Exp No: 1

Date:
VERIFICATION OF OHM'S LAW
Aim:
To determine the resistivity of two/ three wires by plotting a graph of potential difference versus current.

Apparatus Required:
Two resistance wires, voltmeter, ammeter, low resistance, rheostat, battery eliminator, plug key,
connecting wires.

Formula:
According to ohm’s law,
𝑉
V ∝ I or V=IR or R = 𝐼 ohm(Ω)
where R is the resistance of the conductor.
The graph between current I and the applied voltage V will be a straight line passing through the
origin. The slope of the graph is given by
∆𝐕
R= ohm(Ω)
∆𝐈
Specific resistance or resistivity can be calculated by,
𝑹𝑨 𝑹𝝅𝒓𝟐
ρ= or ρ = ohm metre(Ωm)
𝒍 𝒍
where A is the area of cross section of a wire, l is the length of the wire, r is the mean radius of the wire.

Circuit Diagram:

Model Graph:

I (amperes) y

x V (volts)
Procedure:
1.The connections are made as shown in the circuit.
2.The sliding contact of rheostat is adjusted so that the ammeter and the voltmeter show full division
readings and not in fraction.
3.The readings of the ammeter and voltmeter are noted for different positions of the sliding contact of
the rheostat.
4.Note that the plug in the key is inserted only at the time of taking a reading, so that the resistance wire
does not get heated.
5.The unknown resistance of the given wires are calculated by using the formula, R=V/I and its SI unit
is ohm(Ω)
6.A graph is plotted between voltage and current. The slope of the straight line gives the resistance.
∆V
Slope of the graph = ∆I (Ω) = (V2 - V1) Volts (Ω)
(I2 - I1) x10-3 Ampere
7.Resistivity is the resistance offered by a unit length and unit cross section of the given wires to a
𝑅𝜋𝑟 2
current when a voltage is applied to it. It is calculated by using the formula, or ρ = and its SI unit is
𝑙
ohm meter(Ωm).

Observation:
Ammeter: Volt meter:
Range = _________ Range = _________
Least count = ___________ Least count = ___________
Zero error = _________ Zero error = _________
Zero correction = ________ Zero correction = ___________

Tabulation: 1
To determine the value of R A :
Wire S.No Ammeter reading Voltmeter reading R A=V/I
used (Amp) (volts) (ohms)
Wire 1.
A 2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R A=

Calculation:
For Wire A:
Diameter of the given wire = --------- cm
Radius of the given wire = ----------- cm = ----------- m.
Length of the given wire = ----------- cm = ----------- m.
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝜋𝑟 2
Specific resistance of wire A , ρ = or ρ = ohm metre(Ωm)
𝑙 𝑙

Tabulation: 2
To determine the value of RB :
Wire S.No Ammeter reading Voltmeter R B=V/I
used (Amp) reading (ohms)
(volts)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R B=
Calculation:
For Wire B:
Diameter of the given wire = --------- cm
Radius of the given wire = ----------- cm = ----------- m.
Length of the given wire = ----------- cm = ----------- m.
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝜋𝑟 2
Specific resistance of wire A , ρ = or ρ = ohm metre(Ωm)
𝑙 𝑙

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. Care should be taken to connect the voltmeter and ammeter in proper polarities.
3. Thick copper wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends
by rubbing with sand paper.
4. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range.
5. A low resistance rheostat should be used.
6. The key should be inserted only while taking observation to avoid heating of the wire.
Sources of error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. Thick connecting wire may not be available.
3. Rheostat may have high resistance.
Result:
1. The current through the given resistance wire varies linearly with the potential difference across
its ends.
2. The graph between V and I is a straight line.
3. Specific resistance of wire A = ________ Ωm.
4. Specific resistance of wire B = ___________ Ωm.
Exp No: 2
Date :
METRE BRIDGE – RESISTIVITY OF THE WIRE
Aim:
To find the resistance of a given wire / standard resistor using metre bridge.

Apparatus:
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Battery eliminator, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, One way
key, Unknown resistance and connecting wires.

Formula:
The unknown resistance X is given by
(100 − 𝑙)
𝑋=𝑅 (𝛺)
𝑙
Where,
R is the known resistance in the resistance box in ohms.
𝑙 is the balancing length in cm.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:

1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit

2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
3. Connect the resistance box across the left gap and the unknown resistance across the right gap
of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points B and D.
Connect a dry cell or a battery eliminator between the points A and C through a plug key K.
This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge.
4. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box and
insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right end C of
the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions. If there
is one sided deflection, check-up the circuit again, particularly the continuity of the junctions.
6. Include some known value of resistance in the left gap (say 1 Ω).
7. Move the jockey from end A to C and observe the point of zero deflection in the galvanometer.
8. Let the balancing length be ‘l’. Repeat the experiment by including different values of resistance.
9. Find the balancing length in each case. Tabulate the readings and calculate the resistance of the
wire.
10. The unknown resistance X is calculated by using the formula,
(100 − 𝑙)
𝑋=𝑅 (𝛺)
𝑙
Observation:
Least count of the meter bridge scale = 0.1 cm
Diameter of the given wire = ___________
Length of the wire = _____________

Tabulation:
To determine the value of unknown resistance X :
S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean X =
Calculation:

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2. The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting
3. The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, or it will damage the uniformity of the metre
bridge wire.
4. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
5. Null point should be brought between 35 cm and 65 cm.

Sources of error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose.
2. The plugs may not be clean
3. The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
4. Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
5. The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero by gently
moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a screw driver.

Result:
1. The resistance of the given wire = __________________Ω
Exp No: 3(A)
Date :
METRE BRIDGE – RESISTORS IN SERIES
Aim:
To verify the laws of combination (series) of resistances using a metre bridge.

Apparatus:
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Battery eliminator, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, key,
Unknown resistance and connecting wires.

Circuit diagram:

Formula Used:
1.The unknown resistance X is given by
(100 − 𝑙)
𝑋=𝑅 (𝛺)
𝑙
where R is known resistance in ohms
𝑙 is the balancing length in cm.

2. Effective resistance of resistors in series Rs’ = R1 + R2

where R1, R2 are the resistances of the resistors in series (in ohms)

Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
3. Connect the resistance box across the left gap and the unknown resistance across the right gap
of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points B and D.
Connect a dry cell or a battery eliminator between the points A and C through a plug key K.
This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge.
4. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box and
insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right end C of
the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions. If there
is one sided deflection, check-up the circuit again, particularly the continuity of the junctions.
6. Mark the two resistance coils as R1 and R2
7. To find R1 and R2
i.Make the connections as shown in the circuit.
ii. Include some known value of resistance in the left gap (say 1 Ω).
iii. Move the jockey from end A to B and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
iv. Let the balancing length be ‘l’.
v. Repeat the experiment by including different values of resistance.
vi. Find the balancing length in each case.
vii. Tabulate the readings and calculate the resistance R1.
 viii. Repeat the same for R2.
8. Connect two coils R1 and R2 in series as shown in circuit in the right gap of metre bridge and
find the resistance of this combination.
9. Record your observations.

Observation:
Least count of the meter bridge scale = 0.1 cm

Tabulation:1. To find R1:

S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R1=
Calculation:

Tabulation:2. To find R2:

S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R2=
Calculation:
Tabulation:3. To find Rs:
S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean RS =
Calculation:

Precautions:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight.
2.The plugs in the resistance box must be kept tight by giving them a gentle twist after inserting
3.The jockey should not be pressed too hard on the wire, or it will damage the uniformity of the metre
bridge wire.
4.Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it.
5.Null point should be brought between 35 cm and 65 cm.
6.Ensure that the same lengths1 of resistance wires R1 and R2 are used for determining Rs as they have
been used for determining R1 and R2 individually.

Sources of error:
1.The instrument screws may be loose.
2.The bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross-section along its entire length.
3.There may be an end errors due to resistances of copper strips at the ends of the bridge wire.
4.Due to prolonged flow of current, the wire gets heated up and its resistance changes.
5.The galvanometer pointer may not be exactly at the zero mark. It must be adjusted to zero by gently
moving the screw at the bottom of the front panel with the help of a screw driver.
6.The effective length of the wires used while measuring RS may not be exactly same as those used
while measuring R1 and R2 individually.

Result:
Experimental value of series combination of resistance
Rs = __________ Ω
Theoretical value of series combination of resistance
Rs’ = R1 + R2 = __________ Ω
Law of combination of resistances (series) is verified.
Exp No: 3(B)
Date :
METRE BRIDGE – RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
Aim:
To verify the laws of combination (parallel) of resistances using a metre bridge.
Apparatus:
Metre bridge (slide wire bridge), Battery eliminator, Galvanometer, Resistance box, Jockey, key,
Unknown resistance and connecting wires.
Circuit diagram:

Formula Used:
𝑙𝑅
1. The unknown resistance X is given by X = (100−𝑙) (𝛺)
Where,
R is known resistance in ohms
𝑙 is the balancing length in cm.
R1 R2
2. Effective resistance of resistors in parallel Rp =
(R1+ R2)
Where,
R1, R2 are the resistances of the resistors in parallel (in ohms)
Procedure:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
3. Connect the resistance box across the left gap and the unknown resistance across the right gap
of the metre bridge. Connect a jockey and a sensitive galvanometer between the points B and D.
Connect a dry cell or a battery eliminator between the points A and C through a plug key K.
This arrangement forms the Wheatstone bridge.
4. Tighten all the plugs in the resistance box by giving them a gentle twist.
5. To see that the connections are correct, take out some resistance R from the resistance box and
insert the plug in the key K. First press the jockey at the left end A and then at the right end C of
 the metre bridge wire. The deflections in the two cases should be in opposite directions. If there
is one sided deflection, check-up the circuit again, particularly the continuity of the junctions.
6. Mark the two resistance coils as R1 and R2
7. To find R1 and R2
i.Make the connections as shown in the circuit.
ii.Include some known value of resistance in the left gap (say 1 Ω).
iii.Move the jockey from end A to B and observe the point of zero deflection in the
galvanometer.
iv. Let the balancing length be ‘l’ .
v.Repeat the experiment by including different values of resistance.
vi.Find the balancing length in each case.
vii.Tabulate the readings. And calculate the resistances R1 and repeat the same for R2.
8. Connect two coils R1 and R2 in parallel as shown in circuit in the right gap of metre bridge and
find the resistance of this combination.
9. Record your observations.

Observation:
Least count of the meter bridge scale = 0.1 cm

Tabulation:1. To find R1:

S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R1=
Calculation:

Tabulation:2. To find R2:

S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean R2=
Calculation:
Tabulation:3. To find Rs:
S.No Resistance from Balancing Balancing Unknown
the resistance box length l length resistance
R ohm cm (100-l) cm (100−𝑙)
X=R Ω
𝑙
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean RP =
Calculation:

Precaution:
1. The connections should be neat, clean and tight
2. Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it
Sources of error:
1. The instrument screws may be loose
2. The plugs may not be clean
Result:
Experimental value of Rp = __________ Ω
Calculated value of Rp = __________ Ω
Law of combination of resistances (parallel) is verified.
Exp No: 4
Date :
GALVANOMETER - FIGURE OF MERIT

Aim:
To determine resistance of a galvanometer by half-deflection method and to find its figure of merit.

Apparatus Required:
A table galvanometer, a high resistance box, a low resistance box, two one-way keys, a voltmeter, a
battery eliminator and connecting wires.

Formula:
1.Galvanometer Resistance by half deflection method is given by,
𝑅𝑆
𝐺= ( Ω)
(𝑅 − 𝑆)
where R is the resistance in series with the galvanometer and S is the value of shunt resistance in Ω
2. Figure of merit of table galvanometer is given by
𝐸 amp
𝐾= ( )
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃 div
where, figure of merit of table galvanometer is the current needed for unit deflection
R is the value of main resistance in Ω
θ is the deflection observed (div)
G is the galvanometer resistance by half deflection method.
E is the emf of the battery.

Circuit diagram:

Procedure:
Resistance of the galvanometer by half deflection method:
1. The circuit elements are connected as shown in the circuit diagram, after taking out plug from the
keys.
2. Remove the insulation from the ends of the connecting wires by rubbing with a sand paper.
3. Connect the battery E, galvanometer G, a high resistance box R, and key K1 in series. Connect the
low resistance box S and key K2 in parallel with the galvanometer.
4. Introduce a high resistance R (say 5000 Ω) from the resistance box R. Close the key K1 (keeping
K2 open). Adjust the value of resistance R till the deflection θ in the galvanometer is almost full
scale and is an even number of divisions.
5. The value of R and the deflection θ are noted.
 6. Now introduce a small resistance (say 50 Ω) through low resistance box S and close the key K2.
Keeping R fixed, adjust the value of shunt resistance S till the deflection in the galvanometer is
reduced to exactly half the value of θ (i.e) the deflection becomes θ/2.
7. The deflection and the value of shunt resistance S are noted.
8. Experiment is repeated for various values of R and the corresponding values of S and the
deflections are noted.
9. Note that as the value of S increases, deflection also increases.
10. Calculate the value of Galvanometer resistance by using the formula,
𝑅𝑆
𝐺= ( Ω)
(𝑅 − 𝑆)

Figure of merit of the galvanometer:

1. Find the emf E of the battery by connecting it across a high resistance voltmeter. See that the
positive terminal of the battery is connected to the positive terminal of the voltmeter.
2. Connect the battery E, galvanometer G, high resistance box R and a key K in series as shown in
the circuit of figure of merit.
3. Introduce a resistance of about 5000 Ω from resistance box R. Insert the plug-in key K and
adjust the resistance R so that almost the full-scale deflection of certain complete number of
divisions is obtained in the galvanometer. Note the values of R and θ.
4. Experiment is repeated for various values of R. Record the values of R and θ in a tabulation.
5. Calculate the figure of merit of the galvanometer using the formula,
𝐸 amp
𝐾= ( )
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃 div
Tabulation:1
To determine the value of galvanometer resistance G:
S.No High Deflection Shunt Half deflection Galvanometer resistance
resistance θ resistance θ/2 (divisions) 𝑅𝑆
𝐺 = ( Ω)
R (Ω) (divisions) S (Ω) (𝑅 − 𝑆)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean G=
Calculation:
Observation:
Least count of voltmeter = _____ V EMF of the battery E= _________ V
Zero error in voltmeter = _____V Resistance of the galvanometer G= ___________ Ω

Tabulation:2
To determine the value of figure of merit of the galvanometer:
S.No High resistance Deflection θ Figure of merit
R (Ω) (divisions) 𝐸 amp
𝐾= ( )
(𝑅 + 𝐺)𝜃 div
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Mean K=
Calculation:

Precautions:
1. All the connections must be tight and clean.
2. The e.m.f of the cell must remain constant.
3. The value of the series resistance R should be large. This ensures the correct value of G.
4. Before introducing plug in key K1,a plug of 2000 Ω or more should be removed from resistance
box RB1.
5. The deflection in the galvanometer must be nearly maximum and an even number when key K2
is open.
6. To decrease the deflection in the galvanometer, the shunt resistance S should be decreased.
7. For determining the figure of merit, a high resistance voltmeter should be used to measure the
emf of a battery.
Sources of error:
1. The e.m.f of the battery may not be constant.
2. The galvanometer divisions may not be equal.
3. The plugs in the resistance box may not be clean or tight.
Result:
Resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method, G= __________ Ω.
Figure of merit of the given galvanometer K = ______ amp/div.
Exp No: 5
Date :
FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS
Aim:
To find the focal length of a convex lens by plotting graphs between u and v or between 1/u and 1/v.
Apparatus required :
An optical bench with three uprights, a convex lens, a lens holder , two optical needles and a metre
scale.
Formula:
𝑢𝑣
Focal length of convex lens is 𝑓 = (cm)
𝑢−𝑣
where
u = object distance from the mirror in cm
v = image distance from the mirror in cm

Ray diagram:

Model Graph:

1. uv Graph 2. 1/u-1/v Graph

OB = OC =2f
(OB + OC )
f= (cm) 1 1
4 f= =
𝑥 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑦 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑝𝑡
Procedure:
1. The rough focal length of the given convex lens is determined by distant object method.
2. The convex lens and the optical needles are placed on the optical bench as shown in the figure.
3. Spherical surface of the lens is adjusted using leveling screws such that the principal axis of the
lens is horizontal and parallel to the optical bench.
4. The height of the image needle is adjusted so that its tip is seen in line with the image of the
object needle.
5. The object needle is placed between f and 2f (of rough focal length).
 6. The image needle is moved little by little until the parallax is removed.
7. The distance between the object needle and the lens (u), the image needle and the lens (v) are
noted.
8. Experiment is repeated for various values of object distances and the corresponding image
distances are noted.
Observations:
Rough focal length of the given convex lens = ____________ cm
Least count of the optical bench scale = 0.1 cm
Tabulation:
Object 𝟏 −𝟏 𝟏 −𝟏 𝒗𝒖
Image distance
S. No distance 𝒎 𝒎 𝒇= 𝐦
v (x 10–2m) 𝒖 𝒗 𝒗−𝒖
u (x 10–2m)

Mean f = ___________cm

Precautions:
1. Principal axis of the lens should be horizontal and parallel to the central line of the optical bench.
2. Tip to tip parallax should be removed between the image needle and image of the object needle.
3. Tips of the object and the image needles should lie at the same height as that of the optical centre
of the convex lens.
Sources of error:
1. The lens may not be kept vertical
2. Focal length of the lens may not be small.
Result:
The focal length of the given convex lens as determined
1. by calculation …………….. x 10–2 m.
2. u–v method ……………….. x 10–2 m.
𝟏 𝟏
3. , graph method ……………. x 10–2 m.
𝒖 𝒗
Exp No: 6
Date :
FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR
Aim:
To find the image distances for various object distances for the given concave mirror and to find its
focal length.
Apparatus required:
An illuminated wire gauze, a concave mirror, a mirror holder, screen and metre scale.
Formula used:
𝑢𝑣
Focal length of the concave lens f = (cm)
𝑢+𝑣
where
u = object distance from the mirror in cm
` v = image distance from the mirror in cm
Ray Diagram:

object distance ‘u’

image distance ‘v’

Procedure:
1. Rough focal length of the concave mirror is determined by distant object method.
2. The given concave mirror is placed on the mirror stand at an appropriate distance from the
illuminated wire gauze.
3. The position of the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the wire gauze.
4. Object distance is noted as ‘u’ and the image distance is noted as’v’.
5. The experiment is repeated for various values of ‘u’and the respective values of ‘v’ is noted.
Observation:
Rough focal length of the concave mirror = ______ cm
Least count of the metre scale = 0.1 cm
Tabulation:
S.no Object distance 'u' Image distance 'v' Focal length f = uv/(u+v)
(cm) (cm) (cm)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
mean 'f' = _______ cm
Calculation:

Precautions:
1. The position where the the image is sharper should be considered.
2. The object distances should be fixed greater than the rough focal length.

Sources of error:
1. The mirror and the wire gauze may not be at the same height.

Result:
The focal length of the given concave mirror = ________ cm.
Exp No: 7
Date :

REFRACTIVE INDEX OF A GLASS SLAB USING TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

Aim:
To determine refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope

Apparatus required:
A travelling microscope, a glass slab, lycopodium powder, paper with ink dot (or) cross mark

Formula:
Real depth R3 −R1
Refractive index of the glass slab μ = =
Apparent depth R3 −R2
Where, R1 = Microscope Reading of cross mark with out glass slab (cm).
R2 = Microscope Reading of cross mark with glass slab (cm).
R3 = Microscope Reading with lycopodium powder on the glass slab (cm).
Ray Diagram:

-------------------------------------------


→
Apparent
Depth

Real Depth
→

---------------------


-------------------------------------------

Procedure:
Adjustment of travelling microscope
1. Place the travelling microscope (M) on the table near a window so that sufficient light falls on it.
2. Adjust the leveling screws so that the base of the microscope becomes horizontal
3. Make microscope horizontal. Adjust the position of the eye piece so that the cross wires are
clearly visible
4. Determine the vernier constant for the vertical scale of the microscope.
Other steps:
5. Make a black–ink cross mark on the base of the microscope. The mark will serve as point P.
6. Make the microscope vertical and focus it on the cross at P, so that there is no parallax between
the cross–wires and the image of the mark P.
7. Note the main scale and the vernier scale readings (R1) on the vertical scale
8. Place the given glass slab over the mark P
9. Raise the microscope upwards and focus it on the image P1 of the cross mark.
10. Not the reading (R2) on the vertical scale as before (as R1)
11. Sprinkle a few particles of lycopodium powder on the surface of the slab
12. Raise the microscope further upward and focus it on the particle near S.
13. Note the reading (R3) on the vertical scale again
14. Record observation in tabular form as given below and calculate the refractive index of the glass
slab using the formula.
Observation:
Vernier constant (least count) for vertical scale of microscope = …………. cm

Tabulation:

Reading on vertical scale when microscope is Refractive

focused on Real Apparent
S. thickness thickness index
Cross – mark Cross mark Lycopodium 𝑅 −𝑅
No (R3 – R1) (R3 –R2) 𝜇 = 𝑅3 −𝑅1
without slab with slab R2 powder R3 cm cm
3 2

R1 (cm) (cm) (cm)

Mean μ = ___
Calculation:

Precaution:
1. In microscope, the parallax should be properly removed
2. The microscope should be moved in upper direction only to avoid back lash error.

Sources of error:
1. The microscope scale may not be properly calibrated.

Result:
Refractive index of the material of the glass slab is found to be ___________
Exp No: 8
Date :
GLASS PRISM – ANGLE OF MINIMUM DEVIATION
Aim:
To determine the angle of minimum deviation for the given glass prism by plotting a graph between the
angle of incidence and the angle of deviation.
Apparatus Required:
Drawing Board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half metre scale,office pins, graph
paper and a protractor.
Ray Diagram: Model graph

Procedure:
1. A white sheet of paper is fixed on the drawing board with the help of the drawing pins and a straight
line XX1 is drawn parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper.
2. Points Q1, Q2, Q3,….are marked on the straight line XX1 and normals N1Q1, N2Q2, N3Q3,…… are
drawn on the points Q1, Q2, Q3,…...
3. Using a protractor, straight lines R1Q1, R2Q2, R3Q3, ……… are drawn making angles of
350,400,450,500,550.
4. One corner of the prism is marked as A and it is taken as the edge of the prism for all the values.
5. The prism is placed with its refracting face AB in the line XX1 and boundary of the prism is marked.
6.Two pins P1 and P2 are placed vertically on the line R1Q1, approximately 2 to 5 cm apart.
7. Looking at the images of these pins, two more pins P3 and P4 are fixed such that those images and
these pins lie on a straight line.
8. Pins are removed and their pricks are encircled.
9. The pricks are joined as shown in the figure and angle of deviation is noted.
10. The procedure is repeated for different values of ‘i’ and the readings are tabulated.

Observation:
Angle of prism ‘A’= 600
Tabulation:
Angle of Angle of
S.No incidence deviation
(i) (D)
1
2
3
4
5
Precautions:
1. The angle of incidence should lie between 350 to 600.
2. The pins should be fixed vertical.
3. The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations.
Sources of error:
1. Measurement of angles may be wrong.
2. Pins may not be vertical.
Result:
1. i-D graph shows that as the angle of incidence increases, the angle of deviation first decreases,attains
a minimum value and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence.
2. Angle of minimum deviation Dm= ________