 2 1
16 17
Note that we included 2 and 1 , though we would normally write them as 8 and – 17, since they are
5 9
equal to the latter by the ordinary meaning of division. We did not include 0 or 0 , since it is
impossible to make sense out of these symbols. In fact, let us agree once and for all to banish division by
m
zero from this section. Numbers which can be written in the form n , where m and n are integers
with n 0 , are called rational numbers.
Do the rational numbers serve to measure all lengths? No. This surprising fact was discovered by the
ancient Greeks long ago. They showed that while 2 measures the hypotenuse of a right triangle with
sides of length 1, it cannot be written as a quotient of two integers(see exercise…). Thus, Thus, 2 is an
irrational (not rational) number. So are 3, 5, 3 7 , and a host of other numbers.
The real numbers
Consider the set of all numbers (rational and irrational) that can measure lengths, together with their
negatives and zero. We call these numbers the real numbers.
The set of real numbers denoted by can be described as the union of the set of rational and irrational
numbers. i.e = {x : x is a rational number or an irrational number}.
The real numbers may be viewed as labels for points along a horizontal line. There they measure the
distance to the right or left (the directed distance) from a fixed point called the origin and labeled 0.
Each point on the number line corresponds a unique real number and vice-versa.
Most students will remember that the number system can be enlarged still more to the so-called
complex numbers. These are numbers of the form a b 1 , where a and b are real numbers.
The four arithmetic operations
Give two real numbers x and y , we may add or multiply them to obtain two new real numbers x y
and x y (also written simply as xy ). The real numbers along with the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication ( ) , obey the 11 properties listed below. Most of these properties are straightforward and
may seem trivial. Nevertheless, we shall see that these 11 basic properties are quite powerful in that
they are the basis for simplifying algebraic expressions.
The commutative Properties
12. For addition: a b b a
13. For multiplication: ab ba
The associative properties
14. For addition: a (b c) (a b) c
15. For multiplication: a(bc) (ab)c
The distributive property
16. a(b c) ab ac or (b c)a ba ca
Identities
17. For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity, represented by 0,
which has the property that a 0 a 0 a for all real numbers a .
18. For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplicative identity,
represented by 1, which has the property that a 1 a 1 a for all real numbers a .
Inverses
19. For addition: Each real number a has a unique additive inverse, represented by a ,
which has the property that a (a) 0 (a) a
20. For multiplication: Each real number a , except 0, has a unique multiplicative inverse,
represented by a1 , which has the property that a ( a1 ) 1 ( a1 )a .
Closure properties
21. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
22. For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.
Subtraction and division are defined by:
x y x ( y ) and x y x 1y , where y 0 .
In the product ab , a and b are called factors, in the sum a b , a and b are called terms.
Example 2.1: The set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition and multiplication, because
2 ( 2 ) 0 and 2 8 16 4 , which are rational numbers.
The order relation on the set of real numbers
The nonzero real numbers separate nicely into two disjoint sets – the positive real numbers and the
negative real numbers. This fact allows us to introduce the order relation < (read “is less than”) by
x y y x is positive
We agree that x y and y x will mean the same thing. The order relation (read”is less than or
equal to”) is a first cousin of <. It is defined by
x y yx is positive or zero
The order relation < has the following properties:
The order property
5. Trichotomy: If x and y are numbers, exactly one of the following
holds:
x y or x y or x y
6. Transitivity: x y and y z x z
7. Addition: y x z y z
8. Multiplication: When z is positive, x y xz yz ,
When z is negative, x y xz yz
Intervals
Let a and b be two real numbers such that a b, then the intervals which are subsets of R with end
points a and b are denoted and defined as below:
v) (a, b) x : a x b open interval from a to b.
vi) [a, b] x : a x b closed interval from a to b.
vii) (a, b] x : a x b open-closed interval from a to b.
viii) [a, b) x : a x b closed-open interval from a to b.
Exercise 2.1
7. Simplify as much as possible:
c) 4 3(8 12) 6 c) 5
6 ( 14 23 )
1
43 87
d) 2[3 2(4 8)] d) 2
1
2 43 87
8. Which of the following statements are true and which of them are false?
a) The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
b) The sum of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
c) The product of any two rational numbers is rational.
d) The product of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
9. Find the value of each of the following, if undefined, say so.
c) 0 0 c) 00 e) 80
d) 8
0 d) 80 f) 08
10. Show that division by 0 is meaningless as follows: Suppose a 0 . If a
0 b , then
a 0 b 0 , which is a contradiction. Now find a reason why 0
0 is also meaningless.
11. Prove each if a 0 , b 0
b) a b a 2 b2 b) a b a1 1
b
12. Which of the following are always correct if a b ?
b) a 4 b 4 b) a b c) a 2 ab d) a 2 a 2 b
2.3 Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
solve linear equations and inequalities
solve quadratic equations and inequalities identify the notions of the common sets of
numbers
Linear Equations and inequalities
An equation is a symbolic statement of equality. That is, rather than writing “twice a number is four less
than the number,” we write 2 x x 4 . Our goal is to find the solution to a given equation. By solution
we mean the value or values of the variable that make the algebraic statement true.
Definition 2.1: (Linear Equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form ax b 0 , where a and b are
constants, and a 0 .
Equations that have the same solutions are called equivalent equations. For example, 3x 1 5 and
3x 6 are equivalent equations because the solution set of both equations is {2}. Our goal here is to
take an equation and with the help of a few properties, gradually, change the given equation into an
equivalent equation of the form x a , where x is the variable for which we are solving. These
properties are:
3. The addition property
If a b , then a c b c . That is, adding the same quantity to both sides of an
equation will produce an equivalent equation.
4. The multiplication property
If a b , then ac bc . That is, multiplying both sides of an equation by the same
nonzero quantity will produce an equivalent equation.
Example 2.2:
4. Solve for x
b) 820 x 10 x 30(50 x) b) 3(2 x 1) 2(1 5x) 6 x 11
Solution:
c) 820 x 10 x 30(50 x) Simplify the right hand side
820 x 10 x 1500 30 x
820 x 1500 20 x Applying the addition property (add 20 x to both sides)
840 x 1500
1500 25
Thus, x .
840 14
25
Remember to check by substituting 14 for x in the original equation.
d) 3(2 x 1) 2(1 5x) 6 x 11 (The given equation)
6 x 3 2 10 x 6 x 11 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
6 x 10 x 6 x 2 11 3 (Collecting like terms: ‘variables to the left and
numbers to the right’ )
10 x 10
x 1 (Dividing both sides by 10)
Therefore, the solution set (S.S) is {1}.
8x 3 5
5. Find the solution set of 5( x 2) 3( x )
2 6
8x 3 5
Solution: 5( x 2) 3( x ) (The given equation)
2 6
This gives us:
3 5
4x 5 x 10 3x
2 2
5 3
4 x 5 x 3x 10 Using addition property
2 2
2x 6
Hence, x 3 . That is, the solution set is {3}.
6. A computer discount store held an end of summer sale on two types of computers. They
collected Birr 41,800 on the sale of 58 computers. If one type sold for Birr 600 and the
other type sold for Birr 850, how many of each type were sold?
Solution: If we let x to be the number of Birr 600 computers sold, then 58 x = the number of
computers that are sold for Birr 850 (since 58 were sold all together).
Our equation involves the amount of money collected on the sale of each type of computer that is, the
value of computers sold). Thus we have:
600 x 850(58 x) 41,800 , which yields
x 30
Hence, there were 30 computers sold at Birr 600 and 28 computers sold at 850.
Remark: The solution set of some equation can be the set of all rational numbers. This is the case when
the equation is satisfied by every rational number.
Example 2.3: Find the solution set of 5x 2( x 1) 4 3( x 2)
Solution: 5x 2( x 1) 4 3( x 2) (The given equation)
5 x 2 x 2 4 3x 6 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
3x 6 3 x 6 (Combining like terms)
This is always true whatever the value of x is. In fact, subtracting 3x from both sides of the last equation
we get 6=6 which is always true. This means the given equation is satisfied if you take any number for x
as you wish. Thus, S.S = .
Remark: There are also some equations which cannot be satisfied by any number. For example, the
equation x+10 = x says ‘If you increase a number x by 10, the result is x itself (unchanged)’. Obviously,
there is no such a number. The solution set of such equation is empty set. If you try to solve such
equation, you end up with a false statement (false equality). For example, an attempt to solve x+10 = x
leads to the following:
10+x x = x x (Subtracting x from both sides of the equation)
10 = 0, which is false.
Hence, the solution set of x+10 = x is (empty set).
Example 2.4: Find the solution set of 6 3(1 x) 2(1 5x) 7 x
Solution: 6 3(1 x) 2(1 5x) 7 x (The given equation)
6 3 3x 2 10 x 7 x (Removing parentheses by distribution)
9 3x 2 3 x (Combining like terms)
9 3x 3x 2 3 x 3 x (Adding 3x to both sides)
9 = 2, which is false.
This means the solution set of the given equation is empty, .
Example 2.5: A man has a daughter and a son. The man is five times older than his daughter. Moreover,
his age is twice of the sum of the ages of his daughter and son. His daughter is 3 years younger than his
son. How old is the man and his children?
Solution: The unknowns in the problem are age of the man, age of his daughter, and age of his son. So,
let m = Age of the man; d = Age of the daughter; and s = Age of the son. Then, ‘The man is 5 times older
than his daughter’ means m=5d . Moreover, ‘Age of the man is twice the sum of the ages of his daughter
and son’ means m=2(d+s) . ‘His daughter is 3 years younger than his son’ means d = s 3.
Now, from the last (3rd ) equation you can get s = d +3. Substitute this in the 2nd equation to get m=2(d
+d+3) = 2(2d+3). Thais is, m=4d+6. Next substitute this in the 1st equation to get
4d+6 = 5d or 6 = 5d4d=d. Hence, d= 6. From this, s = d +3 = 6+3 = 9, and m=5d =56= 30.
Therefore, the age of the man is 30, age of his daughter is 6 and age of his son is 9.
Definition 2.2: (Linear Inequalities)
A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form ax b 0 , where a and b are constants with
a 0 . (The symbol can be replaced with , or )
To solve inequalities, we will need the following properties of inequalities.
For a, b, c , if a b , then
2) a c b c 2) ac bc, when c 0 3) ac bc, when c 0
Thus, to produce an equivalent inequality, we may add (subtract) the same quantity to (from) both sides
of an inequality, or multiply (divide) both sides by the same positive quantity. On the other hand, we
must reverse the inequality symbol to produce an equivalent inequality if we multiply (divide) both sides
by the same negative quantity.
Example 2.6:
3. Solve the linear inequality 5x 8(20 x) 2( x 5) .
Solution: 5x 8(20 x) 2( x 5) Simplify each side
5x 160 8x 2 x 10
160 3x 2 x 10 Now apply the inequality property
5x 170 Divide both sides by – 5
x 34 Note that the inequality symbol is reversed
Thus, the solution set is {x : x 34} (,34] .
Example 2.7: Find the solution set of the inequality 3x 5(x+2) 0.
Solution: 3x 5(x 2) 0 (The given inequality)
3x 5x + 10 0 (Removing the parentheses by distribution)
2x + 10 0 (Combining like terms)
2x 10 (Subtracting 10 from both sides)
x 10 (Dividing both sides by 2 reverse the inequality)
2
That is, x 5. Therefore, S.S = {x: x 5}, the set of all real numbers less 5.
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given domain (set). If so, a solution
set should contain only those solutions that belong to the specified domain.
Example 2.8: Find the solution set of x 4( x 1) 13 ( x 2) in the set of natural numbers, .
Solution: x 4( x 1) 13 ( x 2) (The given inequality)
x 4x 4 13 x 2 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
3x 4 11 x (Combining like terms; i.e., x 4 x 3x and 13+2= 11)
3x x 11 4 (Collecting like terms)
2 x 7 (Next, division of both sides of this by 2 reverses the
inequality)
7
x ; i.e., x 3.5
2
Thus, the solution of the given inequality in is {1, 2, 3}. (Recall: = {1, 2, 3, … })
Some inequalities may have no solution in the specified domain as in the following example.
Example 2.9: Find the solution set of 7 x 6 3x 2 in the set of whole numbers, W.
Solution: 7 x 2 3x 6 (The given inequality)
7 x 3x 6 2 (Collecting like terms)
4 x 4
4 x 4
or x 1
4 4
However, there is no negative whole number. Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality in W is
, empty set. (Recall: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … } )
1 1 3 3
Example 2.10: Find the solution set of the inequality ( x 3) x ( x 1) in .
6 2 2 2
Solution: The inequality involves fractional numbers. Thus, like for the case of linear equations, clear the
denominators by multiplying both sides of the inequality by the LCM of the denominators. The
denominators in this equation are 6 and 2; and their LCM is 6. Thus, multiply every term in both sides of
the given inequality by 6. That is,
1 1 3 3
6 ( x 3) 6 x 6 6 ( x 1) (The inequality is not reversed because 60)
6 2 2 2
x 3 3x 9 9( x 1) (Simplifying/clear denominators)
4x 6 9 x 9
4x 9x 9 6 (Collecting like terms)
5x 15 (Next, division of both sides by 5)
15
x or x 3 .
5
Therefore, S.S = { x | x 3 }.
Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation in which the highest degree of the variable is 2. We
define the standard form of a quadratic a quadratic equation as Ax Bx c 0 , where A 0 .
2
As with linear equations, the solutions of quadratic equations are values of the variable that make the
equation a true statement. The solutions of Ax Bx C 0 are also called the roots of the
2
polynomial equation Ax Bx C 0 .
2
In solving the equation Ax Bx C 0 , if the polynomial Ax Bx C can be factored, the we
2 2
can use the zero product rule (which is stated below) to reduce the problem to that of solving two linear
equations. For example, to solve the equation x x 6 0 , we van factor the left hand side to get
2
( x 2)( x 3) 0 . Hence, we can conclude that x 2 0 or x 3 0 , which yields x 2 or
x 3 .
The Zero-Product Rule: If a b 0 , then a 0 or b 0
Another method is to apply the Square Root Theorem.
The Square Root Theorem: If x 2 d , then x d .
Example 2.11: Solve the following
d) 4 x 2 10 x 6 b) 5x 2 6 8 c) ( x 2) 2 6
Solution: a) 4 x 2 10 x 6 Put into standard form
4 x 2 10 x 6 0 Factor the left hand side
2(2 x 1)( x 3) 0 Hence we have
2 x 1 0 or x 3 0 Solving each linear equation, we get
x 1
2 or x 3
e) We note that there is no first-degree term, so our approach will be to apply the Square
Root Theorem.
5x 2 6 8 Isolate x 2 on the left-hand side before applying the
square root theorem
5x 2 14
x 2 145 Applying the square root theorem we get
x 14
5
f) Since it is in the form of a squared quantity equal to a number, we will apply the
Square Root Theorem to get x 2 6 .
Part (c) of the above example illustrates that if we can construct a perfect square binomial from a
quadratic equation (i.e., get the equation in the form ( x p) 2 d ) , then we can apply the Square
Root Theorem and solve for x to get x p d .
The method of constructing a perfect square is called completing the square. It is based on the fact that
in multiplying out the perfect square ( x p) 2 , with p a constant, we get
( x p) 2 x 2 2 px p 2
Notice the relationship between the constant term, p 2 , and the coefficient of the middle term, 2 p :
The constant term is the square of half the coefficient of the middle term.
Example 2.12: Solve by completing the square: 2 x 8x 4 6 .
2
Solution: 2 x 2 8x 4 6 Divide both sides by 2, the coefficient of x
2
x2 4x 2 3 Isolate the constant term on the right-hand side
x2 4x 1 Take half the middle term coefficient, square it
12 (4)2 4 , we add 4 to both sides of the
equation
x2 4x 4 1 4 Factor the left hand side
( x 2) 2 5 Solve for x using the Square Root Theorem
x 2 5.
Unlike the factoring method, all quadratic equations can be solved by completing the square. If we were
to complete the square for the general quadratic equation Ax 2 Bx C 0, A 0 , we would arrive
at the formula given below.
B B 2 4 AC
The Quadratic Formula: If Ax 2 Bx C 0 and A 0 , then x
2A
Example 2.13: Solve the following using the quadratic formula: x 8 6 x .
2
Solution: Writing the equation in standard form we get, x 6 x 8 0 . By the quadratic formula we
2
have:
6 62 4(1)( 8) 6 68 6 2 17
x 3 17
2(1) 2 2
Thus, the solution set is 3 17 , 3 17 .
A quadratic inequality is in standard form if it is in the form Ax Bx C 0 . (We can replace
2
with , , or .)
If we keep in mind that u 0 means u is positive, then solving an inequality such as 2 x 5x 3 0
2
means we are interested in finding the values of x that will make 2x + 5 x 3 positive. Or, since
2
2 x 2 5x 3 (2 x 1)( x 3) , we are looking for values of x that make (2 x 1)( x 3) positive.
For (2 x 1)( x 3) to be positive, the factors must be either both positive or both negative. To
determine when this happens, we first find the values of x for which (2 x 1)( x 3) is equal to 0; we
call these the cut points of (2 x 1)( x 3) . The cut points are 1
2 and 3 .
Thus, our approach in solving quadratic inequalities will be primarily algebraic. After putting the
inequality in standard form, we will determine the sign of each factor of the expression for various
values of x . Then, we determine the solution by examining the sign of the product. This process is
called a sign analysis.
Returning to the problem 2 x 5x 3 0 , we draw a number line and examine the sign of each
2
factor as x takes on various values on the number line, especially around the cut points.
Sign of x 3 ++ + + + + + + + + + + +
Sign of 2 x 1 + + + + + + +
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The above figure illustrates that the factor x 3 is negative when x 3 and positive when x 3 . It
is also shown that 2 x 1 is negative when x 1
2 and positive when x 12 . Thus the product of the two
factors is positive when x 3 and x 12 . Therefore, the solution set is ( ,3) ( 12 , ) .
Remark: 1. The cut points of the inequalities will break up the number line into intervals.
4. The sign of the product does not change within an interval, i.e., if the expression is
positive (or negative) for one value within the interval, it is positive (or negative) for all
values within the interval.
Example 2.14: Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 x 2 0 .
2
Solution: Since we cannot factor x 2 x 2 , we use the quadratic formula to find that its roots are
2
1 3 . This gives the cut points for the polynomial x 2 2 x 2 . We use the sign analysis (see the
figure below) with the test points given. Note: 1 3 2.7 & 1 3 0.7 .
Sign of x 2 x 2
2
+ 0 – 0 +
x 10 1 3 x 1 1 3 x 100
Substituting the test values – 10, 1, and 100 for x in the expression x 2 x 2 , we find that
2
x 2 2 x 2 is negative only when x is in the interval (1 3,1 3) .
Exercise 2.2
8. Solve the linear equations
2 5 x
d) 2 3( x 4) 2( x 1) d) 4
x3 x3
6 12 1
e) 3x [2 3(2 x)] 5 (3 x) e) 2
x 3x x x 3
f) 3
4 (2 x 3) 23 x 5
9. Solve the linear inequalities
5x 2 x 3
b) 4 x 23 2 x (3x 1) b) 5x 2 3x ( x 15 ) c)
3 4
10. A truck carries a load of 50 boxes; some are 20 kg boxes and the rest are 25 kg boxes. If
the total weight of all boxes is 1175 kg, how many of each type are there?
11. The product of two numbers is 5. If their sum 92 , find the numbers.
12. Solve
c) 2 x 2 7 x 15 c) x 2 2 x 4 0 e) 3x 2 6 x 5 0
1 1 3
d) x 3 d) 4
x3 x 5 x 2
13. Solve the quadratic inequalities
d) x 2 2 x 24 0 d) 2 x 2 x 2 0
e) x 2 5x 24 e) x 2 16
f) x 2 3x 3 0
3
14. A student was given the inequality: 4 . The first step the student took in solving
x2
this inequality was to transform it into 3 4( x 2) . Explain what the student did wrong.
4.3. Review of relations and functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define Cartesian product of two sets
understand the notion of relation and function
know the difference between relation and function
determine the domain and range of relations and functions
find the inverse of a relation
The student is familiar with the phrase ordered pair. In the ordered pair (2,3), ( 2,4) and (a, b) ;
2, 2 and a are the first coordinates while 3, 4 and b are the second coordinates.
Cartesian Product
Given sets A {3, 4} and B { 4, 5, 9} . Then, the set {(3,4), (3,5), (3,9), (4,4), (4,5), (4,9)} is the
Cartesian product of A and B , and it is denoted by A B .
Definition 2.3: Suppose A B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B , denoted by A B , is the set
and
which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate is an element of A and second coordinate is an
element of B , i.e.
A B {(a, b) : a A and b B} .
Example 2.15: For A {2, 4} and A {1, 3} , we have
c) A B {(2,1), (2,3), (4,1), (4,3)} , and
d) B A {(1,2), (1,4), (3,2), (3,4)} .
From this example, we can see that A B and B A are not equal. Recall that two sets are equal if
one is a subset of the other and vice versa. To check equality of Cartesian products we need to define
equality of ordered pairs.
Definition 2.4: (Equality of ordered Pairs)
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d ) are equal if and only if a c and b d .
Example 2.16: Let A {1,2,3} and B {a, b, c} . Then,
A B {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c)} .
Definition 2.5: (Relation)
If A and B are sets, any subset of A B is called a relation from A into B.
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R A×B and hence for each (a, b) A B , we
have either (a, b) R or (a, b) R . If (a, b) R , we say “a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and
write aRb . If (a, b) R , we say that “a is not related to b”.
In particular if R is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.
Example 2.17:
3. Let A {1,3,5,7} and B {6,8} . Let R be the relation “less than” from A to B . Then,
R {(1,6), (1,8), ((3,6), (3,8), (5,6), (5,8), (7,8)} .
4. Let A {1,2,3,4,5} and B {a, b, c} .
c) The following are relations from A into B ;
iv) R1 {(1, a )}
v) R2 {(2, b), (3, b), (4, c), (5, a)}
vi) R3 {(1, a ), ((2, b), (3, c)}
d) The following are relations from B to A ;
iv) R4 {(a,3), (b,1)}
v) R5 {(b,2), (c,4), (a,2), (b,3)}
vi) R6 {(b,5)}
R be a relation from A into B . Then,
Definition 2.6: Let
c) the domain of R , denoted by Dom(R) , is the set of first coordinates of the elements of
R , i.e
Dom( R) {a
A : (a, b) R}
d) the range of R , denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second coordinates of elements of R
, i.e
Range( R) {b B : (a, b) R}
Remark: If R is a relation form the set A to the set B , then the set B is called the codomain of the
relation R . The range of relation is always a subset of the codomain.
Example 2.18:
3. The set R {(4,7), (5,8), (6,10)} is a relation from the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6} to the set
B {6,7,8,9,10] . The domain of R is {4,5,6} , the range of R is {7,8,10} and the
codomain of R is {6,7,8,9,10} .
4. The set of ordered pairs R {(8,2), (6,3), (5,7), (5,3)} is a relation between the sets
{5,6,8} and {2,3,7} , where {5,6,7} is the domain and {2,3,7} is the range.
Remark:
3. If (a, b) R for a relation R , we say a is related to (or paired with) b . Note that a may
also be paired with an element different from b . In any case, b is called the image of a
while a is called the pre-image of b .
4. If the domain and/or range of a relation is infinite, we cannot list each element
assignment, so instead we use set builder notation to describe the relation. The situation
we will encounter most frequently is that of a relation defined by an equation or formula.
For example,
R {( x, y ) : y 2 x 3, x, y IR}
is a relation for which the range value is 3 less than twice the domain value. Hence,
(0, 3), (0.5, 2) and ( 2,7) are examples of ordered pairs that are of the assignment.
Example 2.19:
3. Let A {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
Let R be the relation on A defined by R {(a, b) : a, b A, a is a factor of b} . Find the
domain and range of R .
Solution: We have
R {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,6), (2,2), (2,4), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (4,4), (6,6)} .
Then, Dom( R) {1,2,3,4,6} and Range( R) {1,2,3,4,6} .
4. Let A {1,2,3,4,5} and B {1, 2, 3,, 67} .
Let R {( x, y ) A B : x is cube root of y . Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R)
Solution: We have 1 1, 2 3 8, 3 3 27 , 4 3 64 , 5 3 125 and 1,8,27 and 64 are in B whereas
3,
125 is not in B . Thus, R {(1,1), (2,8), (3,27), (4,64)} , Dom( R) {1,2,3,4} and R {1,8,27,64} .
Remark:
4. A relation R on a set A is called
iv) a universal relation if R A A
v) identity relation if R {(a, a) : a A}
vi) void or empty relation if R
5. If R is a relation from A to B , then the inverse relation of R , denoted by R 1 , is a
relation from B to A and is defined as:
R 1 {( y, x) : ( x, y ) R} .
Observe that Dom( R) Range( R 1 ) and Range( R) Dom( R 1 ) . For instance, if
R {(1,4), (9,15), (10,2)} is a relation on a set A {1,2,3,,20} , then R {(4,1), (15,9), (2,10)}
1
Example 2.20: Let R be a relation defined on IN by R {(a, b) : a, b IN , a 2b 11} .
1
Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R) d) R
Solution: The smallest natural number is 1.
b 1 a 2(1) 11 a 9
b2 a 2(2) 11 a 7
b3 a 2(3) 11 a 5
b4 a 2(4) 11 a 3
b5 a 2(5) 11 a 1
b6 a 2(6) 11 a 1 IN
Therefore, R {(9,1), (7,2), (5,3), (3,4), (1,5)} , Dom( R) {1,3,5,7,9} , Range ( R) {1,2,3,4,5} and
R 1 {(1,9), (2,7), (3,5), (4,3), (5,1)} .
Functions
Mathematically, it is important for us to distinguish among the relations that assign a unique range
element to each domain element and those that do not.
Definition 2.7: (Function)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.
Example 2.21: Determine whether the following relations are functions.
b) R {(5,2), (3,5), (3,7)} b) {(2,4),(3,4),(6,-4)}
Solution:
c) Since the domain element 3 is assigned to two different values in the range, 5 and 7, it is
not a function.
d) Each element in the domain, {2,3,6} , is assigned no more than one value in the range, 2 is
assigned only 4, 3 is assigned only 4, and 6 is assigned only – 4. Therefore, it is a
function.
Remark: Map or mapping, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word function. If
f is a function and ( x, y ) f , we say x is mapped to y.
Definition 2.8: A relation f from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted by
f : A B or A f
B
if and only if
(iii) Dom( f ) A
(iv) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e. if ( x, y ) f
and ( x, z ) f , then y z .
Remark: 1. If to the element x of A corresponds y ( B) under the function f , then we write
f ( x) y and y is called the image of x under y and x is called a pre-image of y under f .
2. The symbol f (x ) is read as “ f of x” but not “ f times x”.
6. In order to show that a relation f from A into B is a function, we first show that the
domain of f is A and next we show that f well defined or single-valued, i.e. if x y in
A, then f ( x) f ( y ) in B for all x, y A .
Example 2.22:
3. Let A {1,2,3,4} and B {1,6,8,11,15} . Which of the following are functions from A to
B.
f) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (3) 8, f (4) 8
g) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (3) 15
h) f defined by f (1) 6, f (2) 6, f (3) 6, f (4) 6
i) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (2) 8, f (3) 8, f (4) 11
j) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 8, f (3) 11, f (4) 15
Solution:
a) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of B.
b) f is not a function because there is no element of B which correspond to 4( A).
c) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B. In the given function, the images of all element of A are the same.
d) f is not a function because there are two elements of B which are corresponding to 2.
In other words, the image of 2 is not unique.
e) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B.
As with relations, we can describe a function with an equation. For example, y=2x+1 is a function, since
each x will produce only one y .
4. Let f {( x, y ) : y x } . Then, f maps:
2
1 to 1 -1 to 1
2 to 4 -2 to 4
3 to 9 -3 to 9
More generally any real number x is mapped to its square. As the square of a number is unique, f
maps every real number to a unique number. Thus, f is a function from into .
We will find it useful to use the following vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered pair notation ( x, y ) , x is the
independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
Domain, Codomain and range of a function
For the function f : A B
(iv) The set A is called the domain of f
(v) The set B is called the codomain of f
(vi) The set { f ( x) : x A} of all image of elements of A is called the range of f
Example 2.23:
7. Let A {1,2,3} and B {1,2,3,,10} . Let f : A B be the correspondence which
assigns to each element in A , its square. Thus, we have f (1) 1, f (2) 4, f (3) 9 .
Therefore, f is a function and Dom( f ) {1,2,3} , Range ( f ) {1,4,9} and codomain of
f is {1,2,3,,10} .
8. Let A {2,4,6,7,9}, B IN . Let x and y represent the elements in the sets A and B ,
respectively. Let f : A B be a function defined by f ( x) 15x 17, x A .
The variable x can take values 2, 4, 6, 7, 9. Thus, we have
f (2) 15(2) 17 47, f (4) 77, f (6) 107, f (7) 122, f (9) 152 .
This implies that Dom( f ) {2,4,6,7,9}, Range( f ) {47,77,107,122,152} and codomain
of f is IN .
9. Let f be the subset of Q Z defined by f q , p : p, q Z , q 0. Is f a function?
p
Solution: First we note that Dom( f ) Q . Then, f satisfies condition (i) in the
definition of a function. Now, 23 ,2 f , 46 ,4 f and 23 46 but f 23 2 4 f 46 .
Thus f is not well defined. Hence, f is not a function from Q to Z .
10. Let f be the subset of Z Z defined by f {(mn, m n) : m, n Z } . Is f a function?
Solution: First we show that f satisfies condition (i) in the definition. Let x be any
element of Z . Then, x x 1 . Hence, ( x, x 1) ( x 1, x 1) f . This implies that
x Dom( f ) . Thus, Z Dom( f ) . However, Dom( f ) Z and so Dom( f ) Z . Now,
4 Z and 4 4 1 2 2 . Thus, (4 1,4 1) and (2 2,2 2) are in f . Hence we find that
4 1 2 2 and f (4 1) 5 4 f (2 2) . This implies that f is not well defined, i.e, f
does not satisfy condition (ii). Hence, f is not a function from Z to Z .
11. Determine whether the following equations determine y as a function of x , if so, find
the domain.
2x
b) y 3x 5 b) y c) y x
2
3x 5
Solution:
d) To determine whether y 3x 5 gives y as a function of x , we need to know
whether each x-value uniquely determines a y-value. Looking at the equation
y 3x 5 , we can see that once x is chosen we multiply it by – 3 and then add 5.
Thus, for each x there is a unique y . Therefore, y 3x 5 is a function.
2x
e) Looking at the equation y carefully, we can see that each x-value uniquely
3x 5
determines a y-value (one x-value can not produce two different y-values). Therefore,
2x
y is a function.
3x 5
As for its domain, we ask ourselves. Are there any values of x that must be
2x
excluded? Since y is a fractional expression, we must exclude any value of
3x 5
x that makes the denominator equal to zero. We must have
5
3x 5 0 x
3
5
Therefore, the domain consists of all real numbers except for . Thus, Dom( f )
3
5
{x : x } .
3
f) For the equation y x , if we choose x 9 we get y 9 , which gives y 3 . In
2 2
other words, there are two y values associated with x 9 . Therefore, y x is not
2
a function.
12. Find the domain of the function y 3x x .
2
Solution: Since y is defined and real when the expression under the radical is non-
negative, we need x to satisfy the inequality
3x x 2 0 x ( 3 x ) 0
This is a quadratic inequality, which can be solved by analyzing signs:
Sign of 3x x
2
0 3
Since we want 3x x x(3 x) to be non-negative, the sign analysis shows us that the
2
domain is {x : 0 x 3} or [0,3] .
Exercise 2.3
9. Let R be a relation on the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6} defined by R {(a, b) : a b 9} .
iii) List the elements of R
1
iv) Is R R
10. Let R be a relation on the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} defined by R {(a, b) : 4 divides a b.
v) List the elements of R
vi) Find Dom( R) & Range( R)
1
vii) Find the elements of R
1 1
viii) Find Dom( R ) & Range( R )
11. Let A {1,2,3,4,5,6}. Define a relation on A by R {( x, y ) : y x 1} . Write down the
1
domain, codomain and range of R . Find R .
12. Find the domain and range of the relation {( x, y ) : x y 2} .
13. Let A {1,2,3} and B {3,5,6,8} . Which of the following are functions from A to B ?
c) f {(1,3), (2,3), (3,3)} c) f {(1,8), (2,5)}
d) f {(1,3), (2,5), (1,6)} d) f {(1,6), (2,5), (3,3)}
14. Determine the domain and range of the given relation. Is the relation a function?
d) {(4,3), (2,5), (4,6), (2,0)} d) {( 12 , 16 ), ( 1,1), ( 13 , 81 )}
e) {(8,2), (6, 2 ), ( 1,5)}
3
e) {(0,5), (1,5), (2,5), (3,5), (4,5), (5,5)}
f) {( 3,3), ( 1,1), (0,0), (1,1), ( 3,3)} f) {(5,0),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)}
15. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
f ( x) 1 8x 2 x 2 c) f ( x ) x 6 x 8
2
c)
1 3x 4, 1 x 2
d) f ( x) d) f ( x )
x 5x 6 1 x, 2 x 5
2
3x 5, x 1
16. Given f ( x ) 2 .
x 1, x 1
Find a) f (3) b) f (1) c) f (6)
4.4 Real Valued functions and their properties
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials
compose functions to get a new function
determine the domain of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions
define equality of two functions
Let f be a function from set A to set B . If B is a subset of real number system , then f is called a
real valued function, and in particular if A is also a subset of , then f : A B is called a real
function.
Example 2.24: 1. The function f : defined by f ( x ) x 2 3x 7 , x is a real function.
2. The function f : defined as f ( x ) x is also a real valued function.
Operations on functions
Functions are not numbers. But just as two numbers a and b can be added to produce a new number
a b , so two functions f and g can be added to produce a new function f g . This is just one of
the several operations on functions that we will describe in this section.
x3
Consider functions f and g with formulas f ( x) , g ( x ) x . We can make a new
2
x3
function f g by having it assign to x the value x , that is,
2
x 3
( f g )( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) x .
2
Definition 2.9: Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions
Let f (x ) and g (x ) be two functions. We define the following four functions:
5. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The sum of the two functions
6. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The difference of the two functions
7. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The product of the two functions
f f ( x)
8. ( x ) The quotient of the two functions (provided g ( x ) 0)
g g ( x)
Since an x value must be an inout into both f and g , the domain of ( f g )( x) is the set of all x common
to the domain of f and g . This is usually written as Dom( f g ) Dom( f ) Dom( g ) . Similar statements
hold for the domains of the difference and product of two functions. In the case of the quotient, we must impose
the additional restriction that all elements in the domain of g for which g ( x) 0 are excluded.
Example 2.25:
3. Let f ( x ) 3x 2 2 and g ( x) 5x 4 . Find each of the following and its domain
f
b) ( f g )( x) b) ( f g )( x) c) ( f .g )( x) d) (x )
g
Solution:
e) ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) (3x 2 2) (5x 4) 3x 2 5x 2
f) ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) (3x 2 2) (5x 4) 3x 2 5x 6
g) ( f g )( x) (3x 2 2)(5x 4) 15x 3 12 x 2 10 x 8
f f ( x ) 3x 2 2
h) ( x )
g g ( x) 5x 4
We have
Dom( f g ) Dom( f g ) Dom( fg ) Dom( f ) Dom( g )
f 5
Dom Dom( f ) Dom( g ) \ {x : g ( x ) 0} \
g 4
4. Let f ( x ) 4 x 1 and g ( x ) 9 x 2 , with respective domains [1, ) and [3,3] .
f
Find formulas for f g , f g , f g , and f 3 and give their domains.
g
Solution:
Formula Domain
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
f f ( x) 4
x 1
( x ) [1, 3)
g g ( x) 9 x2
f 3 ( x) f ( x)
3
4
x 1 x 14
3 3
[1, )
There is yet another way of producing a new function from two given functions.
Definition 2.10: (Composition of functions)
Given two functions f (x ) and g (x ) , the composition of the two functions is denoted by f g and is defined
by:
( f g )( x) f [ g ( x)] .
( f g )( x) is read as " f composed with g of x" . The domain of f g consists of those x s in the
domain of g whose range values are in the domain of f , i.e. those x s for which g (x ) is in the domain of f .
Example 2.26:
5. Suppose f {(2, z ), (3, q)} and g {(a,2), (b,3), (c,5)} . The function
( f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) is found by taking elements in the domain of g and evaluating as
follows: ( f g )(a) f ( g (a)) f (2) z, ( f g )(b) f ( g (b)) f (3) q
If we attempt to find f ( g (c)) we get f (5) , but 5 is not in the domain of f (x ) and so we cannot find
( f g )(c) . Hence, f g {(a, z ), (b, q)} . The figure below illustrates this situation.
g
f
2
a 3 z
Domain
b q
c of f
5
Domain of Range of g Range of f
g 2
6. Given f ( x) 5x 3x 2 and g ( x) 4 x 3 , find
b) ( f g )( 2) b) ( g f )(2) c) ( f g )( x) d) ( g f )( x)
Solution:
e) ( f g )( 2) f ( g (2)) …… First evaluate g (2) 4(2) 3 5
f (5)
5( 5) 2 3( 5) 2 142
f) ( g f )(2) g ( f (2)) …….First evaluate f (2) 5(2) 2 3(2) 2 16
g (16)
4(16) 3 67
g) ( f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) ……. But g ( x) 4 x 3
f (4 x 3)
5(4 x 3) 2 3(4 x 3) 2
80 x 2 108x 38
h) ( g f )( x) g ( f ( x)) ……. But f ( x) 5x 2 3x 2
g (5x 2 3x 2)
4(5x 2 3x 2) 3
20 x 2 12 x 11
x 2
7. Given f ( x ) and g ( x ) , find
x 1 x 1
c) ( f g )( x) and its domain b) ( g f )( x) and its domain
2
2 x 1 2 . Thus, Dom( f g ) {x : x 1} .
Solution: a) ( f g )( x ) f
x 1 2
1
x 1
x 1
2
d) ( g f )( x ) g ( f ( x )) 2 x 2 . Since x must first be an input into f (x )
x
1
x 1
and so must be in the domain of f , we see that Dom( g f ) {x : x 1} .
6x
8. Let f ( x ) and g ( x ) 3x . Find ( f g )(12) and ( g f )( x) and its domain.
x 9
2
Solution: We have ( f g )(12) f ( g (12)) f ( 36 ) f (6) 36
27 43 .
6 3x 6 3x 2 3x
( f g )( x ) f ( g ( x )) f ( 3x ) .
( 3x ) 9 3x 9 x 3
2
The domain of f g is [0,3) (3, ) .
We now explore the meaning of equality of two functions. Let f : A B and g : A B be two
functions. Then, f and g are subsets of A B . Suppose f g . Let x be any element of A . Then,
( x, f ( x)) f g and thus ( x, f ( x)) g . Since g is a function and ( x, f ( x)), ( x, g ( x)) g , we
must have f ( x) g ( x). Conversely, assume that g ( x) f ( x) for all x A . Let ( x, y ) f . Then,
y f ( x) g ( x) . Thus, ( x, y ) g , which implies that f g . Similarly, we can show that g f . It
now follows that f g . Thus two functions f : A B and g : A B are equal if and only if
f ( x) g ( x) for all x A . In general we have the following definition.
Definition 2.11: (Equality of functions)
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
iii) The functions have the same domain;
iv) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.
Example 2.27:
3. Let f : Z Z {0} and g : Z Z {0} be defined by f {(n, n 2 ) : n Z } and
g {(n, n ) : n Z } . Now, for all n Z , f (n) n 2 n g (n) . Thus, f g .
2 2
x 2 25
4. Let f ( x ) , x \ {5} , and g ( x) x 5, x . The function f and g are not
x 5
equal because Dom( f ) Dom( g ).
Exercise 2.4
2
9. For f ( x ) x 2 x and g ( x ) , find each value:
x3
c) ( f g )(2) c) g 2 (3) e) ( g f )(1)
f
d) (1) d) ( f g )(1) f) ( g g )(3)
g
2
10. If f ( x ) x 3 2 and g ( x ) , find a formula for each of the following and state its
x 1
domain.
g
c) ( f g )( x) c) (x )
f
d) ( f g )( x) d) ( g f )( x)
11. Let f ( x ) x 2 and g ( x ) x .
d) Find ( f g )( x) and its domain.
e) Find ( g f )( x) and its domain
f) Are ( f g )( x) and ( g f )( x) the same functions? Explain.
12. Let f ( x) 5x 3 . Find g (x ) so that ( f g )( x) 2 x 7 .
13. Let f ( x) 2 x 1. Find g (x ) so that ( f g )( x) 3x 1 .
x 1 3 f ( x) 1
14. If f is a real function defined by f ( x ) . Show that f (2 x ) .
x 1 f ( x) 3
15. Find two functions f and g so that the given function h( x) ( f g )( x) , where
1
c) h( x ) ( x 3) 3 c) h( x ) 6
x
1
d) h( x ) 5x 3 d) h( x )
x6
1
16. Let f ( x ) 4 x 3, g ( x ) and h( x ) x 2 x . Find
x
c) f (5x 7) c) f ( g (h(3))) e) f ( x a )
d) 5 f ( x) 7 d) f (1) g (2) h(3) f) f ( x ) a
4.5 Types of functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define one to oneness and ontoness of a function
check invertibility of a function
find the inverse of an invertible function
In this section we shall study some important types of functions.
One to One functions
Definition 2.12: A function f : A B is called one to one, often written 1 – 1, if and only if for all
x1 , x2 A , f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) implies x1 x2 . In words, no two elements of A are mapped to one
element of B .
Example 2.28:
3. If we consider the sets A {1,2,3,,6} and B {7, a, b, c, d ,8, e} and if f {(1,7), (2, a ),
(3, b) , (4, b), (5, c), (6,8)} and g {(1,7), (2, a), (3, b), (4, c), (5,8), (6, d )} , then both f and
g are functions from A into B . Observe that f is not a 1 – 1 function because
f (3) f (4) but 3 4 . However, g is a 1 – 1 function.
4. Let A {1,2,3,4} and B {1,4,7,8} . Consider the functions
iii) f : A B defined as f (1) 1, f (2) 4, f (3) 4, f (4) 8
iv) g : A B defined as f (1) 4, f (2) 7, f (3) 1, f (4) 8
Then, f is not 1 – 1, but g is a 1 – 1 function.
Onto functions
Definition 2.13: Letf be a function from a set A into a set B . Then f is called an onto function(or f
maps onto B ) if every element of B is image of some element in A , i.e, Range( f ) B.
Example 2.29:
4. Let A {1,2,3} and B {1,4,5} . The function f : A B defined as f (1) 1 , f (2) 5 ,
f (3) 1 is not onto because there is no element in A , whose image under f is 4. The
function g : A B given by g {(1,4), (2,5), (3,1)} is onto because each element of B is
the image of at least one element of A .
Note that if A is a non-empty set, the function i A : A A defined by i A ( x ) x for all
x A is a 1 – 1 function from A onto A . i A is called the identity map on A .
5. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) n 2 for all n Z . Now,
domain of f is Z . Also, if n n , then n 2 (n ) 2 , i.e. f (n) f (n ) . Hence, f is well
defined and a function. However, f (1) 1 f ( 1) and 1 1 , which implies that f is
not 1 – 1. For all n Z , f (n ) is a non-negative integer. This shows that a negative
integer has no preimage. Hence, f is not onto. Note that f is onto {0,1,4,9,} .
6. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) 2n for all n Z . As in the
previous example, we can show that f is a function. Let n, n Z and suppose that
f (n) f (n ) . Then 2n 2n and thus n n . Hence, f is 1 – 1. Since for all n Z ,
f (n ) is an even integer; we see that an odd integer has no preimage. Therefore, f is not
onto.
1 – 1 Correspondence
Definition 2.14: A function f : A B is said to be a 1 – 1 correspondence if f is both 1 – 1
and onto.
Example 2.30:
3. Let A {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25}. Suppose f : A B given by
f ( x ) 5x for all x A . One can easily see that every element of B has a preimage in
A and hence f is onto. Moreover, if f ( x) f ( y ) , then 5x 5 y , i.e. x y . Hence, f
is 1 – 1. Therefore, f is a 1 – 1 correspondence between A and B .
4. Let A be a finite set. If f : A A is onto, then it is one to one.
Solution: Let A {a1 , a2 ,, an } . Then Range( f ) { f (a1 ), f (a2 ),, f (an )} . Since f is onto we
have Range( f ) A .Thus, A { f (a1 ), f (a2 ),, f (an )} , which implies that f (a1 ) , f (a 2 ) , ,
f (a n ) are all distinct. Hence, ai a j implies f (ai ) f (a j ) for all 1 i, j n . Therefore, f is 1 –
1.
Inverse of a function
1
Since a function is a relation , the inverse of a function f is denoted by f and is defined by:
f 1 {( y, x) : ( x, y ) f}
For instance, if f {(2,4), (3,6), (1,7)} , then f 1
{(4,2), (6,3), (7,1)} . Note that the inverse of a
function is not always a function. To see this consider the function f {(2,4), (3,6), (5,4)} . Then,
f 1 {(4,2), (6,3), (4,5)} , which is not a function.
As we have seen above not all functions have an inverse, so it is important to determine whether or not
a function has an inverse before we try to find the inverse. If the function does not have an inverse, then
we need to realize that it does not have an inverse so that we do not waste our time trying to find
something that does not exist.
A one to one function is special because only one to one functions have inverse. If a function is one to
one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps below:
3. Interchange x and y in the equation y f (x )
4. Solving the resulting equation for y , we will obtaining the inverse function.
Note that the domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function and the range of the
inverse function is the domain of the original function.
Example 2.31:
3. Given y f ( x) x 3 . Find f 1 and its domain.
Solution: We begin by interchanging x and y , and we solve for y .
y x3 Interchange x and y
x y3 Take the cube root of both sides
3
xy This is the inverse of the function
1
Thus, f ( x ) 3 x . The domain of f 1 is the set of all real numbers.
x
4. Let y f ( x ) . Find f 1 ( x ) .
x2
Solution: Again we begin by interchanging x and y , and then we solve for y .
x
y Interchange x and y
x2
y
x Solving for y
y2
2x
x( y 2) y xy 2 x y 2 x y (1 x ) y
1 x
1 2x
Thus, f ( x) .
1 x
Remark: Even though, in general, we use an exponent of 1 to indicate a reciprocal, inverse function
1
notation is an exception to this rule. Please be aware that f ( x ) is not the reciprocal of f . That is,
1
f 1 ( x )
f ( x)
If we want to write the reciprocal of the function f (x ) by using a negative exponent, we must
write
f ( x ) .
1 1
f ( x)
Exercise 2.5
8. Consider the function f {( x, x 2 ) : x S} from S {3,2,1,0,1,2,3} into Z . Is f one
to one? Is it onto?
9. Let A {1,2,3} . List all one to one functions from A onto A .
10. Let f : A B . Let f be the inverse relation, i.e. f {( y, x) B A : f ( x) y} .
e) Show by an example that f need not be a function.
f) Show that f is a function from Range( f ) into A if and only if f is 1 – 1.
g) Show that f is a function from B into A if and only if f is 1 – 1 and onto.
h) Show that if f is a function from B into A , then f 1 f .
11. Let A {x : 0 x 1} and B {x : 5 x 8} . Show that f : A B defined by
f ( x) 5 (8 5) x is a 1 – 1 function from A onto B .
12. Which of the following functions are one to one?
f) f : defined by f ( x) 4, x
g) f : defined by f ( x) 6 x 1, x
h) f : defined by f ( x) x 2 7, x
i) f : defined by f ( x ) x 3 , x
2x 1
j) f : \ {7} defined by f ( x ) , x \ {7}
x7
13. Which of the following functions are onto?
e) f : defined by f ( x) 115x 49, x
f) f : defined by f ( x ) x , x
g) f : defined by f ( x ) x 2 , x
h) f : defined by f ( x) x 2 4, x
1
14. Find f ( x ) if
4 x
d) f ( x) 7 x 6 d) f ( x ) g) f ( x) ( x 2) 2 1
3x
2x 9 5x 3 2x
e) f ( x) e) f ( x ) h) f ( x )
4 1 2x 1 x
3
f) f ( x) 1 f) f ( x ) 3 x 1
x
2.6 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define polynomial and rational functions
apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
use the division algorithm to find quotient and remainder
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
The functions described in this section frequently occur as mathematical models of real-life situations.
For instance, in business the demand function gives the price per item, p , in terms of the number of
items sold, x . Suppose a company finds that the price p (in Birr) for its model GC-5 calculator is related
to the number of calculators sold, x (in millions), and is given by the demand function p 80 x 2 .
The manufacturer’s revenue is determined by multiplying the number of items sold ( x ) by the price per
item ( p ). Thus, the revenue function is
R xp x(80 x 2 ) 80 x x 3
These demand and revenue functions are examples of polynomial functions. The major aim of this
section is to better understand the significance of applied functions (such as this demand function). In
order to do this, we need to analyze the domain, range, and behavior of such functions.
Polynomial functions
Definition 2.15: A polynomial function is a function of the form
y an x n an1 x n1 a1 x a0 , an 0.
Each a i is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer, a n is called the leading
coefficient. Such a polynomial is said to be of degree n.
Remark:
3. The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
4. (Types of polynomials)
- A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
- A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
- A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
i.e p( x) a3 x 3 a2 x 2 a1 x a0 , a3 0.
Example 2.32: p( x ) 2 x 2 1 , q( x ) 3x 4 2 x and f ( x ) 2 x 3 are examples of polynomial
functions.
Properties of polynomial functions
5. The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word smooth means that the graph
does not have any sharp corners as turning points.
6. If p is a polynomial of degree n , then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a quadratic polynomial has
at most 2 zeros.
7. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n 1 turning points. Thus, the
graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning points.
8. The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as x gets very large, y gets
very large.
Zeros of a polynomial
The zeros of a polynomial function provide valuable information that can be helpful in sketching its
graph. One can find the zeros by factorizing the polynomial. However, we have no general method for
factorizing polynomials of degree greater than 2. In this subsection, we turn our attention to methods
that will allow us to find zeros of higher degree polynomials. To do this, we first need to discuss about
the division algorithm.
Division Algorithm
Let p(x ) and d (x ) be polynomials with d ( x ) 0 , and with the degree of d (x ) less than or equal
to the degree of p(x ) . Then there are polynomials q(x ) and R(x ) such that
p( x) d
( x) R
( x). q ( x) , where either R( x ) 0 or the degree of R(x ) is less than degree of
dividend divisor quotient remainder
d (x ) .
x4 1
Example 2.33: Divide 4 .
x 2x
Solution: Using long division we have
x2 2x 4
x 2 2x x 4 0x 3 0x 2 0x 1
(x4 2x3 )
2x 3 0x 2
( 2 x 3 4 x 2 )
4x 2 0x
(4 x 2 8 x )
8x 1
x 4
This long division means 1 (
2
x 2
x ). ( 2 x
x 2
4) (
x
81) .
dividend divisor quotient remainder
With the aid of the division algorithm, we can derive two important theorems that will allow us to
recognize the zeros of polynomials.
If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, d (x ) , is linear (that is of the form x r ), we get
p( x) ( x r)q( x) R
Note that since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder R , must be a constant. If we now
substitute x r , into this equation, we get
P(r) (r r)q(r) R 0 q(r) R
Therefore, p( r ) R .
The result we just proved is called the remainder theorem.
The Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial p(x ) of degree at least 1 is divided by x r , then the remainder is p(r ) .
Example 2.34: The remainder when P( x ) x 3 x 2 3x 1 is divided by x 2 is p(2) 9 .
As a consequence of the remainder theorem, if x r is a factor of p(x ) , then the remainder must be 0.
Conversely, if the remainder is 0, then x r , is a factor of p(x ) . This is known as the Factor Theorem.
The Factor Theorem
x r is a factor of p(x ) if and only if p( r ) 0 .
The next theorem, called location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere within an
interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value.
Location theorem
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a b . If f (a) f (b) 0 , then there
is at least one zero of f between a and b .
The Factor and Remainder theorems establish the intimate relationship between the factors of a
polynomial p(x ) and its zeros. Recall that a polynomial of degree n can have at most n zeros.
Does every polynomial have a zero? Our answer depends on the number system in which we are
working. If we restrict ourselves to the set of real number system, then we are already familiar with the
fact that the polynomial p( x ) x 2 1 has no real zeros. However, this polynomial does have two zeros
in the complex number system. (The zeros are i and i ). Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), in his
doctoral dissertation, proved that within the complex number system, every polynomial of degree 1
has at least one zero. This fact is usually referred to as the Fundamental theorem of Algebra.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If p(x ) is a polynomial of degree n 0 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then p(x ) has at
least one zero in the complex number system.
Note that since all real numbers are complex numbers, a polynomial with real coefficients also satisfies
the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. As an immediate consequence of the Fundamental theorem of
Algebra, we have
The linear Factorization Theorem
If p( x ) an x n an 1 x n1 a1 x a0 , where n 1 and an 0 , then
p( x) an ( x r1 ) ( x r2 ) ( x rn ) , where the ri are complex numbers (possible real and not
necessarily distinct).
From the linear factorization theorem, it follows that every polynomial of degree n 1 has exactly n
zeros in the complex number system, where a root of multiplicity k counted k times.
Example 2.35: Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear Factorization
Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.
d) p( x) x 3 6 x 2 16 x
e) q( x) 3x 2 10 x 8
f) f ( x) 2 x 4 8x 3 10 x 2
Solution:
d) We may factorize p(x ) as follows:
p( x ) x 3 6 x 2 16 x x( x 2 6 x 16)
x( x 8)( x 2)
x( x 8)( x ( 2))
The zeros of p(x ) are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.
e) We may factorize q(x ) as follows:
q( x ) 3x 2 10 x 8 (3x 4) ( x 2)
4
3( x )( x 2)
3
4
Thus, the zeros of q(x ) are and 2, each of multiplicity one.
3
f) We may factorize f (x ) as follows:
f ( x ) 2 x 4 8 x 3 10 x 2 2 x 2 ( x 2 4 x 5)
2 x 2 ( x ( 2 i ))( x ( 2 i ))
Thus, the zeros of f(x) are 0 with multiplicity two and 2 i and 2 i each with multiplicity one.
Example 2.36:
3. Find a polynomial p(x ) with exactly the following zeros and multiplicity.
zeros multiplicity
1 3
2 4
5 2
Are there any other polynomials that give the same roots and multiplicity?
4. Find a polynomial f (x) having the zeros described in part (a) such that f(1) = 32.
Solution:
3. Based on the Factor Theorem, we may write the polynomial as:
p( x) ( x (1)) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2 ( x 1) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2
which gives the required roots and multiplicities.
Any polynomial of the form kp(x ) , where k is a non-zero constant will give the same roots
and multiplicities.
4. Based on part (1), we know that f ( x) k ( x 1) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2 . Since we want f ( x ) 32 ,
we have
f (1) k (1 1) 3 (1 2) 4 (1 5) 2
32 k (8)(1)(16) k 1
4
Thus, f ( x ) 14 ( x 1) ( x 2) ( x 5) .
3 4 2
Our experience in using the quadratic formula on quadratic equations with real coefficients has shown
us that complex roots always appear in conjugate pairs. For example, the roots of x 2 x 5 0 are
2
1 2i and 1 2i . In fact, this property extends to all polynomial equations with real coefficients.
Conjugate Roots Theorem
Let p(x ) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number a bi (where a and b are real
numbers) is a zero of p(x ) , then so is its conjugate a bi .
Example 2.37: Let r ( x) x 4 2 x 3 9 x 2 26 x 20. Given that 1 3 i is a zero, find the other zero
of r (x ) .
Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1 3 i is a zero, then its conjugate, 1 3 i
must also be a zero. Therefore, x (1 3 i ) and x (1 3 i ) are both factors of r (x ) , and so their
product must be a factor of r (x ) . That is, [ x (1 3 i )] [ x (1 3 i )] x 2 x 4 is a factor of
2
r (x ) . Dividing r (x ) by x 2 2 x 4 , we obtain
r( x) ( x 2 2 x 4)( x 2 4 x 5) ( x 2 2 x 4) ( x 5) ( x 1).
Thus, the zeros of r (x ) are 1 3 i , 1 3 i , 5 and 1.
The theorems we have discussed so far are called existence theorems because they ensure the existence
of zeros and linear factors of polynomials. These theorems do not tell us how to find the zeros or the
linear factors. The Linear Factorization Theorem guarantees that we can factor a polynomial of degree at
least one into linear factors, but it does not tell us how.
We know from experience that if p(x ) happens to be a quadratic function, then we may find the zeros
of p( x ) Ax 2 Bx C by using the quadratic formula to obtain the zeros
B B 2 4 AC
x .
2A
The rest of this subsection is devoted to developing some special methods for finding the zeros of a
polynomial function.
As we have seen, even though we have no general techniques for factorizing polynomials of degree
greater than 2, if we happen to know a root, say r , we can use long division to divide p(x ) by x r
and obtain a quotient polynomial of lower degree. If we can get the quotient polynomial down to a
quadratic, then we are able to determine all the roots. But how do we find a root to start the process?
The following theorem can be most helpful.
The Rational Root Theorem
Suppose that f ( x) an x n an1 x n1 a1 x a0 , where n 1, an 0 is an n th degree
p
polynomial with integer coefficients. If is a rational root of f ( x ) 0 , where p and q have no
q
common factor other than 1 , then p is a factor of a 0 and q is a factor of a n .
3
To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose is a root of
2
a3 x 3 a2 x 2 a1 x a0 0 .
3 2
3 3 3
Then, a3 a 2 a1 a0 0 which implies that
2 2 2
27a3 9a 2 3a1
a0 0 multiplying both sides by 8
8 4 2
27a3 18a 2 12a1 8a 0 ...................................................(1)
27a3 18a 2 12a1 8a 0 ...................................................(2)
If we look at equation (1), the left hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right hand side must also
be divisible by 3. Since 8 is not divisible by 3, a 0 must be divisible by 3. From equation (2), a 3 must be
divisible by 2.
Example 2.38: Find all the zeros of the function p( x) 2 x 3x 23x 12.
3 2
p
Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if is a rational root of the given equation, then p
q
must be a factor of 12 and q must be a factor of 2. Thus, we have
possible values of p : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
possible values of q : 1, 2
p 1 3
possible rational roots : 1, , 2, 3, , 4, 6, 12
q 2 2
We may check these possible roots by substituting the value in p(x ) . Now p(1) 30 and
p( 1) 12 . Since p(1) is negative and p(1) is positive, by intermediate value theorem, p(x ) has a
zero between 1 and 1. Since P 1
2 0 , then x 12 is a factor of p(x ) . Using long division, we
obtain
p( x ) 2 x 3 3x 2 23x 12 ( x 12 )(2 x 2 2 x 24)
2( x 12 )( x 4)( x 3)
Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are 12 , 4 and 3.
Rational Functions and their Graphs
n( x )
A rational function is a function of the form f ( x) where both n(x) and d(x) are polynomials and
d ( x)
d ( x) 0 .
3 x 1 x 5 2x3 x 1
Example 2.39: The functions f ( x) , f ( x) 2 and f ( x) are
x5 x 4 x 5x
examples of rational function.
n( x )
Note that the domain of the rational function f ( x) is {x : d ( x) 0}
d ( x)
3x 5
Example 2.40: Find the domain and zeros of the function f ( x) .
x x 12
2
Solution: The values of x for which x 2 x 12 0 are excluded from the domain of f . Since
x 2 x 12 ( x 4)( x 3) , we have Dom( f ) {x : x 3,4} . To find the zeros of f (x) , we solve
the equation
n ( x)
0 n ( x) 0 & q ( x) 0
d ( x)
5 5
Therefore, to find the zeros of f (x) , we solve 3x 5 0 , giving x . Since does not make the
3 3
denominator zero, it is the only zero of f (x) .
The following terms and notations are useful in our next discussion.
Given a number a,
x approaches a from the right means x takes any value near and near to a but x a. This is
denoted by: xa+ (read: ‘x approaches a from the right’ ).
For instance, x 1+ means x can be 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001, 1.000001, etc.
x approaches a from the left means x takes any value near and near to a but x a.
This is denoted by: xa– (read: ‘x approaches a from the left’ ).
For instance, x1– means x can be 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.9999, etc.
x (read: ‘x approaches or tends to infinity’) means the value of x gets indefinitely larger and
larger in magnitude (keep increasing without bound). For instance, x can be 106, 1010, 1012, etc.
x – (read: ‘x approaches or tends to negative infinity’) means the value of x is negative and gets
indefinitely larger and larger negative in magnitude (keep decreasing without bound). For instance, x
can be –106, –1010, –1012, etc.
The same meanings apply also for the values of a function f if we wrote f(x) or f(x). The
following figure illustrates these notion and notations.
y y f(x),
f(x),
asxa
asx
x – xa –
xa + x y =f(x)
x a
f(x) –,
y
a f(x) –, asxa+
asx–
Fig. 2.1. Graphical illustration of the idea of xa+, f(x), etc.
We may also write f(x)b (read: ‘f(x) approaches b’) to mean the function values, f(x), becomes
arbitrarily closer and closer to b (i.e., approximately b) but not exactly equal to b. For instance, if
1 1
f ( x) , then f(x)0 as x; i.e., is approximately 0 when x is arbitrarily large.
x x
The following steps are usually used to sketch (or draw) the graph of a rational function f(x).
4. Identify the domain and simplify it.
5. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible. Recall the following:
y–intercept is the point on y-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the y-axis. At this
point x=0. Thus, y = f(0), or (0, f(0) ) is the y-intercept if 0 Dom(f).
x–intercept is the point on x-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the x-axis. At this
point y=0. Thus, x=a or (a, 0) is x-intercept if f(a)=0.
6. Determine the asymptotes of the graph. Here, remember the following.
Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x=a is called a vertical asymptote(VA) of f(x) if
iii) a dom(f), i.e., f is not defined at x=a; and
iv) f(x) or f(x) – when xa+ or xa– . In this case, the graph of f is almost vertically rising
upward (if f(x)) or sinking downward (if f(x)) along with the vertical line x=a when x
approaches a either from the right or from the left.
1
Example 2.41: Consider f ( x) n
, where a 0 and n is a positive integer.
( x a)
Obviously a Dom(f). Next, we investigate the trend of the values of f(x) near a. To do this, we consider
two cases, when n is even or odd:
Suppose n is even: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all x \{a}; and since (x – a)n 0 as xa+ or xa– .
1
Hence, f ( x) n
as xa+ or xa– . Therefore, x=a is a VA of f(x). Moreover, y= 1/an or (0,
( x a)
1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0)=1/an. However, it has no x-intercept since f(x) 0 for all x in its domain
(See, Fig. 2.2 (A)).
Suppose n is odd: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all xa and 1/ (x – a)n when xa+ as in the above
case. Thus, x=a is its VA. However, 1/(x–a)n – when xa– since (x – a)n< 0 for xa. Moreover, y= –
1/an or (0, –1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0) = –1/an. However, it has no x-intercept also in this case.
(See, Fig. 2.2 (B)).
1
Note that in both cases, f ( x) n
0 as xor x –.
( x a)
y 1 y 1
y n
y n
( x a) ( x a)
n-even n-odd
n
1/a
a x a x
1/a
x=a
n x=a
VA VA
Fig. 2.2 (A) Fig. 2.2 (B)
n( x )
Remark: Let f ( x) be a rational function. Then,
d ( x)
1. if d (a) 0 and n(a) 0 , then x=a is a VA of f .
2. if d (a) 0 n(a) , then x=a may or may not be a VA of f . In this case, simplify f(x) and look for VA of
the simplest form of f.
Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y=b is called horizontal asymptote (HA) of f(x) if the value of
the function becomes closer and closer to b (i.e., f(x)b)as x or as x –.
In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a horizontal line along with (or near) the line y=b as x
1
and as x–. For instance, from the above example, the HA of f ( x) n
is y=0 (the x-axis) ,
( x a)
for any positive integer n (See, Fig. 2.2).
n( x )
Remark: A rational function f ( x) has a HA only when degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)).
d ( x)
In this case, (i) If degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)), then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the HA of f.
n 1
n
an x an 1 x a1 x a0
(ii) If degree(n(x)) =degree(d(x))=n, i.e., f ( x) n 1
,
n
bn x bn 1 x b1 x b0
an
then y is the HA of f.
bn
Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y=ax+b, a0, is called an oblique asymptote (OA) of f if the
value of the function, f(x), becomes closer and closer to ax+b(i.e., f(x) becomes approximately ax+b)
as either x or x –. In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a straight line along with (or
near) the oblique line y=ax+b as x and as x –.
n( x )
Note: A rational function f ( x) has an OA only when degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1. In this case,
d ( x)
using long division, if the quotient of n(x) ÷d(x) is ax +b, then y=ax+b is the OA of f.
x2 x 2 3x 2
Example 2.42: Sketch the graphs of (a) f ( x) (b) g ( x)
x 1 x2 1
Solution: (a) Since x1=0 at x=1, dom(f) = \{1}.
Intercepts: y-intercept: x=0 y=f (0) = –2. Hence, (0, – 2) is y-intercept.
x-intercept: y=0 x+2=0 x= –2. Hence, (–2, 0) is x-intercept.
Asymptotes:
VA: Since x1=0 atx=1 and x+20 at x=1, x=1 is VA of f. In fact, if x1+ , then x+2 3 but the
denominator x–1 is almost 0 (but positive).
Consequently, f(x) as x1+.
Moreover, f(x) – as x1– (since , if x1– then x–1 is almost 0 but negative ) .
(So, the graph of f rises up to + at the right side of x=1, and sink down to at the left side of
x=1)
HA: Note that if you divide x+2 by x–1, the quotient is 1 and remainder is 3. Thus,
x2 3 3
f ( x) 1 . Thus, if x (or x –), then 0 so that f(x)1. Hence,
x 1 x 1 x 1
y=1 is the HA of f.
Using these information, you can sketch the graph of f as displayed below in Fig. 2.3 (A).
(b) Both the denominator and numerator are 0 at x=1. So, first factorize and simplify them:
x2+3x+2=(x+2)(x+1) and x2–1 = (x –1)( x+1) . Therefore,
x 2 3x 2 ( x 2)( x 1 )
g ( x) , x –1
x 1
2
( x 1)( x 1 )
x2
. (So, dom(g) = \{1, –1} )
x 1
This implies that only x=1 is VA.
x2 x2
Hence, the graph of g ( x) , x 1, is exactly the same as that of f ( x) except that
x 1 x 1
g(x) is not defined at x= –1. Therefore, the graph of g and its VA are the same as that of f except that
there should be a ‘hole’ at the point corresponding to x= –1 on the graph of g as shown on Fig. 2.3(B)
below.
x2 x2
y y , x 1
x 1 x 1
y=1 (HA) y=1
1
2 2
2 2
x=1 ‘hole’ x=1
VA atx=1
Fig 2.3 (A) f ( x) x 2 x 2 3x 2 x 2
x 1 (B) g ( x) , x 1
x2 1 x 1
Exercise 2.6
12. Perform the requested divisions. Find the quotient and remainder and verify the Remainder
Theorem by computing p(a ) .
e) Divide p( x) x 2 5x 8 by x 4
f) Divide p( x) 2 x 3 7 x 2 x 4 by x 4
g) Divide p( x) 1 x 4 by x 1
h) Divide p( x) x 2 x 3 by x 1
5 2
13. Given that p(4) 0 , factor p( x) 2 x 11x 10 x 8 as completely as possible.
3 2
14. Given that r ( x) 4 x 3 x 2 36 x 9 and r 14 0 , find the remaining zeros of r (x ) .
15. Given that 3 is a double zero of p( x) x 4 3x 3 19 x 2 87 x 90 , find all the zeros of p(x )
.
16. a) Write the general polynomial p(x ) whose only zeros are 1, 2 and 3, with multiplicity 3, 2 and
1 respectively. What is its degree?
b) Find p(x ) described in part (a) if p(0) 6 .
17. If 2 3i is a root of p( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 14 x 39, find the remaining zeros of p(x).
18. Determine the rational zeros of the polynomials
d) p( x) x 3 4 x 2 7 x 10
e) p( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 28x 15
f) p ( x) 6 x 3 x 2 4 x 1
19. Find the domain and the real zeros of the given function.
3 x3 ( x 3) 2 x 2 16
b) f ( x) b) g ( x) c) f ( x ) d) f ( x )
x 25
2
x 2 4 x 12 x 3 3x 2 2 x x2 4
20. Sketch the graph of
1 x x2 1 1 x2
a) f ( x) b) f ( x) c) f ( x) 2 d) f ( x)
x3 x x x2 4
x 3 8x 3
21. Determine the behavior of f ( x) when x is near 3.
x3
22. The graph of any rational function in which the degree of the numerator is exactly one
more than the degree of the denominator will have an oblique (or slant) asymptote.
c) Use long division to show that
x2 x 6 8
y f ( x) x 1
x2 x2
d) Show that this means that the line y x 1 is a slant asymptote for the graph and
sketch the graph of y f (x) .
4.7 Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, and
trigonometric functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions
understand the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions
sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve
problems
Exponents and radicals
Definition 2.16: For a natural number n and a real number x , the power x n , read “ the n th power of x ” or “
x raised to n ”, is defined as follows:
xn x
xx
n factors each equal to x
n
In the symbol x , x is called the base and n is called the exponent.
For example, 2 2 2 2 2 2 32 .
5
n
Based of the definition of x , n must be a natural number. It does not make sense for n to be
negative or zero. However, we can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and negative
exponents.
Definition 2.17: (Zero and Negative Exponents)
Definition of zero Exponent Definition of Negative Exponent
x 0 1 ( x 0) x n
1
x 0
xn
Note: 0 0 is undefined.
1
As a result of the above definition, we have x n . We have the following rules of exponents for
x n
integer exponents:
Rules for Integer Exponents
4. x n x m x n m 4. ( xy ) n x n y n
xn
5. ( x n ) m x nm 5. m
x n m
x
n
x xn
6. n y 0
y y
Next we extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational number exponents. To do
this, we assume that we want the rules for integer exponents also to apply to rational exponents and
1
then use the rules to show us to define a rational exponent. For example, how do we define a 2 ?
1
Consider 9 2 .
If we apply rule 2 and square 9 2 , we get 9 2
1
9
1 2 1
2
1
9 . Thus, 9 2 is a number that, when squared,
yields 9. There are two possible answers: 3 and – 3, since squaring either number will yield 9. To avoid
1
ambiguity, we define a 2 (called the principal square root of a ) as the non-negative quantity that, when
1
squared, yield a . Thus, 9 2 3 .
1 1 1
We will arrive at the definition of a 3 in the same way as we did for a 2 . For example, if we cube 8 3 , we
get 8 3 8
1 3 3
3
1
8 . Thus, 8 3 is the number that, when cubed, yields 8. Since 2 3 8 we have 8 3 2 .
1
Similarly, 273 3 . Thus, we define a 3 (called the cube root of a ) as the quantity that, when
1 1
cubed yields a .
1
Definition 2.18: (Rational Exponent an )
1
If n is an odd positive integer, then a b if and only if b n a n
1
If n is an even positive integer and a 0 , then a n b if and only if b n a
1 1
th
We call a n the principal n root of a . Hence, a n is the real number (nonnegative when n is even)
th
that, when raised to the n power, yields a . Therefore,
16 4 since 4 2 16
1
2
125 5 since ( 5) 3 125
1
3
1
4
1 4 1 1 1
since
81 3 3 81
1
27 3 3 since 33 27
16
1
4
is not a real number
1
Thus far, we have defined a n , where n is a natural number. With the help of the second rule for
m
m
exponent, we can define the expression a n , where m and n are natural numbers and n is reduced to
lowest terms.
m
Definition 2.19: (Rational Exponent an )
1
If a n is a real number, then
m
an an
1 m
(i.e. the n th root of a raised to the m th power)
We can also define negative rational exponents:
a
mn
1
m
a 0
an
Example 2.43: Evaluate the following
2
12 53
b) 27 3 b) 36 c) ( 32)
Solution: We have
2
d) 27 3 27 3 3 1 2
2
9
12 1 1
e) 36 1
36 2 6
53 1 1 1 1
f) ( 32)
( 32)
3
5
(32) 1
5
3
( 2) 3
8
Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents. We define for
th
real number a , the n root of a as follows:
1
th
Definition 2.20 ( n root of a ): n a = a n , where n is a positive integer.
The number n
a is also called the principal n th root of a . If the n th root of a exists, we have:
For a a real number and n a positive integer,
a , if n is even
n
an
a, if n is odd
For example, 3
53 5 and 4
( 3) 4 3 .
Exponential Functions
In the previous sections we examined functions of the form f ( x ) x n , where n is a constant. How is
this function different from f ( x ) n x .
Definition 2.21: A function of the form y f ( x) b x , where b 0 and b 1 , is called an exponential
function.
x
1
Example 2.44: The functions f ( x ) 2 , g ( x ) 3 and h( x ) are examples of exponential
x x
2
functions.
As usual the first question raised when we encounter a new function is its domain. Since rational
exponents are well defined, we know that any rational number will be in the domain of an exponential
function. For example, let f ( x ) 3 x . Then as x takes on the rational values x 4, – 2 , 1
2 and 4
5 , we
have
f (4) 34 3 3 3 3 81 f ( 2) 32 312 19
1 4
f ( 12 ) 3 2 3 f ( 45 ) 3 5 5 34 5 81
5
Note that even though we do not know the exact values of 3 and 81 , we do know exactly what
they mean. However, what about f (x ) for irrational values of x ? For instance, f ( 2 ) 3 2
?
x
We have not defined the meaning of irrational exponents. In fact, a precise formal definition of b
2
where x is irrational requires the ideas of calculus. However, we can get an idea of what 3 should be
by using successive rational approximations to 2 . For example, we have
1.414 2 1.415
Thus, it would seem reasonable to expect that 31.414 3 2
31.415 . Since 1.414 and 1.415 are rational
1.414 1.415
numbers, 3 and 3 are well defined, even though we cannot compute their values by hand. Using
a calculator, we get 4.7276950 3 2
4.7328918 . If we use better approximations to 2 , we get
31.4142 3 2
31.4143 . Using a calculator again, we get 4.7287339 3 2
4.7292535 . Computing 3 2
directly on a calculator gives 3 2
4.7288044 . This numerical evidence suggests that as x approaches
2 , the values of 3 x approach a unique real number that we designate by 3 2 , and so we will accept
without proof, the fact that the domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers.
The exponential function y b x , where b 0 and b 1 , is defined for all real values of x . In addition all
the rules for rational exponents hold for real number exponents as well.
Before we state some general facts about exponential functions , let’s see if we can determine what the
graph of an exponential function will look like.
Example 2.45:
3. Sketch the graph of the function y 2 x and identify its domain and range.
Solution: To aid in our analysis, we set up a short table of values to give us a frame of
reference.
x y
3 2 3 81
2 2 2 1
4
1 2 1 1
2
0 20 1
1 21 2
2 22 4 y
3 23 8 y = 2x
2 (1,2)
1
O 1 x
With these points in hand, we draw a smooth curve through the points obtaining the graph appearing
above. Observe that the domain of y 2 x is IR , the graph has no x intercepts, as
x , the y values are increasing very rapidly, whereas as x , the y values are getting
closer and closer to 0. Thus, x axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y intercept is 1 and the range of
y 2 x is the set of positive real numbers.
x
1
4. Sketch the graph of y f ( x ) .
2
Solution: It would be instructive to compute a table of values as we did in example 1 above (you are
urged to do so). However, we will take a different approach. We note that
x
1 1
y f ( x ) x 2 x . If f ( x ) 2 x , then f ( x ) 2 x . Thus by the graphing principle for
2 2
f ( x ) , we can obtain the graph of y 2 x by reflecting the graph of y 2 x about the y axis .
y 12 x
(1,2) 2
1
1 O 1 x
Here again the x axis is a horizontal asymptote, there is no x intercept, 1 is y intercept and the
range is the set of positive real numbers. However, the graph is now decreasing rather than increasing.
The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential functions and their graphs.
The Exponential function y f ( x) b x
7. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
8. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
9. The graph of y b x exhibits exponential growth if b 1 or exponential decay if
0 b 1.
10. The y intercept is 1.
11. The x intercept is a horizontal asymptote
12. The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if b x b y , then x y
Example 2.46: Sketch the graph of each of the following. Find the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
b) y 3x 1 b) y 3 x 1 c) y 9 x 3
Solution:
d) To get the graph of y 3x 1 . We start with the graph of y 3 x , which is the basic
exponential growth graph, and shift it up 1 unit.
x From the graph we see that
y=3 +1
- Dom( f )
10
- Range( f ) (1, )
- The y intercept is 2
2 - The line y 1 is a horizontal
y=1
1 asymptote
1 2
e) To get the graph of y 3 x 1 , we start with the graph of y 3 x , and shift 1 unit to the left.
From the graph we see that
y=3x+1 - Dom( f )
- Range( f ) (0, )
9
- The y intercept is 3
- The line y 0 is a horizontal
asymptote
1
f) To get the graph of y 9 x 3 , we start with the basic exponential decay y 9 x . We
then reflect it with respect to the x axis , which gives the graph of y 9 x . Finally,
we shift this graph up 3 units to get the required graph of y 9 x 3 .
y y
y
(1,9) 9 1
1 y=3
1 x 3
2 y = 9 x +3
y = 9 x
1 1
y = 9
x
1
1 x
1 O 1 x (1,9) 9
From the graph of y 9 x 3 , we can see that Dom(h) , Range(h) ( ,3) , the line y 3
is a horizontal asymptote, 2 is the y intercept and x 12 is the x intercept.
Remark: When the base b of the exponential function f ( x ) b x equals to the number e , where
e 2.7182 , we call the exponential function the natural exponential function.
Logarithmic Functions
In the previous subsection we noted that the exponential function f ( x ) b x (where b 0 and b 1 )
is one to one. Thus, the exponential function has an inverse function. What is the inverse of f ( x ) b x ?
To find the inverse of f ( x ) b x , let’s review the process for finding an inverse function by comparing
the process for the polynomial function y x 3 and the exponential function y 3 . Keep in mind that
x
x is our independent variable and y is the dependent variable and so whenever possible we want a
function solved explicitly for y .
To find the inverse of y x3 To find the inverse of y 3x
y x3 Interchange x and y y 3x Interchange x and y
xy 3
solve for y x3 y
solve for y
y3 x y ??
There is no algebraic procedure we can use to solve x 3 for y . By introducing radical notations we
y
could express the inverse of y x 3 explicitly in the form y 3 x . In words, y 3 x and y 3 x both
mean exactly the same thing: y is the number whose cube is x . Similarly, if we want to express x 3
y
explicitly as a function of x , we need to invent a special notation for this. The key idea is to take the
equation x 3 and express it verbally.
y
x 3 y means y is the exponent to which 3 must be raised to yield x
We introduce the following notation, which expresses this idea in a much more compact form.
Definition 2.22: For b 0 and b 1 , we write y log b x to mean y is the exponent to which b must
be raised to yield x . In other words,
x b y y log b x
We read y log b x as “ y equals the logarithm of x to the base b ”.
REMEMBER: y log b x is an alternative way of writing x b y
When an expression is written in the form x b , it is said to be in exponential form. When an
y
expression is written in the form y log b x , it is said to be in logarithmic form. The table below
illustrates the equivalence of the exponential and logarithmic forms.
Exponential form Logarithmic form
4 2 16 log 4 16 2
2 4 16 log 2 16 4
53 125
1 1
log 5 125 3
log 6 6
1
62 6
1
2
70 1 log 7 1 0
Example 2.47:
4. Write each of the following in exponential form.
1
b) log 3 9 2 b) log16 2 1
4
1
Solution: We have a) log 3 9 2 means 32 19 .
1
b) log16 2 1
4 means 16 4 2
5. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.
2
b) 10 3 0.001 b) 27 3 9
3
Solution: We have a) 10 0.001 means log10 0.001 3
2
b) 27 3 9 means log 27 9 2
3
6. Evaluate each of the following.
b) log 3 81 b) log 8 641
Solution:
c) To evaluate log 3 81 , we let t log 3 81 , and then rewrite the equation in exponential
form, 3t 81 . Now, if we can express both sides in terms of the same base, we can
solve the resulting exponential equation, as follows:
Let t log 3 81 Rewrite in exponential form
3t 81 Express both sides in terms of the same base
3t 34 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t4
Therefore, log 3 81 4 .
d) We apply the same procedure as in part (a).
Let t log 8 641 Rewrite in exponential form
8t 1
64 Express both sides in terms of the same base
8t 82 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t 2
Therefore, log 8 641 2 .
As was pointed out at the beginning of this subsection, logarithm notation was invented to
express the inverse of the exponential function. Thus, log b x is a function of x . We usually
write f ( x ) log b x rather than writing f ( x ) log b ( x) and use parenthesis only when needed to
clarify the input to the log function. For example,
If f ( x) log 5 (4 x) , then f ( 1) log 5 (4 ( 1)) log 5 5 1 , whereas if f ( x) 4 log 5 x ,
then f ( 1) 4 log 5 ( 1) , which is undefined.
Example 2.48: Given f ( x ) log 5 x , find
1
b) f (25) b) f ( 25 ) c) f (0) d) f (125)
Solution:
e) f (25) log 5 25 2 (since 52 25 )
f) 1
f ( 25 ) log 5 25
1
2 (since 52 1
25 )
g) f (0) log 5 0 is not defined (what power of 5 will yield 0?). We say that 0 is not in the
domain of f .
h) f ( 125) log 5 ( 125) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield -125?). We say that -
125 is not in the domain of f .
Acknowledging that the logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses, we can derive a great deal
of information about the logarithmic function and its graph from the exponential function and its graph.
Example 2.49: Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain and range of each.
c) y log 3 x b) y log 1 x
2
Solution: a) Since y log 3 x is the inverse of y 3 x , we can obtain the graph of y log 3 x by
reflecting the graph of y 3 x about the line y x , as shown below.
y
y = 3x
y=x
y = log3x
1
1 x
d) To get the graph of y log 1 x , we reflect the graph of y 12 x about the line y x as
2
shown below. y
y 12 x y=x
1 x
y log 1 x
2
Taking note of the features of the two graphs we have the following important informations about the
graph of the log function:
The Logarithmic Function y log b x
6. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers
7. Its range is the set of real numbers.
8. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b 1 and logarithmic decay if 0 b 1 .
9. The x intercept is 1. There is no y intercept.
10. The y axis is a vertical asymptote.
Example 2.50:
3. Sketch the graph of f ( x) 1 log 3 ( x 2) . Find the domain, range, asymptote and
intercepts.
Solution: We can obtain the graph of y 1 log 3 ( x 2) by applying the graphing
principle to shift the basic logarithmic growth graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit up.
y
x= 2
y = 1+ log3(x2)
1
1 2 3 x
We have Dom( f ) {x : x 2} , Range ( f ) and the graph has the line x 2 as a
vertical asymptote. To find the intercept, we set y 0 and solve for x . Setting y 0
and solving for x , we will obtain x 73 . Thus, the x intercept is 7
3 .
4. Find the inverse function for
b) y f ( x) 3x 4 b) y g ( x) log 3 ( x 2)
Solution: Following the procedure for finding an inverse function, we have
(a) y 3x 4 Interchange x and y (b) y log 3 ( x 2) Interchange x and y
x 3y 4 solve explicitly for y x log 3 ( y 2) Write in logarithmic form
x 4 3 y Write in logarithmic form y 2 3x solve explicitly for y
y log 3 ( x 4) y 3x 2
Thus, f 1 ( x) log 3 ( x 4) Thus, g 1 ( x) 3x 2
The following table contains the basic properties of logarithm:
Properties of logarithm
Assume that b, u and v are positive and b 1 . Then
6. log b (uv) log b u log b v
In words, logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logs of the factors.
7. log b ( uv ) log b u log b v
In words, the log of a quotient is the log of the numerator minus the log of the
denominator.
8. log b u r r log b u
In words, the log of a power is the exponent times the log.
9. log b (b x ) x log b b x
10. b logb x x
Example 2.51:
3. Express in terms of simpler logarithms.
b) log b ( x 3 y ) b) log b ( x 3 y ) c) log b
xy
z3
Solution:
d) log b ( x 3 y ) log b x 3 log b y 3log b x log b y
e) Examining the properties of logarithms, we can see that they deal with log of a
product, quotient and power. Thus, log 3 ( x 3 y ) which is the log of a sum cannot be
simplified using log properties.
f) We have
log b log
xy
z3 b xy log b ( z 3 ) = log b xy 2 3 log b z (log b x log b y ) 3 log b z .
1 1
2
4. Show that log b 12 log b 2 .
Solution: We have log b 12 log b 1 log b 2 0 log b 2 log b 2 .
The logarithmic function was introduced without stressing the particular base chosen. However, there
are two bases of special importance in science and mathematics, namely, b 10 and b e .
Definition 2.23: (Common Logarithm)
f ( x ) log10 x is called the common logarithm function. We write log10 x log x .
The inverse of the natural exponential function is called the natural logarithmic function and has its own
special notation.
Definition 2.24: (Natural Logarithm)
f ( x) log e x is called the natural logarithmic function. We write log e x ln x .
Example 2.52:
3. Evaluate log1000
Solution: Let a log1000 . Then, a log10 1000 log10 (103 ) 3 .
4. Find the inverse function of f ( x ) e x 1 .
Solution: Let y ex 1 Interchange x and y
x e y 1 Solve for y
x 1 e y Rewrite in logarithmic form
y ln( x 1)
Thus, f 1 ( x) ln( x 1) .
Trigonometric functions and their graphs
For the functions we have encountered so far, namely polynomial, rational and exponential functions, as
the independent variable goes to infinity the graph of each of these three functions either goes to
infinity(very quickly) for exponential functions or approaches a finite horizontal asymptote. None of
these functions can model the regular periodic patterns that play an important role in the social,
biological, and physical sciences: business cycles, agricultural seasons, heart rhythms, and hormone level
fluctuations, and tides and planetary motions. The basic functions for studying regular periodic
behaviour are the trigonometric functions. The domain of the trigonometric functions is more naturally
the set of all geometric angles.
Angle Measurement
An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end point. The common end point
is called the vertex of the angle.
A
In forming the angle, one side remains fixed and the other side rotates. The fixed side is called the initial
side and the side that rotates is called the terminal side. If the terminal side rotates in a counter
clockwise direction, we call the angle positive angle, and if the terminal side rotates in a clockwise
direction, we call the angle negative angle.
B B
What attribute of an angle are we trying to measure when we measure the size of an angle? A moment
of thought will lead us to the conclusion that when we measure an angle we are trying to answer the
question: Through what part of a complete rotation has the terminal side rotated?
We will use degree () as the unit of measurement for angles. Recall that the measure of a full round
angle (full circle) is 360, straight angle is 180, and right angle is 90.
An alternative unit of measure for angles which will indicate their size is the radian measure. To see the
connection between the degree measure and radian measure of an angle, let us consider an angle
and draw a circle of radius r with the vertex of at its center O . Let s represent the length of the arc
of the circle intercepted by (as shown below).
s
O
r
Basic geometry tells us that the central angle will be the same fractional part of one complete
rotation as s will be of the circumference of the circle. For example, if is 1
10 of a complete rotation,
1
then s will be 10 of the circumference of the circle. In other words, we can set up the following
proportion:
s s
1 complete rotation circumfere nce of circle 2r
Thus, we have the following conversion formula:
in deg rees in radians
180
Example 2.53:
3. Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees.
c) 6 b) 35
, which implies that 30 .
6
Solution: a) By the conversion formula, we have
180
3
d) Again using the conversion formula, we get 5
, which implies that 108 .
180
4. Convert to radian measures
a) 90 b) 270
Solution: a) Let represent the radian measure of 90 . Using the conversion formula, we obtain:
90
, which implies that .
180
2
b) Rather than using the conversion formula, we notice that 270 3(90 ) . In part (a) we found that
3
90 , and so we have 270
.
2 2
Y Y
P(x,y)
To define the trigonometric functions, we will
ϴ r
X X
view all angles in the context of a Cartesian coordinate system: that is, given an angle , we begin by
putting in standard position, meaning that the vertex of is placed at the origin and initial side of
is placed along the positive x axis . Thus the location of the terminal side of will, of course,
depend on the size of .
We then locate a point (other than the origin) on the terminal side of and identify its coordinates
( x, y ) and its distance to the origin, dented by r . Then, r is positive.
With in standard position, we define the six trigonometric functions of as follows:
Definition 2.25
Name of function Abbreviation Definition
y
Sine sin sin
r
x
Cosine cos cos
r
y
Tangent tan tan
x
r
Cosecant csc csc
y
r
Secant sec sec
x
x
Cotangent cot cot
y
s
Recall that the radian measure of an angle is defined as , where is angle in radians
r
s is the length of the arc intercepted by and r is the length of the radius. Since s and r are both
s
lengths, the quotient is a pure number without any units attached. Thus, any angle can be
r
interpreted as a real number. Conversely, any real number can be interpreted as an angle. Thus, we can
describe the domains of the trigonometric functions in the frame work of the real number systems. If we
let f ( ) sin , the domain consists of all real numbers for which sin is defined. Since
y
sin and r is never equal to zero, the domain for sin is the set of all real numbers. Similarly,
r
x
the domain of f ( ) cos is also the set of all real numbers.
r
The graph of y sin
To analyze f ( ) sin , we keep in mind that once we choose a real number , we draw the angle,
in standard position, that corresponds to . To simplify our analysis, we choose the point ( x, y ) on the
terminal side so that r 1 . That is, ( x, y ) is a point on the unit circle x y 1. Note that
2 2
y
sin y.
1
(0,1)
(x,y)
θ
(-1,0) (1,0)
(0,-1)
As the terminal side of moves through the first quadrant, y increases from 0 (when 0 ) to
1(when
2 ). Thus, as increases from 0 to
2 , y sin steadily increases from 0 to 1.
As increases from
2 to , y sin decreases form 1 to 0. A similar analysis reveals that as
increases from to 3
2 , sin decreases from 0 to – 1; and as increases from 3
2 to 2 , sin
increases from – 1 to 0.
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) sin in the interval [0,2 ] as show below.
y = sin x
Since the values of f ( ) sin depend only on the position of the terminal side, adding or
subtracting multiples of 2 to will leave the value of f ( ) sin unchanged. Thus, the values of
f ( ) sin will
repeat every 2 units. The
complete graph of
f ( ) sin
appears below.
The graph of y sin x , which is called the basic sine curve.
The graph of y cos
Applying the same type of analysis to f ( ) cos , we will able to get a good idea of what its graph
looks like. The figure below shows the angle corresponding to as it increases through quadrant I, II, III
and IV.
x
Keeping in mind that cos x , we have the following:
1
5. As increases from 0 to
2 , x cos decreases from 1 to 0.
6. As increases from
2 to , x cos decreases from 0 to – 1.
7. As increases from to 3
2 , x cos increases from – 1 to 0.
8. As increases from 3
2 to 2 , x cos increases from 0 to 1.
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) cos as shown below:
The graph of y tan
y
Since tan is undefined whenever x 0 , tan is undefined whenever the terminal side of the
x
angle corresponding to falls on the y axis . This happens for 2 , to which we can add or
subtract any multiple of that will again bring the terminal side back to the y axis . Thus, domain of
tan is { : 2 n } , where n is an integer.
5. As increases from 0 to
2 , x decreases from 1 to 0 and y increases from 0 to 1;
therefore, tan y
x increases from 0 to .
6. As increases from
2 to , x decreases from 0 to – 1 and y decreases from 1 to 0;
therefore, tan y
x increases from to 0.
7. As increases from to 3
2 , x increases from – 1 to 0 and y decreases from 0 to –
1; therefore, tan y
x
increases from 0 to .
8. As increases from 3
2 to 2 , x increases from 0 to 1 and y increases from – 1 to
0; therefore, tan y
x increases from to 0.
You may want to add some more specific values to this analysis. In any case, we get the following as the
graph of the tangent function.
Definition 2.26: (Periodic function)
A function y f (x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that f ( x p) f ( x) for all x in
the domain of f . The smallest such number p is called the period of the function.
A periodic function keeps repeating the same set of y values over and over again. The graph of a
periodic function shows the same basic segment of its graph being repeated. In the case of sine and
cosine functions, the period is 2 . The period of the tangent function is .
Definition 2.27: (Amplitude of a periodic function)
The amplitude of a periodic function f (x ) is
1
A [ maximum value of f (x ) minimum value of f (x )]
2
Thus, the amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.
The portion of the graph of a sine or cosine function over one period is called a complete cycle of the
graph. In other words, the minimal portion of a sine or cosine graph that keeps repeating itself is called a
complete cycle of the graph.
Definition 2.28: (Frequency of a periodic function)
The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of length equal to 2 is called its
frequency.
The frequency of the basic sine curve y sin x and the basic cosine curve y cos x is 1, because
each graph makes 1 complete cycle in the interval [0,2 ] .
If a sine function has period of 2 (see the figure below), then the number of complete cycles its graph
2
will make in an interval of length 2 is 4.
2
Y
Thus if a sine function has a period of 2 , its frequency is 4 and its graph will make 4 complete cycles in
an interval of length 2 .
Example 2.54: Sketch the graph of y sin 2 x and find its amplitude, period and frequency.
Solution: We can obtain this graph by applying our knowledge of the basic sine graph. For the basic
curve, we have
sin 0 0 sin 2 1 sin 0 sin 32 1 sin 2 0
These quadrantal values serve as guide points, which help us draw the graph. To obtain similar guide
points for y sin 2 x , we ask for what values of x is
2x 0 2 x 2 2x 2x 3
2 2 x 2
and we get
x0 x 4 x 2 x 3
2 x
Thus, y sin 2 x will have the values 0, 1, 0, 1 , 0 at x 0, 4 , 2 , 3
4 , and , respectively. The
graph of y sin 2 x will thus complete one cycle in the interval [0, ] , and will repeat the same values
in the interval [ ,2 ] .
From this graph we see that y sin 2 x has an amplitude of 1, a period , and a frequency of 2.
For convenience we summarize our discussion on the domains of the trigonometric functions in the
table.
7. f ( x) sin x Domain = All real numbers
Domain = All real numbers
8. f ( x) cos x
Domain = {x : x 2 n }
9. f ( x) tan x
Domain = { x : x n }
10. f ( x) csc x
Domain = {x : x 2 n }
11. f ( x) sec x
Domain = {x : x n }
12. f ( x) cot x
where n is an integer
We have the following trigonometric identities
4. sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
5. tan 2 x 1 sce 2 x
6. 1 cot 2 x csc 2 x
Exercise 2.7
19. Find the domain of the given function.
1 1
b) f ( x ) x b) g ( x ) 3 x 1 c) h( x ) 2 x 8 d) f ( x ) 3 x
6 2 2
20. Sketch the graph of the given function. Identify the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
b) y 5 x b) y 9 3x c) y 1 e x d) y e x 2
21. Solve the given exponential equation.
b) 2 x 1 8 b) 32 x 243 c) 8 x 2 d) 163a 2 1
4
22. Let f ( x ) 2 x . Show that f ( x 3) 8 f ( x) .
1
23. Let g ( x ) 5 x . Show that g ( x 2) g ( x) .
25
f ( x 2) f ( 2)
24. Let f ( x ) 3x . Show that 4(3 x ) .
2
25. Evaluate the given logarithmic expression (where it is defined).
c) log 2 32 c) log 3 ( 9) e) log 5 (log 3 243)
d) log 1 9 d) log 6 1
6
f) 2 log2 5
3
26. If f ( x) log 2 ( x 2 4) , find f (6) and the domain of f .
27. If g ( x) log 3 ( x 2 4 x 3) , find f (4) and the domain of g .
28. Show that log 1 x log 6 x
6
29. Sketch the graph of the given function and identify the domain, range, intercepts and
asymptotes.
b) f ( x) log 2 ( x 3) b) f ( x) 3 log 2 x c) f ( x) log 3 ( x) d)
f ( x ) 3log 5 x
30. Find the inverse of f ( x ) e ( 3 x 1) .
31. Let f ( x ) e x
. Find a function so that ( f g )( x) ( g f )( x) x .
32. Convert the given angle from radians to degrees
b) 3 b) 52 c) 43
33. Convert the given angle from degrees to radians
b) 315 b) 40 c) 330
34. Sketch the graph of
c) f ( ) sec c) f ( ) csc e) f ( ) cot
d) f ( x) 1 cos x d) f ( x) sin( x 2 ) f) f ( x) tan 2 x
35. Verify the following identities:
c) (sin x cos x)(csc x sec x) tan x cot x
d) sec 2 x csc 2 x tan 2 x cot 2 x
36. Given tan 12 and sin 0 , find cos .
Chapter Two
Functions
Our everyday lives are filled with situations in which we encounter relationships between two sets. For
example,
To each automobile, there corresponds a license plate number
To each circle, there corresponds a circumference
To each number, there corresponds its square
In order to apply mathematics to a variety of disciplines, we must make the idea of a “relationship”
between two sets mathematically precise.
On completion of this chapter students will be able to:
understand the concept of real numbers
use properties of real numbers to solve problems
determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
solve linear equations and inequalities
solve quadratic equations and inequalities
understand the notion of relation and function
determine the domain and range of relations and functions
find the inverse of a relation
define polynomial and rational functions
perform the fundamental operations on polynomials
find the inverse of an invertible function
apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
define exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve
problems
In this chapter, before discussing the idea of relations and functions we first review the system of real
numbers, linear and quadratic equations and inequalities.
c. The real number systems
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
understand the concept of real numbers
use properties of real numbers to solve problems
determine whether a given real number is rational number or not
In this section we will define what the real numbers are and what are their properties? To answer, we
start with some simpler number systems.
The integers and the rational numbers
The simplest numbers of all are the natural numbers,
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,
With them we can count: our books, our friends, and our money. If we adjoin their negatives and zero,
we obtain the integers;
, 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3,
When we try to measure length, weight, or voltage, the integers are inadequate. They are spaced too far
apart to give sufficient precision. Thus, we are led to consider quotients (ratios) of integers, numbers
such as:
3 7 21 19 16 17
, , , , and
4 8 5 2 2 1
16 17
Note that we included 2 and 1 , though we would normally write them as 8 and – 17, since they are
5 9
equal to the latter by the ordinary meaning of division. We did not include 0 or 0 , since it is
impossible to make sense out of these symbols. In fact, let us agree once and for all to banish division by
m
zero from this section. Numbers which can be written in the form n , where m and n are integers
with n 0 , are called rational numbers.
Do the rational numbers serve to measure all lengths? No. This surprising fact was discovered by the
ancient Greeks long ago. They showed that while 2 measures the hypotenuse of a right triangle with
sides of length 1, it cannot be written as a quotient of two integers(see exercise…). Thus, Thus, 2 is an
irrational (not rational) number. So are 3, 5, 3 7 , and a host of other numbers.
The real numbers
Consider the set of all numbers (rational and irrational) that can measure lengths, together with their
negatives and zero. We call these numbers the real numbers.
The set of real numbers denoted by can be described as the union of the set of rational and irrational
numbers. i.e = {x : x is a rational number or an irrational number}.
The real numbers may be viewed as labels for points along a horizontal line. There they measure the
distance to the right or left (the directed distance) from a fixed point called the origin and labeled 0.
Each point on the number line corresponds a unique real number and vice-versa.
Most students will remember that the number system can be enlarged still more to the so-called
complex numbers. These are numbers of the form a b 1 , where a and b are real numbers.
The four arithmetic operations
Give two real numbers x and y , we may add or multiply them to obtain two new real numbers x y
and x y (also written simply as xy ). The real numbers along with the operations of addition (+) and
multiplication ( ) , obey the 11 properties listed below. Most of these properties are straightforward and
may seem trivial. Nevertheless, we shall see that these 11 basic properties are quite powerful in that
they are the basis for simplifying algebraic expressions.
The commutative Properties
23. For addition: a b b a
24. For multiplication: ab ba
The associative properties
25. For addition: a (b c) (a b) c
26. For multiplication: a(bc) (ab)c
The distributive property
27. a(b c) ab ac or (b c)a ba ca
Identities
28. For addition: There is a unique number called the additive identity, represented by 0,
which has the property that a 0 a 0 a for all real numbers a .
29. For multiplication: There is a unique real number called the multiplicative identity,
represented by 1, which has the property that a 1 a 1 a for all real numbers a .
Inverses
30. For addition: Each real number a has a unique additive inverse, represented by a ,
which has the property that a (a) 0 (a) a
31. For multiplication: Each real number a , except 0, has a unique multiplicative inverse,
represented by a1 , which has the property that a ( a1 ) 1 ( a1 )a .
Closure properties
32. For addition: The sum of two real numbers is a real number.
33. For multiplication: The product of two real numbers is a real number.
Subtraction and division are defined by:
x y x ( y ) and x y x 1y , where y 0 .
In the product ab , a and b are called factors, in the sum a b , a and b are called terms.
Example 2.1: The set of irrational numbers is not closed under addition and multiplication, because
2 ( 2 ) 0 and 2 8 16 4 , which are rational numbers.
The order relation on the set of real numbers
The nonzero real numbers separate nicely into two disjoint sets – the positive real numbers and the
negative real numbers. This fact allows us to introduce the order relation < (read “is less than”) by
x y y x is positive
We agree that x y and y x will mean the same thing. The order relation (read”is less than or
equal to”) is a first cousin of <. It is defined by
x y yx is positive or zero
The order relation < has the following properties:
The order property
9. Trichotomy: If x and y are numbers, exactly one of the following
holds:
x y or x y or x y
10. Transitivity: x y and y z x z
11. Addition: y x z y z
12. Multiplication: When z is positive, x y xz yz ,
When z is negative, x y xz yz
Intervals
Let a and b be two real numbers such that a b, then the intervals which are subsets of R with end
points a and b are denoted and defined as below:
ix) (a, b) x : a x b open interval from a to b.
x) [a, b] x : a x b closed interval from a to b.
xi) (a, b] x : a x b open-closed interval from a to b.
xii) [a, b) x : a x b closed-open interval from a to b.
Exercise 2.1
13. Simplify as much as possible:
e) 4 3(8 12) 6 c) 5
6 ( 14 23 )
1
43 87
f) 2[3 2(4 8)] d) 2
1
2 43 87
14. Which of the following statements are true and which of them are false?
a) The sum of any two rational numbers is rational.
b) The sum of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
c) The product of any two rational numbers is rational.
d) The product of any two irrational numbers is irrational.
15. Find the value of each of the following, if undefined, say so.
e) 0 0 c) 00 e) 80
f) 8
0 d) 80 f) 08
16. Show that division by 0 is meaningless as follows: Suppose a 0 . If a
0 b , then
a 0 b 0 , which is a contradiction. Now find a reason why 0
0 is also meaningless.
17. Prove each if a 0 , b 0
c) a b a 2 b2 b) a b a1 1
b
18. Which of the following are always correct if a b ?
c) a 4 b 4 b) a b c) a 2 ab d) a 2 a 2 b
2.4 Equations and Inequalities: Linear and Quadratic
At the end of this section, students will be able to:
solve linear equations and inequalities
solve quadratic equations and inequalities identify the notions of the common sets of
numbers
Linear Equations and inequalities
An equation is a symbolic statement of equality. That is, rather than writing “twice a number is four less
than the number,” we write 2 x x 4 . Our goal is to find the solution to a given equation. By solution
we mean the value or values of the variable that make the algebraic statement true.
Definition 2.1: (Linear Equation)
A linear equation in one variable is an equation that can be put in the form ax b 0 , where a and b are
constants, and a 0 .
Equations that have the same solutions are called equivalent equations. For example, 3x 1 5 and
3x 6 are equivalent equations because the solution set of both equations is {2}. Our goal here is to
take an equation and with the help of a few properties, gradually, change the given equation into an
equivalent equation of the form x a , where x is the variable for which we are solving. These
properties are:
5. The addition property
If a b , then a c b c . That is, adding the same quantity to both sides of an
equation will produce an equivalent equation.
6. The multiplication property
If a b , then ac bc . That is, multiplying both sides of an equation by the same
nonzero quantity will produce an equivalent equation.
Example 2.2:
7. Solve for x
c) 820 x 10 x 30(50 x) b) 3(2 x 1) 2(1 5x) 6 x 11
Solution:
e) 820 x 10 x 30(50 x) Simplify the right hand side
820 x 10 x 1500 30 x
820 x 1500 20 x Applying the addition property (add 20 x to both sides)
840 x 1500
1500 25
Thus, x .
840 14
25
Remember to check by substituting 14 for x in the original equation.
f) 3(2 x 1) 2(1 5x) 6 x 11 (The given equation)
6 x 3 2 10 x 6 x 11 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
6 x 10 x 6 x 2 11 3 (Collecting like terms: ‘variables to the left and
numbers to the right’ )
10 x 10
x 1 (Dividing both sides by 10)
Therefore, the solution set (S.S) is {1}.
8x 3 5
8. Find the solution set of 5( x 2) 3( x )
2 6
8x 3 5
Solution: 5( x 2) 3( x ) (The given equation)
2 6
This gives us:
3 5
4x 5 x 10 3x
2 2
5 3
4 x 5 x 3x 10 Using addition property
2 2
2x 6
Hence, x 3 . That is, the solution set is {3}.
9. A computer discount store held an end of summer sale on two types of computers. They
collected Birr 41,800 on the sale of 58 computers. If one type sold for Birr 600 and the
other type sold for Birr 850, how many of each type were sold?
Solution: If we let x to be the number of Birr 600 computers sold, then 58 x = the number of
computers that are sold for Birr 850 (since 58 were sold all together).
Our equation involves the amount of money collected on the sale of each type of computer that is, the
value of computers sold). Thus we have:
600 x 850(58 x) 41,800 , which yields
x 30
Hence, there were 30 computers sold at Birr 600 and 28 computers sold at 850.
Remark: The solution set of some equation can be the set of all rational numbers. This is the case when
the equation is satisfied by every rational number.
Example 2.3: Find the solution set of 5x 2( x 1) 4 3( x 2)
Solution: 5x 2( x 1) 4 3( x 2) (The given equation)
5 x 2 x 2 4 3x 6 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
3x 6 3 x 6 (Combining like terms)
This is always true whatever the value of x is. In fact, subtracting 3x from both sides of the last equation
we get 6=6 which is always true. This means the given equation is satisfied if you take any number for x
as you wish. Thus, S.S = .
Remark: There are also some equations which cannot be satisfied by any number. For example, the
equation x+10 = x says ‘If you increase a number x by 10, the result is x itself (unchanged)’. Obviously,
there is no such a number. The solution set of such equation is empty set. If you try to solve such
equation, you end up with a false statement (false equality). For example, an attempt to solve x+10 = x
leads to the following:
10+x x = x x (Subtracting x from both sides of the equation)
10 = 0, which is false.
Hence, the solution set of x+10 = x is (empty set).
Example 2.4: Find the solution set of 6 3(1 x) 2(1 5x) 7 x
Solution: 6 3(1 x) 2(1 5x) 7 x (The given equation)
6 3 3x 2 10 x 7 x (Removing parentheses by distribution)
9 3x 2 3 x (Combining like terms)
9 3x 3x 2 3 x 3 x (Adding 3x to both sides)
9 = 2, which is false.
This means the solution set of the given equation is empty, .
Example 2.5: A man has a daughter and a son. The man is five times older than his daughter. Moreover,
his age is twice of the sum of the ages of his daughter and son. His daughter is 3 years younger than his
son. How old is the man and his children?
Solution: The unknowns in the problem are age of the man, age of his daughter, and age of his son. So,
let m = Age of the man; d = Age of the daughter; and s = Age of the son. Then, ‘The man is 5 times older
than his daughter’ means m=5d . Moreover, ‘Age of the man is twice the sum of the ages of his daughter
and son’ means m=2(d+s) . ‘His daughter is 3 years younger than his son’ means d = s 3.
Now, from the last (3rd ) equation you can get s = d +3. Substitute this in the 2nd equation to get m=2(d
+d+3) = 2(2d+3). Thais is, m=4d+6. Next substitute this in the 1st equation to get
4d+6 = 5d or 6 = 5d4d=d. Hence, d= 6. From this, s = d +3 = 6+3 = 9, and m=5d =56= 30.
Therefore, the age of the man is 30, age of his daughter is 6 and age of his son is 9.
Definition 2.2: (Linear Inequalities)
A linear inequality is an inequality that can be put in the form ax b 0 , where a and b are constants with
a 0 . (The symbol can be replaced with , or )
To solve inequalities, we will need the following properties of inequalities.
For a, b, c , if a b , then
3) a c b c 2) ac bc, when c 0 3) ac bc, when c 0
Thus, to produce an equivalent inequality, we may add (subtract) the same quantity to (from) both sides
of an inequality, or multiply (divide) both sides by the same positive quantity. On the other hand, we
must reverse the inequality symbol to produce an equivalent inequality if we multiply (divide) both sides
by the same negative quantity.
Example 2.6:
5. Solve the linear inequality 5x 8(20 x) 2( x 5) .
Solution: 5x 8(20 x) 2( x 5) Simplify each side
5x 160 8x 2 x 10
160 3x 2 x 10 Now apply the inequality property
5x 170 Divide both sides by – 5
x 34 Note that the inequality symbol is reversed
Thus, the solution set is {x : x 34} (,34] .
Example 2.7: Find the solution set of the inequality 3x 5(x+2) 0.
Solution: 3x 5(x 2) 0 (The given inequality)
3x 5x + 10 0 (Removing the parentheses by distribution)
2x + 10 0 (Combining like terms)
2x 10 (Subtracting 10 from both sides)
x 10 (Dividing both sides by 2 reverse the inequality)
2
That is, x 5. Therefore, S.S = {x: x 5}, the set of all real numbers less 5.
The solution of an inequality is sometimes required to be only in a given domain (set). If so, a solution
set should contain only those solutions that belong to the specified domain.
Example 2.8: Find the solution set of x 4( x 1) 13 ( x 2) in the set of natural numbers, .
Solution: x 4( x 1) 13 ( x 2) (The given inequality)
x 4x 4 13 x 2 (Removing parentheses by distribution)
3x 4 11 x (Combining like terms; i.e., x 4 x 3x and 13+2= 11)
3x x 11 4 (Collecting like terms)
2 x 7 (Next, division of both sides of this by 2 reverses the
inequality)
7
x ; i.e., x 3.5
2
Thus, the solution of the given inequality in is {1, 2, 3}. (Recall: = {1, 2, 3, … })
Some inequalities may have no solution in the specified domain as in the following example.
Example 2.9: Find the solution set of 7 x 6 3x 2 in the set of whole numbers, W.
Solution: 7 x 2 3x 6 (The given inequality)
7 x 3x 6 2 (Collecting like terms)
4 x 4
4 x 4
or x 1
4 4
However, there is no negative whole number. Therefore, the solution set of the given inequality in W is
, empty set. (Recall: W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … } )
1 1 3 3
Example 2.10: Find the solution set of the inequality ( x 3) x ( x 1) in .
6 2 2 2
Solution: The inequality involves fractional numbers. Thus, like for the case of linear equations, clear the
denominators by multiplying both sides of the inequality by the LCM of the denominators. The
denominators in this equation are 6 and 2; and their LCM is 6. Thus, multiply every term in both sides of
the given inequality by 6. That is,
1 1 3 3
6 ( x 3) 6 x 6 6 ( x 1) (The inequality is not reversed because 60)
6 2 2 2
x 3 3x 9 9( x 1) (Simplifying/clear denominators)
4x 6 9 x 9
4x 9x 9 6 (Collecting like terms)
5x 15 (Next, division of both sides by 5)
15
x or x 3 .
5
Therefore, S.S = { x | x 3 }.
Quadratic Equations and Inequalities
A quadratic equation is a polynomial equation in which the highest degree of the variable is 2. We
define the standard form of a quadratic a quadratic equation as Ax Bx c 0 , where A 0 .
2
As with linear equations, the solutions of quadratic equations are values of the variable that make the
equation a true statement. The solutions of Ax Bx C 0 are also called the roots of the
2
polynomial equation Ax Bx C 0 .
2
In solving the equation Ax Bx C 0 , if the polynomial Ax Bx C can be factored, the we
2 2
can use the zero product rule (which is stated below) to reduce the problem to that of solving two linear
equations. For example, to solve the equation x x 6 0 , we van factor the left hand side to get
2
( x 2)( x 3) 0 . Hence, we can conclude that x 2 0 or x 3 0 , which yields x 2 or
x 3 .
The Zero-Product Rule: If a b 0 , then a 0 or b 0
Another method is to apply the Square Root Theorem.
The Square Root Theorem: If x 2 d , then x d .
Example 2.11: Solve the following
g) 4 x 2 10 x 6 b) 5x 2 6 8 c) ( x 2) 2 6
Solution: a) 4 x 2 10 x 6 Put into standard form
4 x 2 10 x 6 0 Factor the left hand side
2(2 x 1)( x 3) 0 Hence we have
2 x 1 0 or x 3 0 Solving each linear equation, we get
x 1
2 or x 3
h) We note that there is no first-degree term, so our approach will be to apply the Square
Root Theorem.
5x 2 6 8 Isolate x 2 on the left-hand side before applying the
square root theorem
5x 2 14
x 2 145 Applying the square root theorem we get
x 14
5
i) Since it is in the form of a squared quantity equal to a number, we will apply the
Square Root Theorem to get x 2 6 .
Part (c) of the above example illustrates that if we can construct a perfect square binomial from a
quadratic equation (i.e., get the equation in the form ( x p) 2 d ) , then we can apply the Square
Root Theorem and solve for x to get x p d .
The method of constructing a perfect square is called completing the square. It is based on the fact that
in multiplying out the perfect square ( x p) 2 , with p a constant, we get
( x p) 2 x 2 2 px p 2
Notice the relationship between the constant term, p 2 , and the coefficient of the middle term, 2 p :
The constant term is the square of half the coefficient of the middle term.
Example 2.12: Solve by completing the square: 2 x 8x 4 6 .
2
Solution: 2 x 2 8x 4 6 Divide both sides by 2, the coefficient of x
2
x2 4x 2 3 Isolate the constant term on the right-hand side
x2 4x 1 Take half the middle term coefficient, square it
12 (4)2 4 , we add 4 to both sides of the
equation
x2 4x 4 1 4 Factor the left hand side
( x 2) 2 5 Solve for x using the Square Root Theorem
x 2 5.
Unlike the factoring method, all quadratic equations can be solved by completing the square. If we were
to complete the square for the general quadratic equation Ax 2 Bx C 0, A 0 , we would arrive
at the formula given below.
B B 2 4 AC
The Quadratic Formula: If Ax 2 Bx C 0 and A 0 , then x
2A
Example 2.13: Solve the following using the quadratic formula: x 8 6 x .
2
Solution: Writing the equation in standard form we get, x 6 x 8 0 . By the quadratic formula we
2
have:
6 62 4(1)( 8) 6 68 6 2 17
x 3 17
2(1) 2 2
Thus, the solution set is 3 17 , 3 17 .
A quadratic inequality is in standard form if it is in the form Ax Bx C 0 . (We can replace
2
with , , or .)
If we keep in mind that u 0 means u is positive, then solving an inequality such as 2 x 5x 3 0
2
means we are interested in finding the values of x that will make 2x + 5 x 3 positive. Or, since
2
2 x 2 5x 3 (2 x 1)( x 3) , we are looking for values of x that make (2 x 1)( x 3) positive.
For (2 x 1)( x 3) to be positive, the factors must be either both positive or both negative. To
determine when this happens, we first find the values of x for which (2 x 1)( x 3) is equal to 0; we
call these the cut points of (2 x 1)( x 3) . The cut points are 1
2 and 3 .
Thus, our approach in solving quadratic inequalities will be primarily algebraic. After putting the
inequality in standard form, we will determine the sign of each factor of the expression for various
values of x . Then, we determine the solution by examining the sign of the product. This process is
called a sign analysis.
Returning to the problem 2 x 5x 3 0 , we draw a number line and examine the sign of each
2
factor as x takes on various values on the number line, especially around the cut points.
Sign of x 3 ++ + + + + + + + + + + +
Sign of 2 x 1 + + + + + + +
6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
The above figure illustrates that the factor x 3 is negative when x 3 and positive when x 3 . It
is also shown that 2 x 1 is negative when x 1
2 and positive when x 12 . Thus the product of the two
factors is positive when x 3 and x 12 . Therefore, the solution set is ( ,3) ( 12 , ) .
Remark: 1. The cut points of the inequalities will break up the number line into intervals.
6. The sign of the product does not change within an interval, i.e., if the expression is
positive (or negative) for one value within the interval, it is positive (or negative) for all
values within the interval.
Example 2.14: Solve the quadratic inequality x 2 x 2 0 .
2
Solution: Since we cannot factor x 2 x 2 , we use the quadratic formula to find that its roots are
2
1 3 . This gives the cut points for the polynomial x 2 2 x 2 . We use the sign analysis (see the
figure below) with the test points given. Note: 1 3 2.7 & 1 3 0.7 .
Sign of x 2 x 2
2
+ 0 – 0 +
x 10 1 3 x 1 1 3 x 100
Substituting the test values – 10, 1, and 100 for x in the expression x 2 x 2 , we find that
2
x 2 2 x 2 is negative only when x is in the interval (1 3,1 3) .
Exercise 2.2
15. Solve the linear equations
2 5 x
g) 2 3( x 4) 2( x 1) d) 4
x3 x3
6 12 1
h) 3x [2 3(2 x)] 5 (3 x) e) 2
x 3x x x 3
i) 3
4 (2 x 3) 23 x 5
16. Solve the linear inequalities
5x 2 x 3
c) 4 x 23 2 x (3x 1) b) 5x 2 3x ( x 15 ) c)
3 4
17. A truck carries a load of 50 boxes; some are 20 kg boxes and the rest are 25 kg boxes. If
the total weight of all boxes is 1175 kg, how many of each type are there?
18. The product of two numbers is 5. If their sum 92 , find the numbers.
19. Solve
e) 2 x 2 7 x 15 c) x 2 2 x 4 0 e) 3x 2 6 x 5 0
1 1 3
f) x 3 d) 4
x3 x 5 x 2
20. Solve the quadratic inequalities
g) x 2 2 x 24 0 d) 2 x 2 x 2 0
h) x 2 5x 24 e) x 2 16
i) x 2 3x 3 0
3
21. A student was given the inequality: 4 . The first step the student took in solving
x2
this inequality was to transform it into 3 4( x 2) . Explain what the student did wrong.
6.3. Review of relations and functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define Cartesian product of two sets
understand the notion of relation and function
know the difference between relation and function
determine the domain and range of relations and functions
find the inverse of a relation
The student is familiar with the phrase ordered pair. In the ordered pair (2,3), ( 2,4) and (a, b) ;
2, 2 and a are the first coordinates while 3, 4 and b are the second coordinates.
Cartesian Product
Given sets A {3, 4} and B { 4, 5, 9} . Then, the set {(3,4), (3,5), (3,9), (4,4), (4,5), (4,9)} is the
Cartesian product of A and B , and it is denoted by A B .
Definition 2.3: Suppose A B are sets. The Cartesian product of A and B , denoted by A B , is the set
and
which contains every ordered pair whose first coordinate is an element of A and second coordinate is an
element of B , i.e.
A B {(a, b) : a A and b B} .
Example 2.15: For A {2, 4} and A {1, 3} , we have
e) A B {(2,1), (2,3), (4,1), (4,3)} , and
f) B A {(1,2), (1,4), (3,2), (3,4)} .
From this example, we can see that A B and B A are not equal. Recall that two sets are equal if
one is a subset of the other and vice versa. To check equality of Cartesian products we need to define
equality of ordered pairs.
Definition 2.4: (Equality of ordered Pairs)
Two ordered pairs (a, b) and (c, d ) are equal if and only if a c and b d .
Example 2.16: Let A {1,2,3} and B {a, b, c} . Then,
A B {(1, a), (1, b), (1, c), (2, a), (2, b), (2, c), (3, a), (3, b), (3, c)} .
Definition 2.5: (Relation)
If A and B are sets, any subset of A B is called a relation from A into B.
Suppose R is a relation from a set A to a set B. Then, R A×B and hence for each (a, b) A B , we
have either (a, b) R or (a, b) R . If (a, b) R , we say “a is R-related (or simply related) to b”, and
write aRb . If (a, b) R , we say that “a is not related to b”.
In particular if R is a relation from a set A to itself, then we say that R is a relation on A.
Example 2.17:
5. Let A {1,3,5,7} and B {6,8} . Let R be the relation “less than” from A to B . Then,
R {(1,6), (1,8), ((3,6), (3,8), (5,6), (5,8), (7,8)} .
6. Let A {1,2,3,4,5} and B {a, b, c} .
e) The following are relations from A into B ;
vii) R1 {(1, a )}
viii) R2 {(2, b), (3, b), (4, c), (5, a)}
ix) R3 {(1, a ), ((2, b), (3, c)}
f) The following are relations from B to A ;
vii) R4 {(a,3), (b,1)}
viii) R5 {(b,2), (c,4), (a,2), (b,3)}
ix) R6 {(b,5)}
R be a relation from A into B . Then,
Definition 2.6: Let
e) the domain of R , denoted by Dom(R) , is the set of first coordinates of the elements of
R , i.e
Dom( R) {a
A : (a, b) R}
f) the range of R , denoted by Range(R) , is the set of second coordinates of elements of R
, i.e
Range( R) {b B : (a, b) R}
Remark: If R is a relation form the set A to the set B , then the set B is called the codomain of the
relation R . The range of relation is always a subset of the codomain.
Example 2.18:
5. The set R {(4,7), (5,8), (6,10)} is a relation from the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6} to the set
B {6,7,8,9,10] . The domain of R is {4,5,6} , the range of R is {7,8,10} and the
codomain of R is {6,7,8,9,10} .
6. The set of ordered pairs R {(8,2), (6,3), (5,7), (5,3)} is a relation between the sets
{5,6,8} and {2,3,7} , where {5,6,7} is the domain and {2,3,7} is the range.
Remark:
5. If (a, b) R for a relation R , we say a is related to (or paired with) b . Note that a may
also be paired with an element different from b . In any case, b is called the image of a
while a is called the pre-image of b .
6. If the domain and/or range of a relation is infinite, we cannot list each element
assignment, so instead we use set builder notation to describe the relation. The situation
we will encounter most frequently is that of a relation defined by an equation or formula.
For example,
R {( x, y ) : y 2 x 3, x, y IR}
is a relation for which the range value is 3 less than twice the domain value. Hence,
(0, 3), (0.5, 2) and ( 2,7) are examples of ordered pairs that are of the assignment.
Example 2.19:
5. Let A {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}
Let R be the relation on A defined by R {(a, b) : a, b A, a is a factor of b} . Find the
domain and range of R .
Solution: We have
R {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (1,4), (1,6), (2,2), (2,4), (2,6), (3,3), (3,6), (4,4), (6,6)} .
Then, Dom( R) {1,2,3,4,6} and Range( R) {1,2,3,4,6} .
6. Let A {1,2,3,4,5} and B {1, 2, 3,, 67} .
Let R {( x, y ) A B : x is cube root of y . Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R)
Solution: We have 1 1, 2 3 8, 3 3 27 , 4 3 64 , 5 3 125 and 1,8,27 and 64 are in B whereas
3,
125 is not in B . Thus, R {(1,1), (2,8), (3,27), (4,64)} , Dom( R) {1,2,3,4} and R {1,8,27,64} .
Remark:
7. A relation R on a set A is called
vii) a universal relation if R A A
viii) identity relation if R {(a, a) : a A}
ix) void or empty relation if R
8. If R is a relation from A to B , then the inverse relation of R , denoted by R 1 , is a
relation from B to A and is defined as:
R 1 {( y, x) : ( x, y ) R} .
Observe that Dom( R) Range( R 1 ) and Range( R) Dom( R 1 ) . For instance, if
R {(1,4), (9,15), (10,2)} is a relation on a set A {1,2,3,,20} , then R {(4,1), (15,9), (2,10)}
1
Example 2.20: Let R be a relation defined on IN by R {(a, b) : a, b IN , a 2b 11} .
1
Find a) R b) Dom(R) c) Range(R) d) R
Solution: The smallest natural number is 1.
b 1 a 2(1) 11 a 9
b2 a 2(2) 11 a 7
b3 a 2(3) 11 a 5
b4 a 2(4) 11 a 3
b5 a 2(5) 11 a 1
b6 a 2(6) 11 a 1 IN
Therefore, R {(9,1), (7,2), (5,3), (3,4), (1,5)} , Dom( R) {1,3,5,7,9} , Range ( R) {1,2,3,4,5} and
R 1 {(1,9), (2,7), (3,5), (4,3), (5,1)} .
Functions
Mathematically, it is important for us to distinguish among the relations that assign a unique range
element to each domain element and those that do not.
Definition 2.7: (Function)
A function is a relation in which each element of the domain corresponds to exactly one element of the range.
Example 2.21: Determine whether the following relations are functions.
c) R {(5,2), (3,5), (3,7)} b) {(2,4),(3,4),(6,-4)}
Solution:
e) Since the domain element 3 is assigned to two different values in the range, 5 and 7, it is
not a function.
f) Each element in the domain, {2,3,6} , is assigned no more than one value in the range, 2 is
assigned only 4, 3 is assigned only 4, and 6 is assigned only – 4. Therefore, it is a
function.
Remark: Map or mapping, transformation and correspondence are synonyms for the word function. If
f is a function and ( x, y ) f , we say x is mapped to y.
Definition 2.8: A relation f from A into B is called a function from A into B, denoted by
f : A B or A f
B
if and only if
(v) Dom( f ) A
(vi) No element of A is mapped by f to more than one element in B, i.e. if ( x, y ) f
and ( x, z ) f , then y z .
Remark: 1. If to the element x of A corresponds y ( B) under the function f , then we write
f ( x) y and y is called the image of x under y and x is called a pre-image of y under f .
2. The symbol f (x ) is read as “ f of x” but not “ f times x”.
9. In order to show that a relation f from A into B is a function, we first show that the
domain of f is A and next we show that f well defined or single-valued, i.e. if x y in
A, then f ( x) f ( y ) in B for all x, y A .
Example 2.22:
5. Let A {1,2,3,4} and B {1,6,8,11,15} . Which of the following are functions from A to
B.
k) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (3) 8, f (4) 8
l) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (3) 15
m) f defined by f (1) 6, f (2) 6, f (3) 6, f (4) 6
n) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 6, f (2) 8, f (3) 8, f (4) 11
o) f defined by f (1) 1, f (2) 8, f (3) 11, f (4) 15
Solution:
a) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element of B.
b) f is not a function because there is no element of B which correspond to 4( A).
c) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B. In the given function, the images of all element of A are the same.
d) f is not a function because there are two elements of B which are corresponding to 2.
In other words, the image of 2 is not unique.
e) f is a function because to each element of A there corresponds exactly one element
of B.
As with relations, we can describe a function with an equation. For example, y=2x+1 is a function, since
each x will produce only one y .
6. Let f {( x, y ) : y x } . Then, f maps:
2
1 to 1 -1 to 1
2 to 4 -2 to 4
3 to 9 -3 to 9
More generally any real number x is mapped to its square. As the square of a number is unique, f
maps every real number to a unique number. Thus, f is a function from into .
We will find it useful to use the following vocabulary: The independent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the domain, and the dependent variable refers to the variable
representing possible values in the range. Thus, in our usual ordered pair notation ( x, y ) , x is the
independent variable and y is the dependent variable.
Domain, Codomain and range of a function
For the function f : A B
(vii) The set A is called the domain of f
(viii) The set B is called the codomain of f
(ix) The set { f ( x) : x A} of all image of elements of A is called the range of f
Example 2.23:
13. Let A {1,2,3} and B {1,2,3,,10} . Let f : A B be the correspondence which
assigns to each element in A , its square. Thus, we have f (1) 1, f (2) 4, f (3) 9 .
Therefore, f is a function and Dom( f ) {1,2,3} , Range ( f ) {1,4,9} and codomain of
f is {1,2,3,,10} .
14. Let A {2,4,6,7,9}, B IN . Let x and y represent the elements in the sets A and B ,
respectively. Let f : A B be a function defined by f ( x) 15x 17, x A .
The variable x can take values 2, 4, 6, 7, 9. Thus, we have
f (2) 15(2) 17 47, f (4) 77, f (6) 107, f (7) 122, f (9) 152 .
This implies that Dom( f ) {2,4,6,7,9}, Range( f ) {47,77,107,122,152} and codomain
of f is IN .
15. Let f be the subset of Q Z defined by f q , p : p, q Z , q 0. Is f a function?
p
Solution: First we note that Dom( f ) Q . Then, f satisfies condition (i) in the
definition of a function. Now, 23 ,2 f , 46 ,4 f and 23 46 but f 23 2 4 f 46 .
Thus f is not well defined. Hence, f is not a function from Q to Z .
16. Let f be the subset of Z Z defined by f {(mn, m n) : m, n Z } . Is f a function?
Solution: First we show that f satisfies condition (i) in the definition. Let x be any
element of Z . Then, x x 1 . Hence, ( x, x 1) ( x 1, x 1) f . This implies that
x Dom( f ) . Thus, Z Dom( f ) . However, Dom( f ) Z and so Dom( f ) Z . Now,
4 Z and 4 4 1 2 2 . Thus, (4 1,4 1) and (2 2,2 2) are in f . Hence we find that
4 1 2 2 and f (4 1) 5 4 f (2 2) . This implies that f is not well defined, i.e, f
does not satisfy condition (ii). Hence, f is not a function from Z to Z .
17. Determine whether the following equations determine y as a function of x , if so, find
the domain.
2x
c) y 3x 5 b) y c) y x
2
3x 5
Solution:
g) To determine whether y 3x 5 gives y as a function of x , we need to know
whether each x-value uniquely determines a y-value. Looking at the equation
y 3x 5 , we can see that once x is chosen we multiply it by – 3 and then add 5.
Thus, for each x there is a unique y . Therefore, y 3x 5 is a function.
2x
h) Looking at the equation y carefully, we can see that each x-value uniquely
3x 5
determines a y-value (one x-value can not produce two different y-values). Therefore,
2x
y is a function.
3x 5
As for its domain, we ask ourselves. Are there any values of x that must be
2x
excluded? Since y is a fractional expression, we must exclude any value of
3x 5
x that makes the denominator equal to zero. We must have
5
3x 5 0 x
3
5
Therefore, the domain consists of all real numbers except for . Thus, Dom( f )
3
5
{x : x } .
3
i) For the equation y x , if we choose x 9 we get y 9 , which gives y 3 . In
2 2
other words, there are two y values associated with x 9 . Therefore, y x is not
2
a function.
18. Find the domain of the function y 3x x .
2
Solution: Since y is defined and real when the expression under the radical is non-
negative, we need x to satisfy the inequality
3x x 2 0 x ( 3 x ) 0
This is a quadratic inequality, which can be solved by analyzing signs:
Sign of 3x x
2
0 3
Since we want 3x x x(3 x) to be non-negative, the sign analysis shows us that the
2
domain is {x : 0 x 3} or [0,3] .
Exercise 2.3
17. Let R be a relation on the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6} defined by R {(a, b) : a b 9} .
v) List the elements of R
1
vi) Is R R
18. Let R be a relation on the set A {1,2,3,4,5,6,7} defined by R {(a, b) : 4 divides a b.
ix) List the elements of R
x) Find Dom( R) & Range( R)
1
xi) Find the elements of R
1 1
xii) Find Dom( R ) & Range( R )
19. Let A {1,2,3,4,5,6}. Define a relation on A by R {( x, y ) : y x 1} . Write down the
1
domain, codomain and range of R . Find R .
20. Find the domain and range of the relation {( x, y ) : x y 2} .
21. Let A {1,2,3} and B {3,5,6,8} . Which of the following are functions from A to B ?
e) f {(1,3), (2,3), (3,3)} c) f {(1,8), (2,5)}
f) f {(1,3), (2,5), (1,6)} d) f {(1,6), (2,5), (3,3)}
22. Determine the domain and range of the given relation. Is the relation a function?
g) {(4,3), (2,5), (4,6), (2,0)} d) {( 12 , 16 ), ( 1,1), ( 13 , 81 )}
h) {(8,2), (6, 2 ), ( 1,5)}
3
e) {(0,5), (1,5), (2,5), (3,5), (4,5), (5,5)}
i) {( 3,3), ( 1,1), (0,0), (1,1), ( 3,3)} f) {(5,0),(5,1),(5,2),(5,3),(5,4),(5,5)}
23. Find the domain and range of the following functions.
f ( x) 1 8x 2 x 2 c) f ( x ) x 6 x 8
2
e)
1 3x 4, 1 x 2
f) f ( x) d) f ( x )
x 5x 6 1 x, 2 x 5
2
3x 5, x 1
24. Given f ( x ) 2 .
x 1, x 1
Find a) f (3) b) f (1) c) f (6)
6.4 Real Valued functions and their properties
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
perform the four fundamental operations on polynomials
compose functions to get a new function
determine the domain of the sum, difference, product and quotient of two functions
define equality of two functions
Let f be a function from set A to set B . If B is a subset of real number system , then f is called a
real valued function, and in particular if A is also a subset of , then f : A B is called a real
function.
Example 2.24: 1. The function f : defined by f ( x ) x 2 3x 7 , x is a real function.
2. The function f : defined as f ( x ) x is also a real valued function.
Operations on functions
Functions are not numbers. But just as two numbers a and b can be added to produce a new number
a b , so two functions f and g can be added to produce a new function f g . This is just one of
the several operations on functions that we will describe in this section.
x3
Consider functions f and g with formulas f ( x) , g ( x ) x . We can make a new
2
x3
function f g by having it assign to x the value x , that is,
2
x 3
( f g )( x ) f ( x ) g ( x ) x .
2
Definition 2.9: Sum, Difference, Product and Quotient of two functions
Let f (x ) and g (x ) be two functions. We define the following four functions:
9. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The sum of the two functions
10. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The difference of the two functions
11. ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) The product of the two functions
f f ( x)
12. ( x ) The quotient of the two functions (provided g ( x ) 0)
g g ( x)
Since an x value must be an inout into both f and g , the domain of ( f g )( x) is the set of all x common
to the domain of f and g . This is usually written as Dom( f g ) Dom( f ) Dom( g ) . Similar statements
hold for the domains of the difference and product of two functions. In the case of the quotient, we must impose
the additional restriction that all elements in the domain of g for which g ( x) 0 are excluded.
Example 2.25:
5. Let f ( x ) 3x 2 2 and g ( x) 5x 4 . Find each of the following and its domain
f
c) ( f g )( x) b) ( f g )( x) c) ( f .g )( x) d) (x )
g
Solution:
i) ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) (3x 2 2) (5x 4) 3x 2 5x 2
j) ( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) (3x 2 2) (5x 4) 3x 2 5x 6
k) ( f g )( x) (3x 2 2)(5x 4) 15x 3 12 x 2 10 x 8
f f ( x ) 3x 2 2
l) ( x )
g g ( x) 5x 4
We have
Dom( f g ) Dom( f g ) Dom( fg ) Dom( f ) Dom( g )
f 5
Dom Dom( f ) Dom( g ) \ {x : g ( x ) 0} \
g 4
6. Let f ( x ) 4 x 1 and g ( x ) 9 x 2 , with respective domains [1, ) and [3,3] .
f
Find formulas for f g , f g , f g , and f 3 and give their domains.
g
Solution:
Formula Domain
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
( f g )( x) f ( x) g ( x) 4 x 1 9 x 2 [1, 3]
f f ( x) 4
x 1
( x ) [1, 3)
g g ( x) 9 x2
f 3 ( x) f ( x)
3
4
x 1 x 14
3 3
[1, )
There is yet another way of producing a new function from two given functions.
Definition 2.10: (Composition of functions)
Given two functions f (x ) and g (x ) , the composition of the two functions is denoted by f g and is defined
by:
( f g )( x) f [ g ( x)] .
( f g )( x) is read as " f composed with g of x" . The domain of f g consists of those x s in the
domain of g whose range values are in the domain of f , i.e. those x s for which g (x ) is in the domain of f .
Example 2.26:
9. Suppose f {(2, z ), (3, q)} and g {(a,2), (b,3), (c,5)} . The function
( f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) is found by taking elements in the domain of g and evaluating as
follows: ( f g )(a) f ( g (a)) f (2) z, ( f g )(b) f ( g (b)) f (3) q
If we attempt to find f ( g (c)) we get f (5) , but 5 is not in the domain of f (x ) and so we cannot find
( f g )(c) . Hence, f g {(a, z ), (b, q)} . The figure below illustrates this situation.
g
f
2
a 3 z
Domain
b q
c of f
5
Domain of Range of g Range of f
g 2
10. Given f ( x) 5x 3x 2 and g ( x) 4 x 3 , find
c) ( f g )( 2) b) ( g f )(2) c) ( f g )( x) d) ( g f )( x)
Solution:
i) ( f g )( 2) f ( g (2)) …… First evaluate g (2) 4(2) 3 5
f (5)
5( 5) 2 3( 5) 2 142
j) ( g f )(2) g ( f (2)) …….First evaluate f (2) 5(2) 2 3(2) 2 16
g (16)
4(16) 3 67
k) ( f g )( x) f ( g ( x)) ……. But g ( x) 4 x 3
f (4 x 3)
5(4 x 3) 2 3(4 x 3) 2
80 x 2 108x 38
l) ( g f )( x) g ( f ( x)) ……. But f ( x) 5x 2 3x 2
g (5x 2 3x 2)
4(5x 2 3x 2) 3
20 x 2 12 x 11
x 2
11. Given f ( x ) and g ( x ) , find
x 1 x 1
e) ( f g )( x) and its domain b) ( g f )( x) and its domain
2
2 x 1 2 . Thus, Dom( f g ) {x : x 1} .
Solution: a) ( f g )( x ) f
x 1 2
1
x 1
x 1
2
f) ( g f )( x ) g ( f ( x )) 2 x 2 . Since x must first be an input into f (x )
x
1
x 1
and so must be in the domain of f , we see that Dom( g f ) {x : x 1} .
6x
12. Let f ( x ) and g ( x ) 3x . Find ( f g )(12) and ( g f )( x) and its domain.
x 9
2
Solution: We have ( f g )(12) f ( g (12)) f ( 36 ) f (6) 36
27 43 .
6 3x 6 3x 2 3x
( f g )( x ) f ( g ( x )) f ( 3x ) .
( 3x ) 9 3x 9 x 3
2
The domain of f g is [0,3) (3, ) .
We now explore the meaning of equality of two functions. Let f : A B and g : A B be two
functions. Then, f and g are subsets of A B . Suppose f g . Let x be any element of A . Then,
( x, f ( x)) f g and thus ( x, f ( x)) g . Since g is a function and ( x, f ( x)), ( x, g ( x)) g , we
must have f ( x) g ( x). Conversely, assume that g ( x) f ( x) for all x A . Let ( x, y ) f . Then,
y f ( x) g ( x) . Thus, ( x, y ) g , which implies that f g . Similarly, we can show that g f . It
now follows that f g . Thus two functions f : A B and g : A B are equal if and only if
f ( x) g ( x) for all x A . In general we have the following definition.
Definition 2.11: (Equality of functions)
Two functions are said to be equal if and only if the following two conditions hold:
v) The functions have the same domain;
vi) Their functional values are equal at each element of the domain.
Example 2.27:
5. Let f : Z Z {0} and g : Z Z {0} be defined by f {(n, n 2 ) : n Z } and
g {(n, n ) : n Z } . Now, for all n Z , f (n) n 2 n g (n) . Thus, f g .
2 2
x 2 25
6. Let f ( x ) , x \ {5} , and g ( x) x 5, x . The function f and g are not
x 5
equal because Dom( f ) Dom( g ).
Exercise 2.4
2
17. For f ( x ) x 2 x and g ( x ) , find each value:
x3
e) ( f g )(2) c) g 2 (3) e) ( g f )(1)
f
f) (1) d) ( f g )(1) f) ( g g )(3)
g
2
18. If f ( x ) x 3 2 and g ( x ) , find a formula for each of the following and state its
x 1
domain.
g
e) ( f g )( x) c) (x )
f
f) ( f g )( x) d) ( g f )( x)
19. Let f ( x ) x 2 and g ( x ) x .
g) Find ( f g )( x) and its domain.
h) Find ( g f )( x) and its domain
i) Are ( f g )( x) and ( g f )( x) the same functions? Explain.
20. Let f ( x) 5x 3 . Find g (x ) so that ( f g )( x) 2 x 7 .
21. Let f ( x) 2 x 1. Find g (x ) so that ( f g )( x) 3x 1 .
x 1 3 f ( x) 1
22. If f is a real function defined by f ( x ) . Show that f (2 x ) .
x 1 f ( x) 3
23. Find two functions f and g so that the given function h( x) ( f g )( x) , where
1
e) h( x ) ( x 3) 3 c) h( x ) 6
x
1
f) h( x ) 5 x 3 d) h( x )
x6
1
24. Let f ( x ) 4 x 3, g ( x ) and h( x ) x 2 x . Find
x
e) f (5x 7) c) f ( g (h(3))) e) f ( x a )
f) 5 f ( x) 7 d) f (1) g (2) h(3) f) f ( x ) a
6.5 Types of functions
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define one to oneness and ontoness of a function
check invertibility of a function
find the inverse of an invertible function
In this section we shall study some important types of functions.
One to One functions
Definition 2.12: A function f : A B is called one to one, often written 1 – 1, if and only if for all
x1 , x2 A , f ( x1 ) f ( x2 ) implies x1 x2 . In words, no two elements of A are mapped to one
element of B .
Example 2.28:
5. If we consider the sets A {1,2,3,,6} and B {7, a, b, c, d ,8, e} and if f {(1,7), (2, a ),
(3, b) , (4, b), (5, c), (6,8)} and g {(1,7), (2, a), (3, b), (4, c), (5,8), (6, d )} , then both f and
g are functions from A into B . Observe that f is not a 1 – 1 function because
f (3) f (4) but 3 4 . However, g is a 1 – 1 function.
6. Let A {1,2,3,4} and B {1,4,7,8} . Consider the functions
v) f : A B defined as f (1) 1, f (2) 4, f (3) 4, f (4) 8
vi) g : A B defined as f (1) 4, f (2) 7, f (3) 1, f (4) 8
Then, f is not 1 – 1, but g is a 1 – 1 function.
Onto functions
Definition 2.13: Letf be a function from a set A into a set B . Then f is called an onto function(or f
maps onto B ) if every element of B is image of some element in A , i.e, Range( f ) B.
Example 2.29:
7. Let A {1,2,3} and B {1,4,5} . The function f : A B defined as f (1) 1 , f (2) 5 ,
f (3) 1 is not onto because there is no element in A , whose image under f is 4. The
function g : A B given by g {(1,4), (2,5), (3,1)} is onto because each element of B is
the image of at least one element of A .
Note that if A is a non-empty set, the function i A : A A defined by i A ( x ) x for all
x A is a 1 – 1 function from A onto A . i A is called the identity map on A .
8. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) n 2 for all n Z . Now,
domain of f is Z . Also, if n n , then n 2 (n ) 2 , i.e. f (n) f (n ) . Hence, f is well
defined and a function. However, f (1) 1 f ( 1) and 1 1 , which implies that f is
not 1 – 1. For all n Z , f (n ) is a non-negative integer. This shows that a negative
integer has no preimage. Hence, f is not onto. Note that f is onto {0,1,4,9,} .
9. Consider the relation f from Z into Z defined by f (n) 2n for all n Z . As in the
previous example, we can show that f is a function. Let n, n Z and suppose that
f (n) f (n ) . Then 2n 2n and thus n n . Hence, f is 1 – 1. Since for all n Z ,
f (n ) is an even integer; we see that an odd integer has no preimage. Therefore, f is not
onto.
1 – 1 Correspondence
Definition 2.14: A function f : A B is said to be a 1 – 1 correspondence if f is both 1 – 1
and onto.
Example 2.30:
5. Let A {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} and B {0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25}. Suppose f : A B given by
f ( x ) 5x for all x A . One can easily see that every element of B has a preimage in
A and hence f is onto. Moreover, if f ( x) f ( y ) , then 5x 5 y , i.e. x y . Hence, f
is 1 – 1. Therefore, f is a 1 – 1 correspondence between A and B .
6. Let A be a finite set. If f : A A is onto, then it is one to one.
Solution: Let A {a1 , a2 ,, an } . Then Range( f ) { f (a1 ), f (a2 ),, f (an )} . Since f is onto we
have Range( f ) A .Thus, A { f (a1 ), f (a2 ),, f (an )} , which implies that f (a1 ) , f (a 2 ) , ,
f (a n ) are all distinct. Hence, ai a j implies f (ai ) f (a j ) for all 1 i, j n . Therefore, f is 1 –
1.
Inverse of a function
1
Since a function is a relation , the inverse of a function f is denoted by f and is defined by:
f 1 {( y, x) : ( x, y ) f}
For instance, if f {(2,4), (3,6), (1,7)} , then f 1
{(4,2), (6,3), (7,1)} . Note that the inverse of a
function is not always a function. To see this consider the function f {(2,4), (3,6), (5,4)} . Then,
f 1 {(4,2), (6,3), (4,5)} , which is not a function.
As we have seen above not all functions have an inverse, so it is important to determine whether or not
a function has an inverse before we try to find the inverse. If the function does not have an inverse, then
we need to realize that it does not have an inverse so that we do not waste our time trying to find
something that does not exist.
A one to one function is special because only one to one functions have inverse. If a function is one to
one, to find the inverse we will follow the steps below:
5. Interchange x and y in the equation y f (x )
6. Solving the resulting equation for y , we will obtaining the inverse function.
Note that the domain of the inverse function is the range of the original function and the range of the
inverse function is the domain of the original function.
Example 2.31:
5. Given y f ( x) x 3 . Find f 1 and its domain.
Solution: We begin by interchanging x and y , and we solve for y .
y x3 Interchange x and y
x y3 Take the cube root of both sides
3
xy This is the inverse of the function
1
Thus, f ( x ) 3 x . The domain of f 1 is the set of all real numbers.
x
6. Let y f ( x ) . Find f 1 ( x ) .
x2
Solution: Again we begin by interchanging x and y , and then we solve for y .
x
y Interchange x and y
x2
y
x Solving for y
y2
2x
x( y 2) y xy 2 x y 2 x y (1 x ) y
1 x
1 2x
Thus, f ( x) .
1 x
Remark: Even though, in general, we use an exponent of 1 to indicate a reciprocal, inverse function
1
notation is an exception to this rule. Please be aware that f ( x ) is not the reciprocal of f . That is,
1
f 1 ( x )
f ( x)
If we want to write the reciprocal of the function f (x ) by using a negative exponent, we must
write
f ( x ) .
1 1
f ( x)
Exercise 2.5
15. Consider the function f {( x, x 2 ) : x S} from S {3,2,1,0,1,2,3} into Z . Is f one
to one? Is it onto?
16. Let A {1,2,3} . List all one to one functions from A onto A .
17. Let f : A B . Let f be the inverse relation, i.e. f {( y, x) B A : f ( x) y} .
i) Show by an example that f need not be a function.
j) Show that f is a function from Range( f ) into A if and only if f is 1 – 1.
k) Show that f is a function from B into A if and only if f is 1 – 1 and onto.
l) Show that if f is a function from B into A , then f 1 f .
18. Let A {x : 0 x 1} and B {x : 5 x 8} . Show that f : A B defined by
f ( x) 5 (8 5) x is a 1 – 1 function from A onto B .
19. Which of the following functions are one to one?
k) f : defined by f ( x) 4, x
l) f : defined by f ( x) 6 x 1, x
m) f : defined by f ( x) x 2 7, x
n) f : defined by f ( x ) x 3 , x
2x 1
o) f : \ {7} defined by f ( x ) , x \ {7}
x7
20. Which of the following functions are onto?
i) f : defined by f ( x) 115x 49, x
j) f : defined by f ( x ) x , x
k) f : defined by f ( x ) x 2 , x
l) f : defined by f ( x) x 2 4, x
1
21. Find f ( x ) if
4 x
g) f ( x) 7 x 6 d) f ( x ) g) f ( x) ( x 2) 2 1
3x
2x 9 5x 3 2x
h) f ( x) e) f ( x ) h) f ( x )
4 1 2x 1 x
3
i) f ( x) 1 f) f ( x ) 3 x 1
x
2.6 Polynomials, zeros of polynomials, rational functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define polynomial and rational functions
apply the theorems on polynomials to find the zeros of polynomial functions
use the division algorithm to find quotient and remainder
apply theorems on polynomials to solve related problems
sketch and analyze the graphs of rational functions
The functions described in this section frequently occur as mathematical models of real-life situations.
For instance, in business the demand function gives the price per item, p , in terms of the number of
items sold, x . Suppose a company finds that the price p (in Birr) for its model GC-5 calculator is related
to the number of calculators sold, x (in millions), and is given by the demand function p 80 x 2 .
The manufacturer’s revenue is determined by multiplying the number of items sold ( x ) by the price per
item ( p ). Thus, the revenue function is
R xp x(80 x 2 ) 80 x x 3
These demand and revenue functions are examples of polynomial functions. The major aim of this
section is to better understand the significance of applied functions (such as this demand function). In
order to do this, we need to analyze the domain, range, and behavior of such functions.
Polynomial functions
Definition 2.15: A polynomial function is a function of the form
y an x n an1 x n1 a1 x a0 , an 0.
Each a i is assumed to be a real number, and n is a non-negative integer, a n is called the leading
coefficient. Such a polynomial is said to be of degree n.
Remark:
5. The domain of a polynomial function is always the set of real numbers.
6. (Types of polynomials)
- A polynomial of degree 1 is called a linear function.
- A polynomial of degree 2 is called quadratic function.
- A polynomial of degree 3 is called a cubic function.
i.e p( x) a3 x 3 a2 x 2 a1 x a0 , a3 0.
Example 2.32: p( x ) 2 x 2 1 , q( x ) 3x 4 2 x and f ( x ) 2 x 3 are examples of polynomial
functions.
Properties of polynomial functions
9. The graph of a polynomial is a smooth unbroken curve. The word smooth means that the graph
does not have any sharp corners as turning points.
10. If p is a polynomial of degree n , then it has at most n zeros. Thus, a quadratic polynomial has
at most 2 zeros.
11. The graph of a polynomial function of degree n can have at most n 1 turning points. Thus, the
graph of a polynomial of degree 5 can have at most 4 turning points.
12. The graph of a polynomial always exhibits the characteristic that as x gets very large, y gets
very large.
Zeros of a polynomial
The zeros of a polynomial function provide valuable information that can be helpful in sketching its
graph. One can find the zeros by factorizing the polynomial. However, we have no general method for
factorizing polynomials of degree greater than 2. In this subsection, we turn our attention to methods
that will allow us to find zeros of higher degree polynomials. To do this, we first need to discuss about
the division algorithm.
Division Algorithm
Let p(x ) and d (x ) be polynomials with d ( x ) 0 , and with the degree of d (x ) less than or equal
to the degree of p(x ) . Then there are polynomials q(x ) and R(x ) such that
p( x) d
( x) R
( x). q ( x) , where either R( x ) 0 or the degree of R(x ) is less than degree of
dividend divisor quotient remainder
d (x ) .
x4 1
Example 2.33: Divide 4 .
x 2x
Solution: Using long division we have
x2 2x 4
x 2 2x x 4 0x 3 0x 2 0x 1
(x4 2x3 )
2x 3 0x 2
( 2 x 3 4 x 2 )
4x 2 0x
(4 x 2 8 x )
8x 1
x 4
This long division means 1 (
2
x 2
x ). ( 2 x
x 2
4) (
x
81) .
dividend divisor quotient remainder
With the aid of the division algorithm, we can derive two important theorems that will allow us to
recognize the zeros of polynomials.
If we apply the division algorithm where the divisor, d (x ) , is linear (that is of the form x r ), we get
p( x) ( x r)q( x) R
Note that since the divisor is of the first degree, the remainder R , must be a constant. If we now
substitute x r , into this equation, we get
P(r) (r r)q(r) R 0 q(r) R
Therefore, p( r ) R .
The result we just proved is called the remainder theorem.
The Remainder Theorem
When a polynomial p(x ) of degree at least 1 is divided by x r , then the remainder is p(r ) .
Example 2.34: The remainder when P( x ) x 3 x 2 3x 1 is divided by x 2 is p(2) 9 .
As a consequence of the remainder theorem, if x r is a factor of p(x ) , then the remainder must be 0.
Conversely, if the remainder is 0, then x r , is a factor of p(x ) . This is known as the Factor Theorem.
The Factor Theorem
x r is a factor of p(x ) if and only if p( r ) 0 .
The next theorem, called location theorem, allows us to verify that a zero exists somewhere within an
interval of numbers, and can also be used to zoom in closer on a value.
Location theorem
Let f be a polynomial function and a and b be real numbers such that a b . If f (a) f (b) 0 , then there
is at least one zero of f between a and b .
The Factor and Remainder theorems establish the intimate relationship between the factors of a
polynomial p(x ) and its zeros. Recall that a polynomial of degree n can have at most n zeros.
Does every polynomial have a zero? Our answer depends on the number system in which we are
working. If we restrict ourselves to the set of real number system, then we are already familiar with the
fact that the polynomial p( x ) x 2 1 has no real zeros. However, this polynomial does have two zeros
in the complex number system. (The zeros are i and i ). Carl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855), in his
doctoral dissertation, proved that within the complex number system, every polynomial of degree 1
has at least one zero. This fact is usually referred to as the Fundamental theorem of Algebra.
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
If p(x ) is a polynomial of degree n 0 whose coefficients are complex numbers, then p(x ) has at
least one zero in the complex number system.
Note that since all real numbers are complex numbers, a polynomial with real coefficients also satisfies
the Fundamental theorem of Algebra. As an immediate consequence of the Fundamental theorem of
Algebra, we have
The linear Factorization Theorem
If p( x ) an x n an 1 x n1 a1 x a0 , where n 1 and an 0 , then
p( x) an ( x r1 ) ( x r2 ) ( x rn ) , where the ri are complex numbers (possible real and not
necessarily distinct).
From the linear factorization theorem, it follows that every polynomial of degree n 1 has exactly n
zeros in the complex number system, where a root of multiplicity k counted k times.
Example 2.35: Express each of the polynomials in the form described by the Linear Factorization
Theorem. List each zero and its multiplicity.
g) p( x) x 3 6 x 2 16 x
h) q( x ) 3x 2 10 x 8
i) f ( x) 2 x 4 8x 3 10 x 2
Solution:
g) We may factorize p(x ) as follows:
p( x ) x 3 6 x 2 16 x x( x 2 6 x 16)
x( x 8)( x 2)
x( x 8)( x ( 2))
The zeros of p(x ) are 0, 8, and – 2 each of multiplicity one.
h) We may factorize q(x ) as follows:
q( x ) 3x 2 10 x 8 (3x 4) ( x 2)
4
3( x )( x 2)
3
4
Thus, the zeros of q(x ) are and 2, each of multiplicity one.
3
i) We may factorize f (x ) as follows:
f ( x ) 2 x 4 8 x 3 10 x 2 2 x 2 ( x 2 4 x 5)
2 x 2 ( x ( 2 i ))( x ( 2 i ))
Thus, the zeros of f(x) are 0 with multiplicity two and 2 i and 2 i each with multiplicity one.
Example 2.36:
5. Find a polynomial p(x ) with exactly the following zeros and multiplicity.
zeros multiplicity
1 3
2 4
5 2
Are there any other polynomials that give the same roots and multiplicity?
6. Find a polynomial f (x) having the zeros described in part (a) such that f(1) = 32.
Solution:
5. Based on the Factor Theorem, we may write the polynomial as:
p( x) ( x (1)) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2 ( x 1) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2
which gives the required roots and multiplicities.
Any polynomial of the form kp(x ) , where k is a non-zero constant will give the same roots
and multiplicities.
6. Based on part (1), we know that f ( x) k ( x 1) 3 ( x 2) 4 ( x 5) 2 . Since we want f ( x ) 32 ,
we have
f (1) k (1 1) 3 (1 2) 4 (1 5) 2
32 k (8)(1)(16) k 1
4
Thus, f ( x ) 14 ( x 1) ( x 2) ( x 5) .
3 4 2
Our experience in using the quadratic formula on quadratic equations with real coefficients has shown
us that complex roots always appear in conjugate pairs. For example, the roots of x 2 x 5 0 are
2
1 2i and 1 2i . In fact, this property extends to all polynomial equations with real coefficients.
Conjugate Roots Theorem
Let p(x ) be a polynomial with real coefficients. If complex number a bi (where a and b are real
numbers) is a zero of p(x ) , then so is its conjugate a bi .
Example 2.37: Let r ( x) x 4 2 x 3 9 x 2 26 x 20. Given that 1 3 i is a zero, find the other zero
of r (x ) .
Solution: According to the Conjugate Roots Theorem, if 1 3 i is a zero, then its conjugate, 1 3 i
must also be a zero. Therefore, x (1 3 i ) and x (1 3 i ) are both factors of r (x ) , and so their
product must be a factor of r (x ) . That is, [ x (1 3 i )] [ x (1 3 i )] x 2 x 4 is a factor of
2
r (x ) . Dividing r (x ) by x 2 2 x 4 , we obtain
r( x) ( x 2 2 x 4)( x 2 4 x 5) ( x 2 2 x 4) ( x 5) ( x 1).
Thus, the zeros of r (x ) are 1 3 i , 1 3 i , 5 and 1.
The theorems we have discussed so far are called existence theorems because they ensure the existence
of zeros and linear factors of polynomials. These theorems do not tell us how to find the zeros or the
linear factors. The Linear Factorization Theorem guarantees that we can factor a polynomial of degree at
least one into linear factors, but it does not tell us how.
We know from experience that if p(x ) happens to be a quadratic function, then we may find the zeros
of p( x ) Ax 2 Bx C by using the quadratic formula to obtain the zeros
B B 2 4 AC
x .
2A
The rest of this subsection is devoted to developing some special methods for finding the zeros of a
polynomial function.
As we have seen, even though we have no general techniques for factorizing polynomials of degree
greater than 2, if we happen to know a root, say r , we can use long division to divide p(x ) by x r
and obtain a quotient polynomial of lower degree. If we can get the quotient polynomial down to a
quadratic, then we are able to determine all the roots. But how do we find a root to start the process?
The following theorem can be most helpful.
The Rational Root Theorem
Suppose that f ( x) an x n an1 x n1 a1 x a0 , where n 1, an 0 is an n th degree
p
polynomial with integer coefficients. If is a rational root of f ( x ) 0 , where p and q have no
q
common factor other than 1 , then p is a factor of a 0 and q is a factor of a n .
3
To get a feeling as to why this theorem is true, suppose is a root of
2
a3 x 3 a2 x 2 a1 x a0 0 .
3 2
3 3 3
Then, a3 a 2 a1 a0 0 which implies that
2 2 2
27a3 9a 2 3a1
a0 0 multiplying both sides by 8
8 4 2
27a3 18a 2 12a1 8a 0 ...................................................(1)
27a3 18a 2 12a1 8a 0 ...................................................(2)
If we look at equation (1), the left hand side is divisible by 3, and therefore the right hand side must also
be divisible by 3. Since 8 is not divisible by 3, a 0 must be divisible by 3. From equation (2), a 3 must be
divisible by 2.
Example 2.38: Find all the zeros of the function p( x) 2 x 3x 23x 12.
3 2
p
Solution: According to the Rational Root Theorem, if is a rational root of the given equation, then p
q
must be a factor of 12 and q must be a factor of 2. Thus, we have
possible values of p : 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12
possible values of q : 1, 2
p 1 3
possible rational roots : 1, , 2, 3, , 4, 6, 12
q 2 2
We may check these possible roots by substituting the value in p(x ) . Now p(1) 30 and
p( 1) 12 . Since p(1) is negative and p(1) is positive, by intermediate value theorem, p(x ) has a
zero between 1 and 1. Since P 1
2 0 , then x 12 is a factor of p(x ) . Using long division, we
obtain
p( x ) 2 x 3 3x 2 23x 12 ( x 12 )(2 x 2 2 x 24)
2( x 12 )( x 4)( x 3)
Therefore, the zeros of p(x) are 12 , 4 and 3.
Rational Functions and their Graphs
n( x )
A rational function is a function of the form f ( x) where both n(x) and d(x) are polynomials and
d ( x)
d ( x) 0 .
3 x 1 x 5 2x3 x 1
Example 2.39: The functions f ( x) , f ( x) 2 and f ( x) are
x5 x 4 x 5x
examples of rational function.
n( x )
Note that the domain of the rational function f ( x) is {x : d ( x) 0}
d ( x)
3x 5
Example 2.40: Find the domain and zeros of the function f ( x) .
x x 12
2
Solution: The values of x for which x 2 x 12 0 are excluded from the domain of f . Since
x 2 x 12 ( x 4)( x 3) , we have Dom( f ) {x : x 3,4} . To find the zeros of f (x) , we solve
the equation
n ( x)
0 n ( x) 0 & q ( x) 0
d ( x)
5 5
Therefore, to find the zeros of f (x) , we solve 3x 5 0 , giving x . Since does not make the
3 3
denominator zero, it is the only zero of f (x) .
The following terms and notations are useful in our next discussion.
Given a number a,
x approaches a from the right means x takes any value near and near to a but x a. This is
denoted by: xa+ (read: ‘x approaches a from the right’ ).
For instance, x 1+ means x can be 1.001, 1.0001, 1.00001, 1.000001, etc.
x approaches a from the left means x takes any value near and near to a but x a.
This is denoted by: xa– (read: ‘x approaches a from the left’ ).
For instance, x1– means x can be 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, 0.9999, etc.
x (read: ‘x approaches or tends to infinity’) means the value of x gets indefinitely larger and
larger in magnitude (keep increasing without bound). For instance, x can be 106, 1010, 1012, etc.
x – (read: ‘x approaches or tends to negative infinity’) means the value of x is negative and gets
indefinitely larger and larger negative in magnitude (keep decreasing without bound). For instance, x
can be –106, –1010, –1012, etc.
The same meanings apply also for the values of a function f if we wrote f(x) or f(x). The
following figure illustrates these notion and notations.
y y f(x),
f(x),
asxa
asx
x – xa –
xa + x y =f(x)
x a
f(x) –,
y
a f(x) –, asxa+
asx–
Fig. 2.1. Graphical illustration of the idea of xa+, f(x), etc.
We may also write f(x)b (read: ‘f(x) approaches b’) to mean the function values, f(x), becomes
arbitrarily closer and closer to b (i.e., approximately b) but not exactly equal to b. For instance, if
1 1
f ( x) , then f(x)0 as x; i.e., is approximately 0 when x is arbitrarily large.
x x
The following steps are usually used to sketch (or draw) the graph of a rational function f(x).
7. Identify the domain and simplify it.
8. Find the intercepts of the graph whenever possible. Recall the following:
y–intercept is the point on y-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the y-axis. At this
point x=0. Thus, y = f(0), or (0, f(0) ) is the y-intercept if 0 Dom(f).
x–intercept is the point on x-axis where the graph of y = f(x) intersects with the x-axis. At this
point y=0. Thus, x=a or (a, 0) is x-intercept if f(a)=0.
9. Determine the asymptotes of the graph. Here, remember the following.
Vertical Asymptote: The vertical line x=a is called a vertical asymptote(VA) of f(x) if
v) a dom(f), i.e., f is not defined at x=a; and
vi) f(x) or f(x) – when xa+ or xa– . In this case, the graph of f is almost vertically rising
upward (if f(x)) or sinking downward (if f(x)) along with the vertical line x=a when x
approaches a either from the right or from the left.
1
Example 2.41: Consider f ( x) n
, where a 0 and n is a positive integer.
( x a)
Obviously a Dom(f). Next, we investigate the trend of the values of f(x) near a. To do this, we consider
two cases, when n is even or odd:
Suppose n is even: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all x \{a}; and since (x – a)n 0 as xa+ or xa– .
1
Hence, f ( x) n
as xa+ or xa– . Therefore, x=a is a VA of f(x). Moreover, y= 1/an or (0,
( x a)
1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0)=1/an. However, it has no x-intercept since f(x) 0 for all x in its domain
(See, Fig. 2.2 (A)).
Suppose n is odd: In this case (x – a)n 0 for all xa and 1/ (x – a)n when xa+ as in the above
case. Thus, x=a is its VA. However, 1/(x–a)n – when xa– since (x – a)n< 0 for xa. Moreover, y= –
1/an or (0, –1/an ) is its y-intercept since f(0) = –1/an. However, it has no x-intercept also in this case.
(See, Fig. 2.2 (B)).
1
Note that in both cases, f ( x) n
0 as xor x –.
( x a)
y 1 y 1
y n
y n
( x a) ( x a)
n-even n-odd
n
1/a
a x a x
1/a
x=a
n x=a
VA VA
Fig. 2.2 (A) Fig. 2.2 (B)
n( x )
Remark: Let f ( x) be a rational function. Then,
d ( x)
1. if d (a) 0 and n(a) 0 , then x=a is a VA of f .
2. if d (a) 0 n(a) , then x=a may or may not be a VA of f . In this case, simplify f(x) and look for VA of
the simplest form of f.
Horizontal Asymptote: A horizontal line y=b is called horizontal asymptote (HA) of f(x) if the value of
the function becomes closer and closer to b (i.e., f(x)b)as x or as x –.
In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a horizontal line along with (or near) the line y=b as x
1
and as x–. For instance, from the above example, the HA of f ( x) n
is y=0 (the x-axis) ,
( x a)
for any positive integer n (See, Fig. 2.2).
n( x )
Remark: A rational function f ( x) has a HA only when degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)).
d ( x)
In this case, (i) If degree(n(x)) degree(d(x)), then y = 0 (the x-axis) is the HA of f.
n 1
n
an x an 1 x a1 x a0
(ii) If degree(n(x)) =degree(d(x))=n, i.e., f ( x) n 1
,
n
bn x bn 1 x b1 x b0
an
then y is the HA of f.
bn
Oblique Asymptote: The oblique line y=ax+b, a0, is called an oblique asymptote (OA) of f if the
value of the function, f(x), becomes closer and closer to ax+b(i.e., f(x) becomes approximately ax+b)
as either x or x –. In this case, the graph of f becomes almost a straight line along with (or
near) the oblique line y=ax+b as x and as x –.
n( x )
Note: A rational function f ( x) has an OA only when degree(n(x)) = degree(d(x)) + 1. In this case,
d ( x)
using long division, if the quotient of n(x) ÷d(x) is ax +b, then y=ax+b is the OA of f.
x2 x 2 3x 2
Example 2.42: Sketch the graphs of (a) f ( x) (b) g ( x)
x 1 x2 1
Solution: (a) Since x1=0 at x=1, dom(f) = \{1}.
Intercepts: y-intercept: x=0 y=f (0) = –2. Hence, (0, – 2) is y-intercept.
x-intercept: y=0 x+2=0 x= –2. Hence, (–2, 0) is x-intercept.
Asymptotes:
VA: Since x1=0 atx=1 and x+20 at x=1, x=1 is VA of f. In fact, if x1+ , then x+2 3 but the
denominator x–1 is almost 0 (but positive).
Consequently, f(x) as x1+.
Moreover, f(x) – as x1– (since , if x1– then x–1 is almost 0 but negative ) .
(So, the graph of f rises up to + at the right side of x=1, and sink down to at the left side of
x=1)
HA: Note that if you divide x+2 by x–1, the quotient is 1 and remainder is 3. Thus,
x2 3 3
f ( x) 1 . Thus, if x (or x –), then 0 so that f(x)1. Hence,
x 1 x 1 x 1
y=1 is the HA of f.
Using these information, you can sketch the graph of f as displayed below in Fig. 2.3 (A).
(b) Both the denominator and numerator are 0 at x=1. So, first factorize and simplify them:
x2+3x+2=(x+2)(x+1) and x2–1 = (x –1)( x+1) . Therefore,
x 2 3x 2 ( x 2)( x 1 )
g ( x) , x –1
x 1
2
( x 1)( x 1 )
x2
. (So, dom(g) = \{1, –1} )
x 1
This implies that only x=1 is VA.
x2 x2
Hence, the graph of g ( x) , x 1, is exactly the same as that of f ( x) except that
x 1 x 1
g(x) is not defined at x= –1. Therefore, the graph of g and its VA are the same as that of f except that
there should be a ‘hole’ at the point corresponding to x= –1 on the graph of g as shown on Fig. 2.3(B)
below.
x2 x2
y y , x 1
x 1 x 1
y=1 (HA) y=1
1
2 2
2 2
x=1 ‘hole’ x=1
VA atx=1
Fig 2.3 (A) f ( x) x 2 x 2 3x 2 x 2
x 1 (B) g ( x) , x 1
x2 1 x 1
Exercise 2.6
23. Perform the requested divisions. Find the quotient and remainder and verify the Remainder
Theorem by computing p(a ) .
i) Divide p( x) x 2 5x 8 by x 4
j) Divide p( x) 2 x 3 7 x 2 x 4 by x 4
k) Divide p( x) 1 x 4 by x 1
Divide p( x) x 2 x 3 by x 1
5 2
l)
24. Given that p(4) 0 , factor p( x) 2 x 11x 10 x 8 as completely as possible.
3 2
25. Given that r ( x) 4 x 3 x 2 36 x 9 and r 14 0 , find the remaining zeros of r (x ) .
26. Given that 3 is a double zero of p( x) x 4 3x 3 19 x 2 87 x 90 , find all the zeros of p(x )
.
27. a) Write the general polynomial p(x ) whose only zeros are 1, 2 and 3, with multiplicity 3, 2 and
1 respectively. What is its degree?
b) Find p(x ) described in part (a) if p(0) 6 .
28. If 2 3i is a root of p( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 14 x 39, find the remaining zeros of p(x).
29. Determine the rational zeros of the polynomials
g) p( x) x 3 4 x 2 7 x 10
h) p( x) 2 x 3 5x 2 28x 15
i) p ( x) 6 x 3 x 2 4 x 1
30. Find the domain and the real zeros of the given function.
3 x3 ( x 3) 2 x 2 16
c) f ( x) b) g ( x) c) f ( x ) d) f ( x )
x 25
2
x 2 4 x 12 x 3 3x 2 2 x x2 4
31. Sketch the graph of
1 x x2 1 1 x2
a) f ( x) b) f ( x) c) f ( x) 2 d) f ( x)
x3 x x x2 4
x 3 8x 3
32. Determine the behavior of f ( x) when x is near 3.
x3
33. The graph of any rational function in which the degree of the numerator is exactly one
more than the degree of the denominator will have an oblique (or slant) asymptote.
e) Use long division to show that
x2 x 6 8
y f ( x) x 1
x2 x2
f) Show that this means that the line y x 1 is a slant asymptote for the graph and
sketch the graph of y f (x) .
6.7 Definition and basic properties of logarithmic, exponential, and
trigonometric functions and their graphs
After completing this section, the student should be able to:
define exponential, logarithmic and trigonometric functions
understand the relationship between exponential and logarithmic functions
sketch the graph of exponential, logarithmic, and trigonometric functions
use basic properties of logarithmic, exponential and trigonometric functions to solve
problems
Exponents and radicals
Definition 2.16: For a natural number n and a real number x , the power x n , read “ the n th power of x ” or “
x raised to n ”, is defined as follows:
xn x
xx
n factors each equal to x
n
In the symbol x , x is called the base and n is called the exponent.
For example, 2 2 2 2 2 2 32 .
5
n
Based of the definition of x , n must be a natural number. It does not make sense for n to be
negative or zero. However, we can extend the definition of exponents to include 0 and negative
exponents.
Definition 2.17: (Zero and Negative Exponents)
Definition of zero Exponent Definition of Negative Exponent
x 0 1 ( x 0) x n
1
x 0
xn
Note: 0 0 is undefined.
1
As a result of the above definition, we have x n . We have the following rules of exponents for
x n
integer exponents:
Rules for Integer Exponents
7. x n x m x n m 4. ( xy ) n x n y n
xn
8. ( x n ) m x nm 5. m
x n m
x
n
x xn
9. n y 0
y y
Next we extend the definition of exponents even further to include rational number exponents. To do
this, we assume that we want the rules for integer exponents also to apply to rational exponents and
1
then use the rules to show us to define a rational exponent. For example, how do we define a 2 ?
1
Consider 9 2 .
If we apply rule 2 and square 9 2 , we get 9 2
1
9
1 2 1
2
1
9 . Thus, 9 2 is a number that, when squared,
yields 9. There are two possible answers: 3 and – 3, since squaring either number will yield 9. To avoid
1
ambiguity, we define a 2 (called the principal square root of a ) as the non-negative quantity that, when
1
squared, yield a . Thus, 9 2 3 .
1 1 1
We will arrive at the definition of a 3 in the same way as we did for a 2 . For example, if we cube 8 3 , we
get 8 3 8
1 3 3
3
1
8 . Thus, 8 3 is the number that, when cubed, yields 8. Since 2 3 8 we have 8 3 2 .
1
Similarly, 273 3 . Thus, we define a 3 (called the cube root of a ) as the quantity that, when
1 1
cubed yields a .
1
Definition 2.18: (Rational Exponent an )
1
If n is an odd positive integer, then a b if and only if b n a n
1
If n is an even positive integer and a 0 , then a n b if and only if b n a
1 1
th
We call a n the principal n root of a . Hence, a n is the real number (nonnegative when n is even)
th
that, when raised to the n power, yields a . Therefore,
16 4 since 4 2 16
1
2
125 5 since ( 5) 3 125
1
3
1
4
1 4 1 1 1
since
81 3 3 81
1
27 3 3 since 33 27
16
1
4
is not a real number
1
Thus far, we have defined a n , where n is a natural number. With the help of the second rule for
m
m
exponent, we can define the expression a n , where m and n are natural numbers and n is reduced to
lowest terms.
m
Definition 2.19: (Rational Exponent an )
1
If a n is a real number, then
m
an an
1 m
(i.e. the n th root of a raised to the m th power)
We can also define negative rational exponents:
a
mn
1
m
a 0
an
Example 2.43: Evaluate the following
2
12 53
c) 27 3 b) 36 c) ( 32)
Solution: We have
2
g) 27 3 27 3 3 1 2
2
9
12 1 1
h) 36 1
36 2 6
53 1 1 1 1
( 32)
(32)
i)
( 2)
3 3 3
( 32) 8
1
5 5
Radical notation is an alternative way of writing an expression with rational exponents. We define for
th
real number a , the n root of a as follows:
1
th
Definition 2.20 ( n root of a ): n a = a n , where n is a positive integer.
The number n
a is also called the principal n th root of a . If the n th root of a exists, we have:
For a a real number and n a positive integer,
a , if n is even
n
an
a, if n is odd
For example, 3
53 5 and 4
( 3) 4 3 .
Exponential Functions
In the previous sections we examined functions of the form f ( x ) x n , where n is a constant. How is
this function different from f ( x ) n x .
Definition 2.21: A function of the form y f ( x) b x , where b 0 and b 1 , is called an exponential
function.
x
1
Example 2.44: The functions f ( x ) 2 , g ( x ) 3 and h( x ) are examples of exponential
x x
2
functions.
As usual the first question raised when we encounter a new function is its domain. Since rational
exponents are well defined, we know that any rational number will be in the domain of an exponential
function. For example, let f ( x ) 3 x . Then as x takes on the rational values x 4, – 2 , 1
2 and 4
5 , we
have
f (4) 34 3 3 3 3 81 f ( 2) 32 312 19
1 4
f ( 12 ) 3 2 3 f ( 45 ) 3 5 5 34 5 81
5
Note that even though we do not know the exact values of 3 and 81 , we do know exactly what
they mean. However, what about f (x ) for irrational values of x ? For instance, f ( 2 ) 3 2
?
x
We have not defined the meaning of irrational exponents. In fact, a precise formal definition of b
2
where x is irrational requires the ideas of calculus. However, we can get an idea of what 3 should be
by using successive rational approximations to 2 . For example, we have
1.414 2 1.415
Thus, it would seem reasonable to expect that 31.414 3 2
31.415 . Since 1.414 and 1.415 are rational
1.414 1.415
numbers, 3 and 3 are well defined, even though we cannot compute their values by hand. Using
a calculator, we get 4.7276950 3 2
4.7328918 . If we use better approximations to 2 , we get
31.4142 3 2
31.4143 . Using a calculator again, we get 4.7287339 3 2
4.7292535 . Computing 3 2
directly on a calculator gives 3 2
4.7288044 . This numerical evidence suggests that as x approaches
2 , the values of 3 x approach a unique real number that we designate by 3 2 , and so we will accept
without proof, the fact that the domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers.
The exponential function y b x , where b 0 and b 1 , is defined for all real values of x . In addition all
the rules for rational exponents hold for real number exponents as well.
Before we state some general facts about exponential functions , let’s see if we can determine what the
graph of an exponential function will look like.
Example 2.45:
5. Sketch the graph of the function y 2 x and identify its domain and range.
Solution: To aid in our analysis, we set up a short table of values to give us a frame of
reference.
x y
3 2 3 81
2 2 2 1
4
1 2 1 1
2
0 20 1
1 21 2
2 22 4 y
3 23 8 y = 2x
2 (1,2)
1
O 1 x
With these points in hand, we draw a smooth curve through the points obtaining the graph appearing
above. Observe that the domain of y 2 x is IR , the graph has no x intercepts, as
x , the y values are increasing very rapidly, whereas as x , the y values are getting
closer and closer to 0. Thus, x axis is a horizontal asymptote, the y intercept is 1 and the range of
y 2 x is the set of positive real numbers.
x
1
6. Sketch the graph of y f ( x ) .
2
Solution: It would be instructive to compute a table of values as we did in example 1 above (you are
urged to do so). However, we will take a different approach. We note that
x
1 1
y f ( x ) x 2 x . If f ( x ) 2 x , then f ( x ) 2 x . Thus by the graphing principle for
2 2
f ( x ) , we can obtain the graph of y 2 x by reflecting the graph of y 2 x about the y axis .
y 12 x
(1,2) 2
1
1 O 1 x
Here again the x axis is a horizontal asymptote, there is no x intercept, 1 is y intercept and the
range is the set of positive real numbers. However, the graph is now decreasing rather than increasing.
The following box summarizes the important facts about exponential functions and their graphs.
The Exponential function y f ( x) b x
13. The domain of the exponential function is the set of real numbers
14. The range of the exponential function is the set of positive real numbers
15. The graph of y b x exhibits exponential growth if b 1 or exponential decay if
0 b 1.
16. The y intercept is 1.
17. The x intercept is a horizontal asymptote
18. The exponential function is 1 – 1. Algebraically if b x b y , then x y
Example 2.46: Sketch the graph of each of the following. Find the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
c) y 3x 1 b) y 3 x 1 c) y 9 x 3
Solution:
g) To get the graph of y 3x 1 . We start with the graph of y 3 x , which is the basic
exponential growth graph, and shift it up 1 unit.
x From the graph we see that
y=3 +1
- Dom( f )
10
- Range( f ) (1, )
- The y intercept is 2
2 - The line y 1 is a horizontal
y=1
1 asymptote
1 2
h) To get the graph of y 3 x 1 , we start with the graph of y 3 x , and shift 1 unit to the left.
From the graph we see that
y=3x+1 - Dom( f )
- Range( f ) (0, )
9
- The y intercept is 3
- The line y 0 is a horizontal
asymptote
1
i) To get the graph of y 9 x 3 , we start with the basic exponential decay y 9 x . We
then reflect it with respect to the x axis , which gives the graph of y 9 x . Finally,
we shift this graph up 3 units to get the required graph of y 9 x 3 .
y y
y
(1,9) 9 1
1 y=3
1 x 3
2 y = 9 x +3
y = 9 x
1 1
y = 9
x
1
1 x
1 O 1 x (1,9) 9
From the graph of y 9 x 3 , we can see that Dom(h) , Range(h) ( ,3) , the line y 3
is a horizontal asymptote, 2 is the y intercept and x 12 is the x intercept.
Remark: When the base b of the exponential function f ( x ) b x equals to the number e , where
e 2.7182 , we call the exponential function the natural exponential function.
Logarithmic Functions
In the previous subsection we noted that the exponential function f ( x ) b x (where b 0 and b 1 )
is one to one. Thus, the exponential function has an inverse function. What is the inverse of f ( x ) b x ?
To find the inverse of f ( x ) b x , let’s review the process for finding an inverse function by comparing
the process for the polynomial function y x 3 and the exponential function y 3 . Keep in mind that
x
x is our independent variable and y is the dependent variable and so whenever possible we want a
function solved explicitly for y .
To find the inverse of y x3 To find the inverse of y 3x
y x3 Interchange x and y y 3x Interchange x and y
xy 3
solve for y x3 y
solve for y
y3 x y ??
There is no algebraic procedure we can use to solve x 3 for y . By introducing radical notations we
y
could express the inverse of y x 3 explicitly in the form y 3 x . In words, y 3 x and y 3 x both
mean exactly the same thing: y is the number whose cube is x . Similarly, if we want to express x 3
y
explicitly as a function of x , we need to invent a special notation for this. The key idea is to take the
equation x 3 and express it verbally.
y
x 3 y means y is the exponent to which 3 must be raised to yield x
We introduce the following notation, which expresses this idea in a much more compact form.
Definition 2.22: For b 0 and b 1 , we write y log b x to mean y is the exponent to which b must
be raised to yield x . In other words,
x b y y log b x
We read y log b x as “ y equals the logarithm of x to the base b ”.
REMEMBER: y log b x is an alternative way of writing x b y
When an expression is written in the form x b , it is said to be in exponential form. When an
y
expression is written in the form y log b x , it is said to be in logarithmic form. The table below
illustrates the equivalence of the exponential and logarithmic forms.
Exponential form Logarithmic form
4 2 16 log 4 16 2
2 4 16 log 2 16 4
53 125
1 1
log 5 125 3
log 6 6
1
62 6
1
2
70 1 log 7 1 0
Example 2.47:
7. Write each of the following in exponential form.
1
c) log 3 9 2 b) log16 2 1
4
1
Solution: We have a) log 3 9 2 means 32 19 .
1
b) log16 2 1
4 means 16 4 2
8. Write each of the following in logarithmic form.
2
c) 10 3 0.001 b) 27 3 9
3
Solution: We have a) 10 0.001 means log10 0.001 3
2
b) 27 3 9 means log 27 9 2
3
9. Evaluate each of the following.
c) log 3 81 b) log 8 641
Solution:
e) To evaluate log 3 81 , we let t log 3 81 , and then rewrite the equation in exponential
form, 3t 81 . Now, if we can express both sides in terms of the same base, we can
solve the resulting exponential equation, as follows:
Let t log 3 81 Rewrite in exponential form
3t 81 Express both sides in terms of the same base
3t 34 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t4
Therefore, log 3 81 4 .
f) We apply the same procedure as in part (a).
Let t log 8 641 Rewrite in exponential form
8t 1
64 Express both sides in terms of the same base
8t 82 Since the exponential function is 1 – 1
t 2
Therefore, log 8 641 2 .
As was pointed out at the beginning of this subsection, logarithm notation was invented to
express the inverse of the exponential function. Thus, log b x is a function of x . We usually
write f ( x ) log b x rather than writing f ( x ) log b ( x) and use parenthesis only when needed to
clarify the input to the log function. For example,
If f ( x) log 5 (4 x) , then f ( 1) log 5 (4 ( 1)) log 5 5 1 , whereas if f ( x) 4 log 5 x ,
then f ( 1) 4 log 5 ( 1) , which is undefined.
Example 2.48: Given f ( x ) log 5 x , find
1
c) f (25) b) f ( 25 ) c) f (0) d) f (125)
Solution:
i) f (25) log 5 25 2 (since 52 25 )
j) 1
f ( 25 ) log 5 25
1
2 (since 52 1
25 )
k) f (0) log 5 0 is not defined (what power of 5 will yield 0?). We say that 0 is not in the
domain of f .
l) f ( 125) log 5 ( 125) is not defined (what power of 5 will yield -125?). We say that -
125 is not in the domain of f .
Acknowledging that the logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses, we can derive a great deal
of information about the logarithmic function and its graph from the exponential function and its graph.
Example 2.49: Sketch the graph of the following functions. Find the domain and range of each.
e) y log 3 x b) y log 1 x
2
Solution: a) Since y log 3 x is the inverse of y 3 x , we can obtain the graph of y log 3 x by
reflecting the graph of y 3 x about the line y x , as shown below.
y
y = 3x
y=x
y = log3x
1
1 x
f) To get the graph of y log 1 x , we reflect the graph of y 12 x about the line y x as
2
shown below. y
y 12 x y=x
1 x
y log 1 x
2
Taking note of the features of the two graphs we have the following important informations about the
graph of the log function:
The Logarithmic Function y log b x
11. Its domain is the set of positive real numbers
12. Its range is the set of real numbers.
13. Its graph exhibits logarithmic growth if b 1 and logarithmic decay if 0 b 1 .
14. The x intercept is 1. There is no y intercept.
15. The y axis is a vertical asymptote.
Example 2.50:
5. Sketch the graph of f ( x) 1 log 3 ( x 2) . Find the domain, range, asymptote and
intercepts.
Solution: We can obtain the graph of y 1 log 3 ( x 2) by applying the graphing
principle to shift the basic logarithmic growth graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit up.
y
x= 2
y = 1+ log3(x2)
1
1 2 3 x
We have Dom( f ) {x : x 2} , Range ( f ) and the graph has the line x 2 as a
vertical asymptote. To find the intercept, we set y 0 and solve for x . Setting y 0
and solving for x , we will obtain x 73 . Thus, the x intercept is 7
3 .
6. Find the inverse function for
c) y f ( x) 3x 4 b) y g ( x) log 3 ( x 2)
Solution: Following the procedure for finding an inverse function, we have
(a) y 3x 4 Interchange x and y (b) y log 3 ( x 2) Interchange x and y
x 3y 4 solve explicitly for y x log 3 ( y 2) Write in logarithmic form
x 4 3 y Write in logarithmic form y 2 3x solve explicitly for y
y log 3 ( x 4) y 3x 2
Thus, f 1 ( x) log 3 ( x 4) Thus, g 1 ( x) 3x 2
The following table contains the basic properties of logarithm:
Properties of logarithm
Assume that b, u and v are positive and b 1 . Then
11. log b (uv) log b u log b v
In words, logarithm of a product is equal to the sum of the logs of the factors.
12. log b ( uv ) log b u log b v
In words, the log of a quotient is the log of the numerator minus the log of the
denominator.
13. log b u r r log b u
In words, the log of a power is the exponent times the log.
14. log b (b x ) x log b b x
15. b logb x x
Example 2.51:
5. Express in terms of simpler logarithms.
c) log b ( x 3 y ) b) log b ( x 3 y ) c) log b
xy
z3
Solution:
g) log b ( x 3 y ) log b x 3 log b y 3log b x log b y
h) Examining the properties of logarithms, we can see that they deal with log of a
product, quotient and power. Thus, log 3 ( x 3 y ) which is the log of a sum cannot be
simplified using log properties.
i) We have
log b log
xy
z3 b xy log b ( z 3 ) = log b xy 2 3 log b z (log b x log b y ) 3 log b z .
1 1
2
6. Show that log b 12 log b 2 .
Solution: We have log b 12 log b 1 log b 2 0 log b 2 log b 2 .
The logarithmic function was introduced without stressing the particular base chosen. However, there
are two bases of special importance in science and mathematics, namely, b 10 and b e .
Definition 2.23: (Common Logarithm)
f ( x ) log10 x is called the common logarithm function. We write log10 x log x .
The inverse of the natural exponential function is called the natural logarithmic function and has its own
special notation.
Definition 2.24: (Natural Logarithm)
f ( x) log e x is called the natural logarithmic function. We write log e x ln x .
Example 2.52:
5. Evaluate log1000
Solution: Let a log1000 . Then, a log10 1000 log10 (103 ) 3 .
6. Find the inverse function of f ( x ) e x 1 .
Solution: Let y ex 1 Interchange x and y
x e y 1 Solve for y
x 1 e y Rewrite in logarithmic form
y ln( x 1)
Thus, f 1 ( x) ln( x 1) .
Trigonometric functions and their graphs
For the functions we have encountered so far, namely polynomial, rational and exponential functions, as
the independent variable goes to infinity the graph of each of these three functions either goes to
infinity(very quickly) for exponential functions or approaches a finite horizontal asymptote. None of
these functions can model the regular periodic patterns that play an important role in the social,
biological, and physical sciences: business cycles, agricultural seasons, heart rhythms, and hormone level
fluctuations, and tides and planetary motions. The basic functions for studying regular periodic
behaviour are the trigonometric functions. The domain of the trigonometric functions is more naturally
the set of all geometric angles.
Angle Measurement
An angle is the figure formed by two half-lines or rays with a common end point. The common end point
is called the vertex of the angle.
A
In forming the angle, one side remains fixed and the other side rotates. The fixed side is called the initial
side and the side that rotates is called the terminal side. If the terminal side rotates in a counter
clockwise direction, we call the angle positive angle, and if the terminal side rotates in a clockwise
direction, we call the angle negative angle.
B B
What attribute of an angle are we trying to measure when we measure the size of an angle? A moment
of thought will lead us to the conclusion that when we measure an angle we are trying to answer the
question: Through what part of a complete rotation has the terminal side rotated?
We will use degree () as the unit of measurement for angles. Recall that the measure of a full round
angle (full circle) is 360, straight angle is 180, and right angle is 90.
An alternative unit of measure for angles which will indicate their size is the radian measure. To see the
connection between the degree measure and radian measure of an angle, let us consider an angle
and draw a circle of radius r with the vertex of at its center O . Let s represent the length of the arc
of the circle intercepted by (as shown below).
s
O
r
Basic geometry tells us that the central angle will be the same fractional part of one complete
rotation as s will be of the circumference of the circle. For example, if is 1
10 of a complete rotation,
1
then s will be 10 of the circumference of the circle. In other words, we can set up the following
proportion:
s s
1 complete rotation circumfere nce of circle 2r
Thus, we have the following conversion formula:
in deg rees in radians
180
Example 2.53:
5. Convert each of the following radian measures to degrees.
e) 6 b) 35
, which implies that 30 .
6
Solution: a) By the conversion formula, we have
180
3
f) Again using the conversion formula, we get 5
, which implies that 108 .
180
6. Convert to radian measures
a) 90 b) 270
Solution: a) Let represent the radian measure of 90 . Using the conversion formula, we obtain:
90
, which implies that .
180
2
b) Rather than using the conversion formula, we notice that 270 3(90 ) . In part (a) we found that
3
90 , and so we have 270
.
2 2
Y Y
P(x,y)
To define the trigonometric functions, we will
ϴ r
X X
view all angles in the context of a Cartesian coordinate system: that is, given an angle , we begin by
putting in standard position, meaning that the vertex of is placed at the origin and initial side of
is placed along the positive x axis . Thus the location of the terminal side of will, of course,
depend on the size of .
We then locate a point (other than the origin) on the terminal side of and identify its coordinates
( x, y ) and its distance to the origin, dented by r . Then, r is positive.
With in standard position, we define the six trigonometric functions of as follows:
Definition 2.25
Name of function Abbreviation Definition
y
Sine sin sin
r
x
Cosine cos cos
r
y
Tangent tan tan
x
r
Cosecant csc csc
y
r
Secant sec sec
x
x
Cotangent cot cot
y
s
Recall that the radian measure of an angle is defined as , where is angle in radians
r
s is the length of the arc intercepted by and r is the length of the radius. Since s and r are both
s
lengths, the quotient is a pure number without any units attached. Thus, any angle can be
r
interpreted as a real number. Conversely, any real number can be interpreted as an angle. Thus, we can
describe the domains of the trigonometric functions in the frame work of the real number systems. If we
let f ( ) sin , the domain consists of all real numbers for which sin is defined. Since
y
sin and r is never equal to zero, the domain for sin is the set of all real numbers. Similarly,
r
x
the domain of f ( ) cos is also the set of all real numbers.
r
The graph of y sin
To analyze f ( ) sin , we keep in mind that once we choose a real number , we draw the angle,
in standard position, that corresponds to . To simplify our analysis, we choose the point ( x, y ) on the
terminal side so that r 1 . That is, ( x, y ) is a point on the unit circle x y 1. Note that
2 2
y
sin y.
1
(0,1)
(x,y)
θ
(-1,0) (1,0)
(0,-1)
As the terminal side of moves through the first quadrant, y increases from 0 (when 0 ) to
1(when
2 ). Thus, as increases from 0 to
2 , y sin steadily increases from 0 to 1.
As increases from
2 to , y sin decreases form 1 to 0. A similar analysis reveals that as
increases from to 3
2 , sin decreases from 0 to – 1; and as increases from 3
2 to 2 , sin
increases from – 1 to 0.
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) sin in the interval [0,2 ] as show below.
y = sin x
Since the values of f ( ) sin depend only on the position of the terminal side, adding or
subtracting multiples of 2 to will leave the value of f ( ) sin unchanged. Thus, the values of
f ( ) sin will
repeat every 2 units. The
complete graph of
f ( ) sin
appears below.
The graph of y sin x , which is called the basic sine curve.
The graph of y cos
Applying the same type of analysis to f ( ) cos , we will able to get a good idea of what its graph
looks like. The figure below shows the angle corresponding to as it increases through quadrant I, II, III
and IV.
x
Keeping in mind that cos x , we have the following:
1
9. As increases from 0 to
2 , x cos decreases from 1 to 0.
10. As increases from
2 to , x cos decreases from 0 to – 1.
11. As increases from to 3
2 , x cos increases from – 1 to 0.
12. As increases from 3
2 to 2 , x cos increases from 0 to 1.
Based on this analysis, we have the graph of f ( ) cos as shown below:
The graph of y tan
y
Since tan is undefined whenever x 0 , tan is undefined whenever the terminal side of the
x
angle corresponding to falls on the y axis . This happens for 2 , to which we can add or
subtract any multiple of that will again bring the terminal side back to the y axis . Thus, domain of
tan is { : 2 n } , where n is an integer.
9. As increases from 0 to
2 , x decreases from 1 to 0 and y increases from 0 to 1;
therefore, tan y
x increases from 0 to .
10. As increases from
2 to , x decreases from 0 to – 1 and y decreases from 1 to 0;
therefore, tan y
x increases from to 0.
11. As increases from to 3
2 , x increases from – 1 to 0 and y decreases from 0 to –
1; therefore, tan y
x
increases from 0 to .
12. As increases from 3
2 to 2 , x increases from 0 to 1 and y increases from – 1 to
0; therefore, tan y
x increases from to 0.
You may want to add some more specific values to this analysis. In any case, we get the following as the
graph of the tangent function.
Definition 2.26: (Periodic function)
A function y f (x ) is called periodic if there exists a number p such that f ( x p) f ( x) for all x in
the domain of f . The smallest such number p is called the period of the function.
A periodic function keeps repeating the same set of y values over and over again. The graph of a
periodic function shows the same basic segment of its graph being repeated. In the case of sine and
cosine functions, the period is 2 . The period of the tangent function is .
Definition 2.27: (Amplitude of a periodic function)
The amplitude of a periodic function f (x ) is
1
A [ maximum value of f (x ) minimum value of f (x )]
2
Thus, the amplitude of the basic sine and cosine function is 1.
The portion of the graph of a sine or cosine function over one period is called a complete cycle of the
graph. In other words, the minimal portion of a sine or cosine graph that keeps repeating itself is called a
complete cycle of the graph.
Definition 2.28: (Frequency of a periodic function)
The number of complete cycles a sine or cosine graph makes on an interval of length equal to 2 is called its
frequency.
The frequency of the basic sine curve y sin x and the basic cosine curve y cos x is 1, because
each graph makes 1 complete cycle in the interval [0,2 ] .
If a sine function has period of 2 (see the figure below), then the number of complete cycles its graph
2
will make in an interval of length 2 is 4.
2
Y
Thus if a sine function has a period of 2 , its frequency is 4 and its graph will make 4 complete cycles in
an interval of length 2 .
Example 2.54: Sketch the graph of y sin 2 x and find its amplitude, period and frequency.
Solution: We can obtain this graph by applying our knowledge of the basic sine graph. For the basic
curve, we have
sin 0 0 sin 2 1 sin 0 sin 32 1 sin 2 0
These quadrantal values serve as guide points, which help us draw the graph. To obtain similar guide
points for y sin 2 x , we ask for what values of x is
2x 0 2 x 2 2x 2x 3
2 2 x 2
and we get
x0 x 4 x 2 x 3
2 x
Thus, y sin 2 x will have the values 0, 1, 0, 1 , 0 at x 0, 4 , 2 , 3
4 , and , respectively. The
graph of y sin 2 x will thus complete one cycle in the interval [0, ] , and will repeat the same values
in the interval [ ,2 ] .
From this graph we see that y sin 2 x has an amplitude of 1, a period , and a frequency of 2.
For convenience we summarize our discussion on the domains of the trigonometric functions in the
table.
13. f ( x) sin x Domain = All real numbers
Domain = All real numbers
14. f ( x) cos x
Domain = {x : x 2 n }
15. f ( x) tan x
Domain = { x : x n }
16. f ( x) csc x
Domain = {x : x 2 n }
17. f ( x) sec x
Domain = {x : x n }
18. f ( x) cot x
where n is an integer
We have the following trigonometric identities
7. sin 2 x cos 2 x 1
8. tan 2 x 1 sce 2 x
9. 1 cot 2 x csc 2 x
Exercise 2.7
37. Find the domain of the given function.
1 1
c) f ( x ) x b) g ( x ) 3 x 1 c) h( x ) 2 x 8 d) f ( x ) 3 x
6 2 2
38. Sketch the graph of the given function. Identify the domain, range, intercepts, and
asymptotes.
c) y 5 x b) y 9 3x c) y 1 e x d) y e x 2
39. Solve the given exponential equation.
c) 2 x 1 8 b) 32 x 243 c) 8 x 2 d) 163a 2 1
4
40. Let f ( x ) 2 x . Show that f ( x 3) 8 f ( x) .
1
41. Let g ( x ) 5 x . Show that g ( x 2) g ( x) .
25
f ( x 2) f ( 2)
42. Let f ( x ) 3x . Show that 4(3 x ) .
2
43. Evaluate the given logarithmic expression (where it is defined).
e) log 2 32 c) log 3 ( 9) e) log 5 (log 3 243)
f) log 1 9 d) log 6 1
6
f) 2 log2 5
3
44. If f ( x) log 2 ( x 2 4) , find f (6) and the domain of f .
45. If g ( x) log 3 ( x 2 4 x 3) , find f (4) and the domain of g .
46. Show that log 1 x log 6 x
6
47. Sketch the graph of the given function and identify the domain, range, intercepts and
asymptotes.
c) f ( x) log 2 ( x 3) b) f ( x) 3 log 2 x c) f ( x) log 3 ( x) d)
f ( x ) 3log 5 x
48. Find the inverse of f ( x ) e ( 3 x 1) .
49. Let f ( x ) e x
. Find a function so that ( f g )( x) ( g f )( x) x .
50. Convert the given angle from radians to degrees
c) 3 b) 52 c) 43
51. Convert the given angle from degrees to radians
c) 315 b) 40 c) 330
52. Sketch the graph of
e) f ( ) sec c) f ( ) csc e) f ( ) cot
f) f ( x) 1 cos x d) f ( x) sin( x 2 ) f) f ( x) tan 2 x
53. Verify the following identities:
e) (sin x cos x)(csc x sec x) tan x cot x
f) sec 2 x csc 2 x tan 2 x cot 2 x
54. Given tan 12 and sin 0 , find cos .
References
1. Alemayehu Haile and Yismaw Alemu, Mathematics an Introductory Course,
Department of Mathematics, Addis Ababa University
2. Demisu Gemeda and Seid Mohammed, Fundamental Cocepts of Algebra, AAU
3. Edwin J. Purcell, Dale Varberg, Calculus with Analytic Geometry
4. G. Chartrand, A. D. Polimeni and P. Zihang, Mathematical proofs: a transition to
advanced mathematics 3rd edition, Pearson Education. Inc.
5. Goodman Hirsch, Precalculus-Understanding functions, 2000
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