CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Conductors, Voltage sources, Current sources, Resistors, Inductors, Capacitors

Conductors
We define ideal circuit elements in terms of the relationship between the voltage
across the element and the current through it.

The voltage between the ends of an ideal conductor is zero regardless of the current
flowing through the conductor

When two points in a circuit are connected together by an ideal conductor, we say that
the points are shorted together (short circuit)

If no conductors or other circuit elements are connected between two parts of

a circuit, we say that an open circuit exists between the two parts of the circuit.

No current can flow through an ideal open circuit.

 Independent Voltage Sources
An ideal independent voltage source maintains a specified voltage across its terminals

The voltage across the source is independent of other elements that are
connected to it and of the current flowing through it.

We say that these are independent sources because the voltages across their terminals
are independent of all other voltages and currents in the circuit.

We avoid self contradictory circuit

diagrams such as this one
Ideal Circuit Elements versus Reality
It is possible to draw ideal circuits in which the definitions of various circuit elements conflict.

The definition of the voltage source requires that vx = 12V. The definition of an ideal
conductor requires that vx = 0. In our study of ideal circuits, we avoid such conflicts.
Dependent Voltage Sources

A dependent or controlled voltage source is similar to an independent source except

that the voltage across the source terminals is a function of other voltages or currents
in the circuit.

A voltage-controlled voltage source is a voltage source having a voltage equal

to a constant times the voltage across a pair of terminals elsewhere in the circuit
/network.

The voltage vx determines the value of the voltage produced by the source.
If vx = 3 V, the source voltage is 2vx = 6 V.
A current-controlled voltage source is a voltage source having a voltage equal to a
constant times the current through some other element in the circuit

In this case, the source voltage is three times the value of the current ix. The factor
multiplying the current is called the gain parameter.

We assume that the voltage has units of volts and the current is in amperes. Thus, the
gain parameter has units of volts per ampere (V/A).

In the voltage-controlled voltage source in, we note that the gain parameter is 2 and is
unit-less
Independent Current Sources
An ideal independent current source forces a specified current to flow through itself.

The current through an independent current source is independent of the elements

connected to it and of the voltage across it.
A battery is a good example of a
voltage source, but an equally familiar
example does not exist for a current
source. However, current sources are
useful in constructing theoretical
models.

The current through a

dependent current
source depends on a
current or voltage that
appears elsewhere in
the circuit.
Figure: voltage-controlled current source.
The current through the source is three times the voltage vx. The gain parameter of the
source (3 in this case) has units of A/V (siemens or inverse ohms).
If it turns out that vx has a value of 5 V, the current through the controlled current
source is 3vx = 15 A.
Figure: current-controlled current source.
The current through the source is twice the value of iy. The gain parameter, which has a
value of 2 in this case, has units of A/A (i.e., it is unitless).

Like controlled voltage sources, controlled current sources are useful in constructing
circuit models for many types of real-world devices, such as electronic amplifiers,
transistors, transformers, and electrical machines.

If a controlled source is needed for some application, it can be implemented by using

electronic amplifiers.
Resistors and Ohm’s Law
The voltage v across an ideal resistor is proportional to the current i through the
resistor. The constant of proportionality is the resistance R.

In equation form, the voltage and current are related by Ohm’s law:

Voltage is proportional
to current in an ideal
resistor.

Conductance
Solving Ohm’s law for current, we have

We call the quantity 1/R a conductance

Conductances have the units of inverse ohms, which are called siemens
(abbreviated S). Thus, we can write Ohm’s law as
The units of resistance are V/A, which are called ohms.

Except for rather unusual situations, the resistance R assumes positive values.

In situations for which the current reference direction enters the negative reference of
the voltage

we can construct nearly ideal resistors by attaching terminals to many types of

conductive materials.

Conductive materials that can be used to construct resistors include most metals, their
alloys, and carbon.

• On a microscopic level, current in metals consists of

electrons moving through the material.
• The applied voltage creates an electric field that
accelerates the electrons.
• At the macroscopic level, we observe a current that is
proportional to the applied voltage
Resistance Related to Physical Parameters
The dimensions and geometry of the resistor as well as the particular material used
to construct a resistor influence its resistance.

We consider only resistors that take the form of a long cylinder or bar with terminals
attached at the ends.

If the length L of the resistor is much greater than the dimensions of its cross
section, the resistance is approximately given by

in which ρ is the resistivity of the material used to construct the resistor. The units of
resistivity are ohm meters (m).
Materials can be classified as conductors, semiconductors, or insulators, depending
on their resistivity.

Conductors have the lowest resistivity and easily conduct electrical current.
Insulators have very high resistivity and conduct very little current
(at least for moderate voltages).
Semiconductors fall between conductors and insulators.

Notice that power for a resistance is

positive regardless of the sign of v or
I, thus, power is absorbed
by resistances. If the resistance
results from collisions of electrons
with the atoms of
the material composing a resistor,
this power shows up as heat.

Power Calculations for Resistances

KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW

A node in an electrical circuit is a point at which two or more circuit elements are joined
together. Examples of nodes:

The net current entering a node is zero. To compute the net current entering a node, we add
the currents entering and subtract the currents leaving.

The net current leaving a node is zero.

The sum of the currents entering a node equals the sum of the currents leaving a node.
Series Circuits

We make frequent use of KCL in analyzing circuits. When elements are connected end
to end, we say that they are connected in series.

In order for elements A and B to be in series, no other path for current can be
connected to the node joining A and B.

At node 1 for the circuit

 KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW

A loop in an electrical circuit is a closed path starting at a node and proceeding through
circuit elements, eventually returning to the starting node.

Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL) states: The algebraic sum of the voltages equals zero for
any closed path (loop) in an electrical circuit.

In applying KVL to a loop, voltages are added or

subtracted depending on their reference polarities
relative to the direction of travel around the loop.

we obtain the following equations:

Circuit used for illustration of Kirchhoff’s voltage law.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law Related to Conservation of Energy
KVL is a consequence of the law of energy conservation.

In this circuit, conservation of energy

requires that vb = va + vc.

The power for each of the elements

At a given instant, the sum of the powers for all of the elements in a circuit must
be zero.
Parallel Circuits

In this circuit, elements A and B are in parallel. Elements D, E, and F form another parallel
combination.
For this circuit, we can show that va = vb = −vc. Thus,
the magnitudes and actual polarities of all three
voltages are the same.

For this clockwise loop, we have −va + vb = 0. Thus, KVL requires that va = vb

Next, consider a clockwise loop through elements A and C. For this loop, KVL
requires that −va − vc = 0
Circuit analysis
To illustrate these concepts by considering a few relatively simple circuits.

A circuit consisting of a voltage source and a resistance.

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