Behaviorism In Psychology

Behaviorism, also known as behavioral learning theory, is a theoretical perspective in psychology that
emphasizes the role of learning and observable behaviors in understanding human and animal actions.

Behaviorism is a theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through conditioned interaction
with the environment. Thus, behavior is simply a response to environmental stimuli.

The behaviorist theory is only concerned with observable stimulus-response behaviors, as they can be
studied in a systematic and observable manner.

Principles of Behaviorism

One assumption of the learning approach is that all behaviors are learned from the environment. They
can be learned through classical conditioning, learning by association, or through operant conditioning,
learning by consequences.

Behaviorism emphasizes the role of environmental factors in influencing behavior to the near exclusion
of innate or inherited factors. This amounts essentially to a focus on learning. Therefore, when born, our
mind is “tabula rasa” (a blank slate).

Classical conditioning refers to learning by association, and involves the conditioning of innate bodily
reflexes with new stimuli.

Behaviorist Theory

Historically, the most significant distinction between versions of behaviorism is that between Watson’s
original methodological behaviorism, and forms of behaviorism later inspired by his work, known
collectively as neobehaviorism (e.g., radical behaviorism).

John B Watson: Methodological Behaviorism

Proposed by John B. Watson, methodological behaviorism focuses solely on observable, measurable

behaviors and rejects the study of internal mental processes.

Watson argued that thoughts, feelings, and desires cannot be directly observed and, therefore, should
not be part of psychological study.

Watson proposed that behaviors can be studied in a systematic and observable manner with no
consideration of internal mental states.

He argued that all behaviors in animals or humans are learned, and the environment shapes behavior.

In his efforts to get a unitary scheme of animal response, the behaviorist recognizes no dividing line
between man and brute.

Man’s behavior, with all of its refinement and complexity, forms only a part of the behaviorist’s total
scheme of investigation.
This behavioral perspective laid the groundwork for further behavioral studies like B.F’s. Skinner who
introduced the concept of operant conditioning.

B.F Skinner: Radical Behaviorism

Radical behaviorism was founded by B.F Skinner, who agreed with the assumption of methodological
behaviorism that the goal of psychology should be to predict and control behavior.

Radical Behaviorism expands upon earlier forms of behaviorism by incorporating internal events such as
thoughts, emotions, and feelings as part of the behavioral process.

Unlike methodological behaviorism, which asserts that only observable behaviors should be studied,
radical behaviorism accepts that these internal events occur and influence behavior.

However, it maintains that they should be considered part of the environmental context and are subject
to the same laws of learning and adaptation as overt behaviors.

Another important distinction between methodological and radical behaviorism concerns the extent to
which environmental factors influence behavior. Watson’s (1913) methodological behaviorism asserts
the mind is a tabula rasa (a blank slate) at birth.

Unlike methodological behaviorism, radical behaviorism recognizes the role of genes and biological
components in behavior, accepting that organisms are born with innate behaviors.

Bandura: Social Learning

Behaviorism has undergone many transformations since John Watson developed it in the early part of
the twentieth century.

Social learning theory is a more recent extension of behaviorism that emphasizes the role of plans and
expectations in people’s behavior.

One more recent extension of this approach has been the development of social learning theory, which
emphasizes the role of plans and expectations in people’s behavior.

Under social learning theory, people were no longer seen as passive victims of the environment, but
rather they were seen as self-reflecting and thoughtful.

The theory is often called a bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.

Applications

Mental health

Behaviorism theorized that abnormal behavior and mental illness stem from faulty learning processes
rather than internal conflicts or unconscious forces, as psychoanalysis claimed.

Based on behaviorism, behavior therapy aims to replace maladaptive behaviors with more constructive
ones through techniques like systematic desensitization, aversion therapy, and token
economies. Systematic desensitization helps phobia patients gradually confront feared objects.
The behaviorist approach has been used in treating phobias. The individual with the phobia is taught
relaxation techniques and then makes a hierarchy of fear from the least frightening to the most
frightening features of the phobic object.

He then is presented with the stimuli in that order and learns to associate (classical conditioning) the
stimuli with a relaxation response. This is counter-conditioning.

Aversion therapy associates unpleasant stimuli with unwanted habits to discourage them. Token
economies reinforce desired actions by providing tokens redeemable for rewards.

Education

The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of operant
conditioning, but there is still a need for teachers to try to make sure that students associate positive
emotional experiences with learning.

If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have bad
results, such as creating a school phobia.

For example, if a student is bullied at school, they may learn to associate the school with fear. It could
also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue throughout
their academic career. This could happen if a teacher humiliates or punishes a student in class.

Addiction

Cue reactivity is the theory that people associate situations (e.g., meeting with friends)/ places (e.g.,
pub) with the rewarding effects of nicotine, and these cues can trigger a feeling of craving (Carter &
Tiffany, 1999).

These factors become smoking-related cues. Prolonged use of nicotine creates an association between
these factors and smoking based on classical conditioning.

Nicotine is the unconditioned stimulus (UCS), and the pleasure caused by the sudden increase in
dopamine levels is the unconditioned response (UCR). Following this increase, the brain tries to lower
the dopamine back to a normal level.

The stimuli that have become associated with nicotine were neutral stimuli (NS) before “learning” took
place but they became conditioned stimuli (CS), with repeated pairings. They can produce the
conditioned response (CR).

However, if the brain has not received nicotine, the levels of dopamine drop and the individual
experiences withdrawal symptoms, therefore, is more likely to feel the need to smoke in the presence of
the cues that have become associated with the use of nicotine.

Issues & Debates

Free will vs. Determinism

Behaviorism tends to overemphasize the role of the environment in shaping behavior, suggesting that
behavior is primarily determined by external factors such as stimuli, reinforcement, and punishment.
Strong determinism of the behavioral approach as all behavior is learned from our environment through
classical and operant conditioning. We are the total sum of our previous conditioning.

The social learning approach, while still emphasizing the role of the environment, recognizes an element
of choice in whether we imitate a behavior or not, reflecting a softer form of determinism.

This environmental determinism can lead to underestimating the influence of genetic, biological, and
individual factors on behavior.

Behaviorism may provide an incomplete or overly simplistic account of human behavior by neglecting
the role of internal processes and individual differences.

Nature vs. Nurture

Behaviorism strongly supports the nature vs. nurture debate, arguing that behavior is primarily learned
from the environment.

The social learning theory, which builds upon behaviorist principles, is also on the nurture side,
emphasizing the role of observational learning and the influence of role models in shaping behavior.

According to the behaviorist approach, apart from a few innate reflexes and the capacity for learning, all
complex behavior is learned from the environment, minimizing the role of genetic or biological factors.

Holism vs. Reductionism

The behaviorist approach and social learning theory are reductionist in nature, as they seek to break
down complex behaviors into smaller, more manageable parts for study.

Behaviorists believe that all behavior, regardless of its complexity, can be reduced to the fundamental
processes of conditioning, such as classical and operant conditioning.

By focusing on the isolation and manipulation of specific variables, behaviorism aims to identify the basic
principles and mechanisms that govern behavior, rather than considering behavior as an irreducible
whole.

Strengths

1. Scientific Methodology

Behaviorism emphasizes observable and measurable behaviors, leading to a more scientific and
objective approach to studying psychology.

This approach allows for greater objectivity and replicability in psychological research, as behaviors can
be quantified and studied systematically.

By emphasizing scientific methods, behaviorism has contributed to the development of psychology as a

more rigorous and evidence-based discipline.

2. Empirical Support

Behaviorism has experimental support: Pavlov showed that classical conditioning leads to learning by
association.
4. Practical Applications

Behaviorist principles have been successfully applied in various real-world settings, such as clinical
therapy, educational interventions, and organizational behavior management.

Techniques like behavior modification, contingency management, and reinforcement schedules have
proven effective in modifying problematic behaviors and promoting desired outcomes.

The behaviorist approach has been used in the treatment of phobias, as well as systematic
desensitization.

The practical focus of behaviorism has led to the development of evidence-based interventions that can
directly benefit individuals and society.

Weaknesses

1. Overreliance on Animal Studies

Many of the experiments carried out were done on animals; we are different cognitively and
physiologically. Humans have different social norms and moral values that mediate the effects of the
environment.

Therefore, people might behave differently from animals, so the laws and principles derived from these
experiments might apply more to animals than humans.

2. Difficulty Explaining Spontaneous Behaviors

Behaviorism struggles to explain behaviors that seem to emerge without any apparent environmental
triggers or reinforcement history.

Spontaneous behaviors, such as creative insights, sudden changes in preferences, or unprompted acts of
kindness, are difficult to account for within a strict behaviorist framework.

The inability to fully explain these behaviors highlights the limitations of focusing solely on observable
stimuli and responses, and suggests the need for a more comprehensive approach that considers
internal mental processes and individual agency.

3. Neglect of Individual Differences

Behaviorism often assumes that the same learning principles and environmental contingencies apply to
all individuals, regardless of their unique experiences, personalities, and cultural backgrounds.

This “one size fits all” approach may overlook important individual differences that shape behavior and
influence responses to interventions.

By failing to account for the diversity of human experience and the role of individual factors in shaping
behavior, behaviorism may provide an oversimplified or incomplete understanding of psychological
phenomena.

Humanism rejects the nomothetic approach of behaviorism. It views humans as unique and believes
humans cannot be compared with animals (who aren’t susceptible to demand characteristics).
This is known as an idiographic approach.

4. Limited Explanations for Complex Behaviors

Behaviorist principles may struggle to fully explain more complex human behaviors, such as language
acquisition, creativity, problem-solving, and abstract thinking.

These behaviors often involve higher-order cognitive processes and symbolic representation, which are
difficult to reduce to simple stimulus-response associations or reinforcement contingencies.

The limited explanatory scope of behaviorism has led to the development of alternative approaches,
such as cognitive psychology, that aim to provide more comprehensive accounts of complex mental
processes.

5. Reductionist: Oversimplification of Behavior

Behaviorism focuses on externally observable behavior, ignoring essential factors like emotions,
expectations, and higher-level motivation.

This oversimplified view of the world has led to the development of ‘pop behaviorism, the view that
rewards and punishments can change almost anything.

Therefore, behaviorism only provides a partial account of human behavior that can be objectively
viewed. Essential factors like emotions, expectations, and higher-level motivation are not considered or
explained. Accepting a behaviorist explanation could prevent further research from other perspectives
that could uncover important factors.

For example, the psychodynamic approach (Freud) criticizes behaviorism as it does not consider
the unconscious mind’s influence on behavior and instead focuses on externally observable behavior.
Freud also rejects the idea that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and states that people are
born with instincts (e.g., eros and Thanatos).

6. Historical Dominance Questioned

Many textbooks depict behaviorism as dominating and defining psychology in the mid-20th century
before declining in the late 1950s with the “cognitive revolution.”

However, the empirical basis for claims about behaviorism’s prominence and decline has been limited.

Wide-scope claims about behaviorism are often based on small, unrepresentative samples of historical
data. This raises the question – to what extent was behaviorism actually dominant in American
psychology?

To address this question, Braat et al. (2020) conducted a quantitative bibliometric analysis of 119,278
articles published in American psychology journals from 1920-1970.

They generated cocitation networks, mapping similarities between frequently cited authors, and co-
occurrence networks of frequently used title terms, for each decade.

This allowed them to examine the structure and development of psychology fields without relying on
predefined behavioral/non-behavioral categories.
Humanistic Approach In Psychology
The humanistic approach in psychology developed as a rebellion against what some psychologists saw as
the limitations of behaviorist and psychodynamic psychology.

The humanistic approach is thus often called the “third force” in psychology after psychoanalysis and
behaviorism (Maslow, 1968).

Humanism rejected the assumptions of the behaviorist perspective which is characterized as

deterministic, focused on reinforcement of stimulus-response behavior and heavily dependent on animal
research.

Humanistic psychology rejected the psychodynamic approach because it is also deterministic, with
unconscious irrational and instinctive forces determining human thought and behavior.

Both behaviorism and psychoanalysis are regarded as dehumanizing by humanistic psychologists.

Humanistic psychology expanded its influence throughout the 1970s and the 1980s. Its impact can be
understood in terms of three major areas:

1) It offered a new set of values for approaching an understanding of human nature and the human
condition.

2) It offered an expanded horizon of methods of inquiry in the study of human behavior.

3) It offered a broader range of more effective methods in the professional practice of psychotherapy.

Basic Assumptions

Humanistic psychology begins with the existential assumption that people have free will:

Free will is the idea that people can make choices in how they act and are self-determining. Behavior is
not constrained by either past experience of the individual or current circumstances (determinism).

Personal agency (free will) refers to the choices we make in life, the paths we go down, and their
consequences. Individuals are free to choose when they are congruent (Rogers) or self-actualized
(Maslow). Although Rogers believes much more in free will, he acknowledges that determinism is
present in the case of conditional love because that may affect a person’s self-esteem. In this way free
will and determinism are integral to some extent in the humanistic perspective.

People are basically good, and have an innate need to make themselves and the world better:

Humanistic psychology: a more recent development in the history of psychology, humanistic psychology
grew out of the need for a more positive view of human beings than was offered by psychoanalysis or
behaviorism.

Humans are innately good, which means there is nothing inherently negative or evil about them
(humans).

In this way the humanistic perspective takes an optimistic view of human nature that humans are born
good but during their process of growth they might turn evil.
The humanistic approach emphasizes the individual’s personal worth, the centrality of human values,
and the creative, active nature of human beings.

The approach is optimistic and focuses on the noble human capacity to overcome hardship, pain and
despair.

People are motivated to self-actualize:

Major humanistic psychologists such as Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow believed that human beings
were born with the desire to grow, create and to love, and had the power to direct their own lives.

Self-actualization concerns psychological growth, fulfillment, and satisfaction in life.

Both Rogers and Maslow regarded personal growth and fulfillment in life as basic human motives. This
means that each person, in different ways, seeks to grow psychologically and continuously enhance
themselves.

However, Rogers and Maslow both describe different ways which self-actualization can be achieved.

According to Maslow, people also have needs which must be met for self-actualization to be possible.
The basic needs e.g. food and water have to be satisfied before the higher psychological and emotional
needs. This is shown in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

According to Rogers, people could only self-actualize if they had a positive view of themselves (positive
self-regard). This can only happen if they have unconditional positive regard from others – if they feel
that they are valued and respected without reservation by those around them (especially their parents
when they were children).

Self-actualization is only possible if there is congruence between the way an individual sees themselves
and their ideal self (the way they want to be or think they should be). If there is a large gap between
these two concepts, negative feelings of self-worth will arise that will make it impossible for self-
actualization to take place.

The environment a person is exposed to and interacts with can either frustrate or assist this natural
destiny. If it is oppressive, it will frustrate; if it is favorable, it will assist.

Behavior must be understood in terms of the subjective conscious experience of the individual
(phenomenology):

Humanistic psychologists also believe that the most fundamental aspect of being human is a subjective
experience. This may not be an accurate reflection of the real world, but a person can only act in terms
of their own private experience subjective perception of reality.

Humanistic psychologists argue that physical objective reality is less important than a person’s subjective
(phenomenological) perception and understanding of the world. Thus, how people interpret things
internally is (for them), the only reality.

Sometimes the humanistic approach is called phenomenological. This means that personality is studied
from the point of view of the individual’s subjective experience. Meaning is the purpose or value that a
person attaches to their actions or experiences.
According to Rogers, we each live in a world of our own creation, formed by our processes of perception.
He referred to an individual’s unique perception of reality as his or her phenomenal field.

Humanism rejects scientific methodology:

Rogers and Maslow placed little value on scientific psychology, especially the use of the psychology
laboratory to investigate both human and animal behavior.

Rogers said that objective scientific inquiry based on deterministic assumptions about humans has a
place in the study of humans (science) but is limited in the sense that it leaves out inner human
experiences (phenomenology).

Studying a person’s subjective experience is the biggest problem for scientific psychology, which stresses
the need for its subject matter to be publicly observable and verifiable. Subjective experience, by
definition, resists such processes.

Humanism rejects scientific methodology like experiments and typically uses qualitative research
methods. For example, diary accounts, open-ended questionnaires, unstructured interviews, and
observations.

Qualitative research is useful for studies at the individual level, and to find out, in-depth, the ways in
which people think or feel (e.g. case studies).

The way to really understand other people is to sit down and talk with them, share their experiences,
and be open to their feelings.

Humanism rejected comparative psychology (the study of animals) because it does not tell us anything
about the unique properties of human beings:

Humanism views humans as fundamentally different from other animals, mainly because humans are
conscious beings capable of thought, reason, and language.

For humanistic psychologists’ research on animals, such as rats, pigeons, or monkeys held little value.

Research on such animals can tell us, so they argued, very little about human thought, behavior, and
experience.

Humanistic Theory of Personality

Central to Rogers” personality theory is the notion of self or self-concept. This is defined as “the
organized, consistent set of perceptions and beliefs about oneself.”

The self is the humanistic term for who we really are as a person. The self is our inner personality, and
can be likened to the soul, or Freud’s psyche. The self is influenced by the experiences a person has in
their life, and out interpretations of those experiences. Two primary sources that influence our self-
concept are childhood experiences and evaluation by others.

According to Rogers (1959), we want to feel, experience, and behave in ways that are consistent with our
self-image and which reflect what we would like to be like, our ideal-self. The closer our self-image and
ideal-self are to each other, the more consistent or congruent we are and the higher our sense of self-
worth.
A person is said to be in a state of incongruence if some of the totality of their experience is
unacceptable to them and is denied or distorted in the self-image.

Rogers believed this incongruence stems from the distorted perceptions that arise from adopting
others’ conditions of worth, starting in infancy. As we depart from accurately integrating all of our
authentic experiences into our self-structure, we are no longer a unified whole person. Rather, we
develop different facets of self, some of which may feel threatened by certain experiences.

The humanistic approach states that the self is composed of concepts unique to ourselves. The self-
concept includes three components:

Self-worth

Self-worth (or self-esteem) comprises what we think about ourselves. Rogers believed feelings of self-
worth developed in early childhood and were formed from the interaction of the child with the mother
and father.

Self-image

How we see ourselves, which is important to good psychological health. Self-image includes the
influence of our body image on inner personality.

At a simple level, we might perceive ourselves as a good or bad person, beautiful or ugly. Self-image
affects how a person thinks, feels and behaves in the world.

Ideal-self

This is the person who we would like to be. It consists of our goals and ambitions in life, and is dynamic –
i.e., forever changing.

The ideal self in childhood is not the ideal self in our teens or late twenties etc.

Critical Evaluation

Strengths

Humanistic psychologists rejected a rigorous scientific approach to psychology because they saw it as
dehumanizing and unable to capture the richness of conscious experience.

As would be expected of an approach that is ‘anti-scientific’, humanistic psychology is short on empirical

evidence. The approach includes untestable concepts, such as ‘self-actualization’ and ‘congruence’.

However, Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigor into his work by developing Q-sort – an objective
measure of progress in therapy. Q-sort is a method used to collect data on outcome of therapy based on
changes in clients self-concepts before, during, and after therapy in that it is used to measure actual
changes based on differences between self and ideal self.

In many ways, the rejection of scientific psychology in the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s was a backlash to the
dominance of the behaviorist approach in North American psychology. For example, their belief in free-
will is in direct opposition to the deterministic laws of science.
However, the flip side to this is that humanism can gain a better insight into an individual’s behavior
through the use of qualitative methods, such as unstructured interviews.

The approach also helped to provide a more holistic view of human behavior, in contrast to the
reductionist position of science.

Examples

The humanistic approach has been applied to relatively few areas of psychology compared to the other
approaches. Therefore, its contributions are limited to areas such as therapy, abnormality, motivation,
education, and personality.

Client-centered therapy is widely used in health, social work and industry. This therapy has helped many
people overcome difficulties they face in life, which is a significant contribution to improving people’s
quality of life.

Humanistic therapies are based on the idea that psychological disorders are a product of self-deceit.
Humanistic therapists help clients view themselves and their situations with greater insight, accuracy
and acceptance.

The fundamental belief of this type of therapy is that clients can fulfill their full potential as human
beings if they can achieve these goals. Examples of humanistic therapies include client-centered therapy
and Gestalt therapy.

Client-centered therapy aims to increase clients’ self-worth and decrease the incongruence between the
self-concept and the ideal self.

It is a non-directive therapy in which the client is encouraged to discover their own solutions to their
difficulties in an atmosphere that is supportive and non-judgemental and that provides unconditional
positive regard.

It focuses on the present rather than dwell on the past unlike psychoanalysis. This therapy is widely used
e.g. health, education and industry.

Rogers’ view of education saw schools as generally rigid, bureaucratic institutions which are resistant to
change. Applied to education, his approach becomes ‘student-centered learning’ in which children are
trusted to participate in developing and to take charge of their own learning agendas. His attitude to
examinations, in particular, would no doubt, find a most receptive audience in many students:

‘I believe that the testing of the student’s achievements in order to see if he meets some criterion held
by the teacher, is directly contrary to the implications of therapy for significant learning’.

Humanistic ideas have been applied in education with open classrooms. In the open classrooms,
students are the ones who decide how learning should take place (student-centered), they should be
self-directed, they’re free to choose what to study and the teacher merely acts as a facilitator who
provides an atmosphere of freedom and support for individual pursuits.

Limitations
Psychoanalytic criticisms claim that individuals cannot explain their own behavior because the causes are
largely unconscious. Consequently, conscious explanations will be distorted by rationalization or other
defenses.

The behaviourists have been the severest critics of humanistic psychology because of the
phenomenological approach, which they feel, is purely subjective and dualistic.

Thus, according to behaviourists, the theories lack any empirical validity and scientific method is
abandoned in favour of introspection.

A possible reason for the limited impact on academic psychology perhaps lies with the fact that
humanism deliberately adopts a non-scientific approach to studying humans.

The areas investigated by humanism, such as consciousness and emotion, are very difficult to
scientifically study. The outcome of such scientific limitations means that there is a lack of empirical
evidence to support the key theories of the approach.

Another limitation is the humanistic approach is that it is ethnocentric. Many ideas central to humanistic
psychology, such as individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth, would be more readily
associated with individualistic cultures in the Western world, such as the United States.

Collectivist cultures such as India, which emphasize the needs of the group and interdependence, may
not identify so easily with the ideals and values of humanistic psychology.

Therefore, it is possible that the approach would not travel well and is a product of the cultural context
within which it was developed, and an emic approach is more appropriate.

Humanism proposes a positive view of human nature, however, it could be argued that this might not be
very realistic when considering everyday reality, such as domestic violence and genocides.

Furthermore, the approach’s focus on meeting our needs and fulfilling our growth potential reflects an
individualistic, self-obsessed outlook that is part of the problem faced by our society rather than a
solution.

Cognitive Approach in Psychology

Cognitive psychology is the scientific study of the mind as an information processor. It concerns how we
take in information from the outside world, and how we make sense of that information.

Cognitive psychology studies mental processes, including how people perceive, think, remember, learn,
solve problems, and make decisions.

Cognitive psychologists try to build cognitive models of the information processing that occurs inside
people’s minds, including perception, attention, language, memory, thinking, and consciousness.

Cognitive psychology became of great importance in the mid-1950s. Several factors were important in
this:

1. Dissatisfaction with the behaviorist approach in its simple emphasis on external behavior rather
than internal processes.
 2. The development of better experimental methods.

3. Comparison between human and computer processing of information. Using computers allowed
psychologists to try to understand the complexities of human cognition by comparing it with
computers and artificial intelligence.

Theoretical Assumptions

Mediational processes occur between stimulus and response:

The behaviorist approach only studies external observable (stimulus and response) behavior that can be
objectively measured.

They believe that internal behavior cannot be studied because we cannot see what happens in a
person’s mind (and therefore cannot objectively measure it).

However, cognitive psychologists consider it essential to examine an organism’s mental processes and
how these influence behavior.

Cognitive psychology assumes a mediational process occurs between stimulus/input and

response/output.

These are mediational processes because they mediate (i.e., go-between) between the stimulus and the
response. They come after the stimulus and before the response.

Instead of the simple stimulus-response links proposed by behaviorism, the mediational processes of the
organism are essential to understand.

Without this understanding, psychologists cannot have a complete understanding of behavior.

Examples

The mediational (i.e., mental) event could be memory, perception, attention or problem-solving, etc.

 Perception: how we process and interpret sensory information.

 Attention: how we selectively focus on certain aspects of our environment.

 Memory: how we encode, store, and retrieve information.

 Language: how we acquire, comprehend, and produce language.

 Problem-solving and decision-making: how we reason, make judgments,
and solve problems.

 Schemas: Cognitive psychologists assume that people’s prior knowledge,

beliefs, and experiences shape their mental processes.

 For example, the cognitive approach suggests that problem gambling results from maladaptive
thinking and faulty cognitions, which both result in illogical errors.
 Gamblers misjudge the amount of skill involved with ‘chance’ games, so they are likely to
participate with the mindset that the odds are in their favour and that they may have a good
chance of winning.
 Therefore, cognitive psychologists say that if you want to understand behavior, you must
understand these mediational processes.

 Psychology should be seen as a science:

 This assumption is based on the idea that although not directly observable, the mind can be
investigated using objective and rigorous methods, similar to how other sciences study natural
phenomena.
 Controlled experiments
The cognitive approach believes that internal mental behavior can be scientifically studied
using controlled experiments.
It uses the results of its investigations to make inferences about mental processes.
Cognitive psychology uses highly controlled laboratory experiments to avoid the influence
of extraneous variables.
This allows the researcher to establish a causal relationship between the independent and
dependent variables.
These controlled experiments are replicable, and the data obtained is objective (not influenced
by an individual’s judgment or opinion) and measurable. This gives psychology more credibility.

Falsifiability
Falsifiability in psychology refers to the ability to disprove a theory or hypothesis through
empirical observation or experimentation. If a claim is not falsifiable, it is considered
unscientific.
Cognitive psychologists aim to develop falsifiable theories and models, meaning they can be
tested and potentially disproven by empirical evidence.
This commitment to falsifiability helps to distinguish scientific theories from pseudoscientific or
unfalsifiable claims.
Empirical evidence
Cognitive psychologists rely on empirical evidence to support their theories and models.
They collect data through various methods, such as experiments, observations, and
questionnaires, to test hypotheses and draw conclusions about mental processes.
Cognitive psychologists assume that mental processes are not random but are organized and
structured in specific ways. They seek to identify the underlying cognitive structures and
processes that enable people to perceive, remember, and think.
 Cognitive psychologists have made significant contributions to our understanding of mental
processes and have developed various theories and models, such as the multi-store model of
memory, the working memory model, and the dual-process theory of thinking.
Humans are information processors:
The idea of information processing was adopted by cognitive psychologists as a model of how
human thought works.
The information processing approach is based on several assumptions, including:
1. Information is processed by a series of systems: The information processing approach proposes
that a series of cognitive systems, such as attention, perception, and memory, process
information from the environment. Each system plays a specific role in processing the
information and passing it along to the next stage.
2. Processing systems transform information: As information passes through these cognitive
systems, it is transformed or modified in systematic ways. For example, incoming sensory
information may be filtered by attention, encoded into memory, or used to update existing
knowledge structures.
3. Research aims to specify underlying processes and structures: The primary goal of research
within the information processing approach is to identify, describe, and understand the specific
cognitive processes and mental structures that underlie various aspects of cognitive
performance, such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making.

4. Human information processing resembles computer processing: The information processing

approach draws an analogy between human cognition and computer processing. Just as
computers take in information, process it according to specific algorithms, and produce outputs,
the human mind is thought to engage in similar processes of input, processing, and output.

The Role of Schemas

A schema is a “packet of information” or cognitive framework that helps us organize and

interpret information. It is based on previous experience.

Cognitive psychologists assume that people’s prior knowledge, beliefs, and experiences shape
their mental processes. They investigate how these factors influence perception, attention,
memory, and thinking.

Schemas help us interpret incoming information quickly and effectively, preventing us from being
overwhelmed by the vast amount of information we perceive in our environment.

Schemas can often affect cognitive processing (a mental framework of beliefs and expectations
developed from experience). As people age, they become more detailed and sophisticated.

However, it can also lead to distortion of this information as we select and interpret environmental
stimuli using schemas that might not be relevant.
This could be the cause of inaccuracies in areas such as eyewitness testimony. It can also explain
some errors we make when perceiving optical illusions.

Weaknesses

1. Behaviorist Critique

B.F. Skinner criticizes the cognitive approach. He believes that only external stimulus-response
behavior should be studied, as this can be scientifically measured.

Therefore, mediation processes (between stimulus and response) do not exist as they cannot be
seen and measured.

Behaviorism assumes that people are born a blank slate (tabula rasa) and are not born with
cognitive functions like schemas, memory or perception.

Due to its subjective and unscientific nature, Skinner continues to find problems with cognitive
research methods, namely introspection (as used by Wilhelm Wundt).

2. Complexity of mental experiences

Mental processes are highly complex and multifaceted, involving a wide range of cognitive, affective,
and motivational factors that interact in intricate ways.

The complexity of mental experiences makes it difficult to isolate and study specific mental
processes in a controlled manner.

Mental processes are often influenced by individual differences, such as personality, culture, and
past experiences, which can introduce variability and confounds in research.

3. Experimental Methods

While controlled experiments are the gold standard in cognitive psychology research, they may not
always capture real-world mental processes’ complexity and ecological validity.

Some mental processes, such as creativity or decision-making in complex situations, may be difficult
to study in laboratory settings.

Humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers believes that using laboratory experiments by cognitive
psychology has low ecological validity and creates an artificial environment due to the control
over variables.

Rogers emphasizes a more holistic approach to understanding behavior.

The cognitive approach uses a very scientific method that is controlled and replicable, so the results
are reliable.

However, experiments lack ecological validity because of the artificiality of the tasks and
environment, so they might not reflect the way people process information in their everyday lives.

For example, Baddeley (1966) used lists of words to find out the encoding used by LTM.

However, these words had no meaning to the participants, so the way they used their memory in
this task was probably very different from what they would have done if the words had meaning for
them.

This is a weakness, as the theories might not explain how memory works outside the laboratory.

4. Computer Analogy

The information processing paradigm of cognitive psychology views the minds in terms of a
computer when processing information.

However, although there are similarities between the human mind and the operations of a
computer (inputs and outputs, storage systems, and the use of a central processor), the computer
analogy has been criticized.

For example, the human mind is characterized by consciousness, subjective experience, and self-
awareness, which are not present in computers.

Computers do not have feelings, emotions, or a sense of self, which play crucial roles in human
cognition and behavior.

The brain-computer metaphor is often used implicitly in neuroscience literature through terms like
“sensory computation,” “algorithms,” and “neural codes.” However, it is difficult to identify these
concepts in the actual brain.

5. Reductionist

The cognitive approach is reductionist as it does not consider emotions and motivation, which
influence the processing of information and memory. For example, according to the Yerkes-Dodson
law, anxiety can influence our memory.

Such machine reductionism (simplicity) ignores the influence of human emotion and motivation on
the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information.
Early theories of cognitive approach did not always recognize physical (biological psychology) and
environmental (behaviorist approach) factors in determining behavior.

However, it’s important to note that modern cognitive psychology has evolved to incorporate a
more holistic understanding of human cognition and behavior.

Strengths

1. Importance of cognitive factors versus external events

Cognitive psychology emphasizes the role of internal cognitive processes in shaping emotional
experiences, rather than solely focusing on external events.

Beck’s cognitive theory suggests that it is not the external events themselves that lead to
depression, but rather the way an individual interprets and processes those events through their
negative schemas.

This highlights the importance of addressing cognitive factors in the treatment of depression and
other mental health issues.

Social exchange theory (Thibaut & Kelly, 1959) emphasizes that relationships are formed through
internal mental processes, such as decision-making, rather than solely based on external factors.

The computer analogy can be applied to this concept, where individuals observe behaviors (input),
process the costs and benefits (processing), and then make a decision about the relationship
(output).

2. Interdisciplinary approach

While early cognitive psychology may have neglected physical and environmental factors,
contemporary cognitive psychology has increasingly integrated insights from other approaches.

Cognitive psychology draws on methods and findings from other scientific disciplines, such
as neuroscience, computer science, and linguistics, to inform their understanding of mental
processes.

This interdisciplinary approach strengthens the scientific basis of cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychology has influenced and integrated with many other approaches and areas of study
to produce, for example, social learning theory, cognitive neuropsychology, and artificial intelligence
(AI).

3. Real World Applications

Another strength is that the research conducted in this area of psychology very often has
applications in the real world.

By highlighting the importance of cognitive processing, the cognitive approach can explain mental
disorders such as depression.

Beck’s cognitive theory of depression argues that negative schemas about the self, the world, and
the future are central to the development and maintenance of depression.

These negative schemas lead to biased processing of information, selective attention to negative
aspects of experience, and distorted interpretations of events, which perpetuate the depressive
state.

Therapy

By identifying the role of cognitive processes in mental disorders, cognitive psychology has informed
the development of targeted interventions.

Cognitive behavioral therapy aims to modify the maladaptive thought patterns and beliefs that
underlie emotional distress, helping individuals to develop more balanced and adaptive ways of
thinking.

CBT’s basis is to change how people process their thoughts to make them more rational or positive.

Through techniques such as cognitive restructuring, behavioral experiments, and guided discovery,
CBT helps individuals to challenge and change their negative schemas, leading to improvements in
mood and functioning.

Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) has been very effective in treating depression (Hollon & Beck,
1994), and moderately effective for anxiety problems (Beck, 1993).

Issues and Debates

Free will vs. Determinism

The cognitive approach’s position is unclear. It argues that cognitive processes are influenced by
experiences and schemas, which implies a degree of determinism.

On the other hand, cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) operates on the premise that individuals can
change their thought patterns, suggesting a capacity for free will.

Nature vs. Nurture

The cognitive approach takes an interactionist view of the debate, acknowledging the influence of
both nature and nurture on cognitive processes.

It recognizes that while some cognitive abilities, such as language acquisition, may have an innate
component (nature), experiences and learning (nurture) also shape the way information is
processed.

Holism vs. Reductionism

The cognitive approach tends to be reductionist in its methodology, as it often studies cognitive
processes in isolation.

For example, researchers may focus on memory processes without considering the influence of
other cognitive functions or environmental factors.

While this approach allows for more controlled study, it may lack ecological validity, as in real life,
cognitive processes typically interact and function simultaneously.

Idiographic vs. Nomothetic

The cognitive approach is primarily nomothetic, as it seeks to establish general principles and
theories of information processing that apply to all individuals.

It aims to identify universal patterns and mechanisms of cognition rather than focusing on individual
differences.

Socio-cultural model

An Overview of Sociocultural Theory

Psychologist Lev Vygotsky believed that parents, caregivers, peers, and the culture at large are
responsible for developing the brain's higher-order functions. According to Vygotsky, human
development relies on social interaction and, therefore, can differ among cultures.

Sociocultural theory stresses the role that social interaction plays in psychological development. It
suggests that human learning is largely a social process, and that our cognitive functions are formed
based on our interactions with those around us who are "more skilled."2

According to the sociocultural perspective, our psychological growth is guided, in part, by people in
our lives who are in mentor-type roles, such as teachers and parents. Other times, we develop our
values and beliefs through our interactions within social groups or by participating in cultural events.
Sociocultural theory focuses on how mentors and peers influence individual learning, but also on
how cultural beliefs and attitudes affect how learning takes place.

The Zone of Proximal Development

An important concept in sociocultural theory is known as the zone of proximal development.

According to Vygotsky, this is "the distance between the actual development level (of the learner) as
determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined
through problem solving under adult guidance, or in collaboration with more capable peers." 5

Essentially, it includes all of the knowledge and skills that a person cannot yet understand or
perform independently but can learn with guidance.

As children are allowed to stretch their skills and knowledge, often by observing someone who is
slightly more advanced than they are, they are able to progressively extend this zone.

How does this idea translate into real-world learning? Fortunately, experts and researchers suggest
that learning under the guidance of more knowledgeable others can be beneficial. For example,
research suggests that learning in the zone of proximal development can help increase skills and
knowledge.6

Other research has shown that teaching students in their zone of proximal development can be
particularly important if they work in challenging environments and perform complex tasks.

Vygotsky vs. Piaget: Key Differences

Jean Piaget was a psychologist and genetic epistemologist known for his theory of cognitive
development, which outlines the four stages in which children learn. Since they are both theories of
learning, Vygotsky's theory is often compared to Piaget's.

Vygotsky's Theory

 Social factors influence development

 Development can differ between cultures

Piaget's Theory

 Childhood interactions and explorations influence development

 Development is largely universal

How does Vygotsky's sociocultural theory differ from Piaget's theory of cognitive development?
First, while Piaget's theory stressed that a child's interactions and explorations impact development,
Vygotsky asserted the essential role that social interactions play.8

Another important difference between the two is that Piaget's theory suggests that development is
largely universal and Vygotsky asserts that it can differ between cultures.8 The course of
development in European culture, for example, might be different than in Asian culture.

Because cultures can vary so dramatically, Vygotsky's sociocultural theory suggests that both the
course and content of intellectual development are not as universal as Piaget believed.

Some suggest that these two theories of human development differ greatly due to their founders'
different upbringings and that Vygotsky had strong cultural ties while Piaget had a lonely childhood

Applying Vygotsky's Theory

Sociocultural theory has gained popularity within certain settings and not just among researchers
and theorists. Here's how this theory can be implemented in the real world in ways that can benefit
learners.

In the Classroom

Understanding the zone of proximal development can be helpful for teachers. 10 In classroom
settings, teachers may first assess students to determine their current skill level. Educators can then
offer instruction that stretches the limits of each child's capabilities.

At first, the student may need assistance from an adult or a more knowledgeable peer. Eventually,
their zone of proximal development will expand.

Teachers can help promote this expansion by:

 Planning and organizing classroom instruction and lessons. For example, the teacher might
organize the class into groups where less-skilled children are paired with students who have a
higher skill level.

 Using hints, prompts, and direct instruction to help kids improve their ability levels.

 Scaffolding, where the teacher provides specific prompts to move the child progressively
forward toward a goal.

In Socialization and Play

Vygotsky's theory also stressed the importance of play in learning.11 Vygotsky believed that through
playing and imagining, children can further stretch their conceptual abilities and knowledge of the
world.

In play, the child is always above his average age, above his daily behavior; play contains all
developmental tendencies in a condensed form.

— LEV VYGOTSKY, FROM "PLAY AND ITS ROLE IN THE MENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHILD"

Teachers and parents can use this concept by providing children with plenty of opportunities
for play experiences. Types of play that can foster learning include imaginary play, role-playing,
games, and reenactments of real events.12 Such activities help promote the growth of abstract
thought.

Takeaways

Although Vygotsky's sociocultural theory only gained credence after his death, research has helped
validate the role that those around us play in shaping how we develop as individuals.

Even though not everyone agrees as to the specifics of this development, as outlined in Piaget vs.
Vygotsky, the sociocultural perspective does contribute to this understanding. It has also influenced
other modern theories of human development, such as those that relate to cognitive growth 13 and
education.

Interpersonal theory

Interpersonal theory focuses on the interactions, relationships, and communication between

individuals. It explores how people’s behaviors, thoughts, and emotions are influenced by their
interactions with others, as well as how these interactions shape their self-concept and identity. This
theory emphasizes the importance of social connections, attachment patterns, and the impact of
interpersonal dynamics on mental and emotional well-being.

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