Textbook:

Thomas’ Calculus, 14th Edition

The Real Line

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1.1 FUNCTIONS AND THEIR
GRAPHS
Chapter 1: Functions
Functions ]‫[تربط كل عنصر بعنصر وحيد‬
DEFINITION A function ƒ from a set D to a set Y is a rule that
assigns a unique value ƒ(𝑥) in Y to each x in D.

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DEFINITION A function ƒ from a set D to a set Y is a rule that
assigns a unique value ƒ(𝑥) in Y to each x in D.
]‫[تربط كل عنصر بعنصر وحيد‬

0• •1
•3
2•
•5
6•
•9

𝑓
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Example:
𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥+1

𝑓 1 = 2, 𝑓 7 = 8, 𝑓 −4 = −3
Independent
We can also write: variable
𝑦 =𝑥+1
Dependent
Variable

Also:
𝑥 →𝑥+1
Is it a function?
When we define a function y = ƒ(x) with a formula and the domain is not
stated explicitly or restricted by context, the domain is assumed be the
largest set of real x-values for which the formula gives real y-values. This is
called the natural domain of ƒ.

The domain of 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 is the entire set of real numbers. (WHY?)

To restrict the domain of the function to, say, positive values of x,

we would write “𝑦 = 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 > 0.”
Example 1 (Page 2)
Verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some simple functions. The domains
in each case are the values of x for which the formula makes sense.

Function Domain Range Function Domain Range

𝑦 = 𝑥2 −∞, ∞ = 𝑅 ሾ0, ∞) 𝑦 = 𝑥1 −∞, 0 ∪ 0, ∞ −∞, 0 ∪ 0, ∞
Example 1 (Page 2)
Verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some simple functions. The domains
in each case are the values of x for which the formula makes sense.

Function Domain Range Function Domain Range

𝑦= 𝑥 ሾ0, ∞) ሾ0, ∞) 𝑦 = 4−𝑥 (−∞, 4] ሾ0, ∞)
Example 1 (Page 2)
Verify the natural domains and associated ranges of some simple functions. The domains
in each case are the values of x for which the formula makes sense.

Function Domain Range

𝑦= 1 − 𝑥2 ሾ−1,1] ሾ0,1]
Graphs of Functions
If ƒ is a function with domain 𝐷, its graph consists of the points in the
Cartesian plane whose coordinates are the input-output pairs for ƒ.
In set notation, the graph is { 𝒙, ƒ 𝒙 : 𝒙 ∊ 𝑫}.
Example 2:
Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval ሾ−2,2]
Example 2:
Graph the function 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 over the interval ሾ−2,2]

𝑥 𝑦 = 𝑥2

2 Plot the points (x, y)

whose coordinates
1 appear in the table,
0 and draw a smooth
-1 curve through the
plotted points.
-2
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Not every curve in the coordinate plane can be the graph of a function.
A function ƒ can have only one value ƒ(x) for each x in its domain, so no
vertical line can intersect the graph of a function more than once.
‫كل خط مستقيم رأسي يقطع منحنى الدالة يجب أن يقطعه في نقطة واحدة فقط‬
The Vertical Line Test for a Function
Piecewise-Defined Functions

The Absolute Value Function

𝑥, 𝑥≥0
𝑥 =ቊ
−𝑥, 𝑥<0
Example 4: −𝒙, 𝒙<𝟎 First formula
The function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ 𝑥 2, 0≤𝑥≤1 Second formula
𝟏, 𝒙>𝟏 Third formula
y

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Example 4: −𝒙, 𝒙<𝟎
The function 𝑓 𝑥 = ቐ 𝑥 2, 0≤𝑥≤1
𝟏, 𝒙>𝟏
Example 5: (The Greatest Integer Function)

𝑥 = the greatest integer not exceeding 𝑥

= x ‫أكبر عدد صحيح ال يتجاوز‬

Example 5: (The Greatest Integer Function)

𝑥 = the greatest integer not exceeding 𝑥

= x ‫أكبر عدد صحيح ال يتجاوز‬
2.4 = 0.2 = −2 =
2 = 3.6 = −1.2 =
1.9 = 0 = −0.3 =
Increasing and Decreasing Functions
If the graph of a function climbs or rises as you move from left to right, we say that the
function is increasing. If the graph descends or falls as you move from left to right, the
function is decreasing.

Increasing Decreasing
Example 7:

The function graphed in Figure 1.9 is

decreasing on ………………..
and increasing on ……………..

left to right
Example 7:
The function graphed in Figure 1.9 is
decreasing on −∞, 0
and increasing on 0,1

The function is neither increasing nor

decreasing on the interval
1, ∞ because the function is constant
on that interval.
Even and Odd Functions
Even Functions
‫دالة زوجيّة‬
𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)

Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥 2
Examples: constant functions, 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 4 , 𝑥 6 , …

Symmetric about the y-axis

Symmetric about the y-axis
Even Function
𝑓(−𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥)
Even and Odd Functions
Odd Functions ‫دالة فرديّة‬
𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)
3
Example: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥
3 5 3 5
Examples: 𝑥, 𝑥 , 𝑥 , … ; 𝑥, 𝑥, …
Symmetric about the origin
Symmetric about the origin

Odd Function
𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)
Even and Odd Functions
Even Odd
𝑓 −𝑥 = 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 −𝑥 = −𝑓(𝑥)
Symmetric about the y-axis Symmetric about the origin

Constant functions, e.g. 1, 2, 5, −3 𝑥, 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 5 , …

3
𝑥2, 𝑥4, 𝑥6, … 𝑥, 5 𝑥, …

Even ± Even, Odd ± Odd,

e.g. 5 + 𝑥 2 , 𝑥 6 + 𝑥 2 − 7 e.g. 𝑥 − 𝑥 3 , 𝑥 5 + 3 𝑥

Even × (÷) Even, e.g. 5𝑥 2 , 1 Even × (÷) Odd,

𝑥2 7𝑥
Odd × (÷) Odd, e.g. 𝑥. 𝑥 3 , 𝑥. 3 𝑥,
e.g. 10𝑥, 𝑥. 𝑥 2 , 𝑥2

cos 𝑥 , sec 𝑥 sin 𝑥 , cec 𝑥 , tan 𝑥 , cot 𝑥

Even and Odd Functions

Even ± odd = neither even nor odd

odd ± even = neither even nor odd

Neither even Neither even
nor odd nor odd
Example 8:
Here are several functions illustrating the definitions.
2
• 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥 • 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥

• 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑥2 + 1 • 𝑓 𝑥 =𝑥+1
Example 8:
say whether the function is even, odd, or neither.
Give reasons for your answer.
47. ƒ(𝑥) = 3 49. ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 1

50. ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 𝑥 51. 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 3 + 𝑥

Common Functions
Polynomials ]‫[كثيرات الحدود‬ ‫أعداد حقيقيّة‬
A polynomial is a function of the form:
𝑃 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑎𝑛−1 𝑥 𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑎2 𝑥 2 + 𝑎1 𝑥 + 𝑎0
‫عامالت‬
ِ ‫ُم‬
Where 𝑎𝑛 , 𝑎𝑛−1 , … , 𝑎2 , 𝑎1 , 𝑎0 are (real) constants, called coefficients.

The number 𝑛 ≥ 0 is an integer, we must have 𝑎𝑛 ≠ 0.

‫درجة‬
➢ The degree of the polynomial is n.

➢ The domain of any polynomial is ℝ

Linear: of degree 1, has the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏
Quadratic: of degree 2, has the form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐
Cubic: of degree 3, has the form 𝑎𝑥 3 + 𝑏𝑥 2 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑑
Examples:
1
7
𝑥

𝑥2 − 𝑥 𝑥 −2 + 𝑥
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 + 9 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥
0 3𝑥
 𝟏
‫ اليوجد كسر‬،‫𝒙 = 𝟐𝒙 األس غير سالب‬−𝟐
Examples: ‫ اليوجد جذر‬،‫𝒙 = 𝒙 األس ليس كسر‬
𝟑
𝟏
𝟑

1 Not a Polynomial
7 Polynomial, degree 0
𝑥

𝑥2 − 𝑥 Polynomial, degree 2
𝑥 −2 + 𝑥 Not a Polynomial
2𝑥 2 − 𝑥 4 + 9 Polynomial, degree 4 2𝑥 2 + 𝑥 Not a Polynomial
0 Polynomial, undefined degree
3𝑥 Not a Polynomial
Linear Functions
A function of the form
ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝑏,
where m and b are
fixed constants, is
called a linear function.

DEFINITION Two variables y and x are proportional (to one another) if

one is always a constant multiple of the other—that is, if 𝑦 = 𝑘𝑥 for
some nonzero constant 𝑘.
Power Functions
A function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.
𝑎
𝑎
• ƒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ • ƒ 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑎
𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ • ƒ 𝑥 = 𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
1 1 3 2
𝑎 = 𝑛, 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑒𝑟. 𝑎 = −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = −2 . 𝑎 = 2 , 3 , 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3.
Power Functions
A function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.
Power Functions
A function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.
Power Functions
A function ƒ(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑎 , where 𝑎 is a constant, is called a power function.
Rational Functions ]‫[الدوال الكسريّة‬
If 𝑃(𝑥) and 𝑄(𝑥) are polynomials, and 𝐐(𝐱) is NOT the zero polynomial
numerator
𝑃(𝑥)
𝑅 𝑥 =
𝑄(𝑥)
denominator
is a rational function.

The domain is all real numbers for which 𝐐(𝐱) is not zero.
Rational Functions ]‫[الدوال الكسريّة‬
Algebraic Functions
Any function constructed from polynomials using algebraic
operations

➢Addition (+) ,
➢Subtraction (-),
➢Multiplication (×),
➢Division , Τ ,
➢ Taking roots , 3 ,…
Exponential Function
base a ‫أساس‬ Exponent 𝑥 ‫أس‬
• The function defined by

𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 (𝑎 > 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎 ≠ 1)
is called an exponential function.

• The domain of f is the set of all real numbers, 𝐷 𝑓 = ℝ = −∞, ∞ and

range 𝟎, ∞ .
1 𝑥
• Examples: 2 , ( ) , 1𝑥 , 𝑒 𝑥
𝑥
3
• Note the difference between: 𝑎 𝑥 and 𝑥 𝑎 .
Exponential Function
𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥
Logarithmic Functions
ƒ 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑎 ≠ 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡.
We have the relation: 𝑓 𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑥 ֞ 𝑓 −1 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥

• 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑎 𝑥 = 0, ∞

• 𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 log 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝐷𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑥 = ℝ = −∞, ∞
Logarithmic Functions

ƒ 𝑥 = log 𝑎 𝑥
Trigonometric Functions
The six basic trigonometric functions are reviewed in Section 1.3.
The graphs of the sine and cosine functions are shown in Figure 1.21.

Transcendental Functions
These are functions that are not algebraic.
They include the trigonometric, inverse trigonometric, exponential,
and logarithmic functions, and many other functions as well.
EXERCISES 1.1
21. Find the domain of 22. Find the range of

𝑦 =
𝑥+3 𝑦 = 2 + 9 + 𝑥2
4− 𝑥 2 −9