Heredity and Inherited Traits:

 Heredity refers to the transmission of characters from parents to offsprings. An inherited trait is a particular genetically determined feature that distinguishes a person from the
others for example; attached or free ear lobes in human beings.
Rules for the inheritance of traits:
Mendel’s contribution:
 The rules for inheritance of traits in human beings are related to the fact that both mother and father contribute an equal amount of genetic material i.e. DNA to their offspring.
 So an offspring will get two versions of that trait from the two parents. Mendel worked out rules for inheritance of these traits.
 Gregor Johann Mendel regarded as the ‘Father of Genetics’ performed his experiments with garden peas (Pisum sativum) in the garden behind his monastery.
 He observed a number of contrasting characters in garden peas and observed their inheritance.
Monohybrid Cross:
 The cross in which Mendel showed inheritance of dominant and recessive characters is monohybrid cross.
 To observe inheritance of single pair of contrasting characters he took pure tall (genotype TT) and pure dwarf (genotype tt) pea plants and cross pollinated them to obtain first
generation or first filial generation. In this figuration (F1 generation) he obtained only tall plants.
 This meant that only one of the parental traits was seen, not the mixture of the two.
 The plants of F generation or progeny are then self pollinated to obtain F2 generation or progeny.
 Now all plants were not tall. He obtained 75% tall plants and 25% dwarf plants i.e. the phenotypic ratio was 3:1.
 This indicates that in the F, generation both tall and dwarf traits were inherited but tallness expressed it self.
 Tallness is a dominant trait and dwarfness is a recessive trait. F2 generation has a genotypic ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 of three types of plants represented by TT, Tt and tt as shown in the
cross.
Conclusion:
 Phenotypic ratio—Tall : Dwarf = 3 : 1
 Genotype ratio—Pure Tall : Hybrid Tall : Pure Dwarf = 1 : 2 : 1
Law of Dominance:
 When parents having pure contrasting characters are crossed then only one character expresses itself in the Ft generation.
 This character is the dominant character and the character/factor which cannot express itself is called the recessive character.
Dihybrid Cross:
 Mendel also carried out experiments to observe inheritance of two pairs of contrasting characters, which is called dihybrid cross.
 He cross breed pea plants bearing round green seed with plants bearing wrinkled and yellow seeds.
 In the Fx generation he obtained all round and yellow seeds it means round and yellow traits of seeds are dominant features while wrinkled and green are recessive.
 He self-pollinated the plants of F: generation to obtain F2 generation, he obtained four different types of seeds round yellow, round green, wrinkled yellow and wrinkled green
in the ratio of 9 : 3 : 3 :1
 He concluded that traits are independently inherited
Conclusion
 Round and yellow seeds-9.
 Round and green seeds-3.
 Wrinkled and yellow seeds-3.
 Wrinkled and green seeds-1.
How do traits get expressed?
 Cellular DNA is the information source for making proteins in the cell.
 A part of DNA that provides information for one particular protein is called a gene for that protein for example; the height of a plant depends upon the growth hormone which
is in turn controlled by the gene.
 If the gene is efficient and more growth hormone is secreted the plant will grow tall. If the gene for that particular protein gets altered and less of it is secreted when the plant
will remain short.
 Both the parents contribute equally to the DNA of next generation during sexual reproduction.
 They actually contribute a copy of the same gene for example; when tall plant is crossed with short plant the gametes will have single gene either for tallness or for shortness.
 F1 generation will get one gene for tallness and other for shortness also.
How do germ cells i.e. gametes get single set of genes from parents who have two copies in them ?
 Each gene set is present, not as a single long thread of DNA, but as separate independent pieces each called a chromosome.
 Each cell gets two copies of the chromosome, one from each parent.
 Each germ cell or gamete has one copy of it because there is reductional division in the sex organs at the time of formation of gametes.
 When fertilization takes place normal number of chromosomes is restored in the progeny ensuring the stability of DNA of the species.
How is the sex of a newborn individual determined?
 It is the process by which sex of a newborn can be determined.
 Different species use different strategies for this :
1. In some animals the temperature at which fertilized eggs are kept determines whether the developing animals will be males or females.
2. Some animals like snails can change sex indicating that sex is not genetically determined.
3. In human beings sex of the individual is determined genetically; means genes inherited from the parents decide the sex of the offspring.
Sex determination in human beings:
 In human beings, all chromosomes are not paired. 22 chromosomes are paired but one pair called sex chromosome is odd in not having a perfect pair in males.
 Females have a perfect pair both represented by XX.
 On the other hand males have a normal sized X but the other is short called Y so it is shown as XY.
 All gametes or ova formed by the homogenetic female are similar i.e. have X chromosome.
 Males heterogenetic form two types of sperms i.e. half with X chromosome and the other half with Y chromosome.
 Sex of the baby will depend on fertilization.
There are two possibilities :
1. If the sperm having X chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have XX chromosome and it will be female.
2. If the sperm having Y chromosome fertilizes with ovum with X chromosome then the baby will have XY chromosomes and it will be male.
Acquired Traits:
 Acquired traits are those which are not inherited over generations as they are caused due to change in the non-reproductive tissue and are not passed on the DNA of the germ
cells for example; the size of the beetles in the population decreased due to scarcity of food.
Inherited Trait:
 Inherited traits are caused due to changes in the DNA of germ cells which are inherited from generation to generation, for example; formation of green beetles in the
population of red beetles.