COURSE TITLE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.0 INTRODUCTION:

As you may have noticed, the word research is used in every day speech to cover a broad
spectrum of meaning. This is why some of the times students get confused by the term. But you
will learn and make use of it in its specialized denotation. This is because, in everything we do
and everywhere we go we find out that our knowledge is incomplete and problems are waiting
to be solved. We have to address the void in our knowledge and try to resolve those unresolved
problems we encounter by asking relevant questions and seeking answers and solutions to
them. Research therefore provides a technique for obtaining these answers and solutions. This
is obtained through inquiringly studying evidences we obtain through scientific methods.
Your first unit in this course will take you through the concept of research, characteristics, types
and purposes to enable you make up your mind on what research as a technical subject is all
about.

2.0 OBJECTIVES:
At this end of this unit, you should be able to Describe the meaning of research Explain the
characteristics of research Discuss the types of research
Explain the purpose of research

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 THE CONCEPT OF RESEARCH
Let us start this section by saying that research is the way in which we acquire dependable and
useful information about everyday life process. Research may be broadly described as any
systematic endeavors or striving towards the understanding, on perceiving certain complex
situational problem of more than immediate personal concern and stated in a problematic form.
(Heros, 1960). Travers (1969) has described research as an activity directed towards the
development of an organized body of scientific knowledge about the events with which human
beings are concerned. The goal is to discover general principles or interpretations of behaviour,
to explain, predict and control events in everyday life situations.
Now tell me, when you spend the whole day or days in the library making notes from textbooks
and other publications, when you visit many websites through your computer to collect
information or when you rummage through available sources to retrieve some information, are
you doing research? Some people may claim they are doing research. Let us see other
definitions by other scholars. For instance leedy (1997) defines research as the systematic
process of collecting and analyzing information (data) in order to increase our understanding of
the phenomenon with which we are concerned or interested. Leedy (1997) has gone further to
clarify for us what research is classified with and what research is NOT. Let us start with what
research is NOT. According to him research is not:
Mere information gathering
Mere transformation of facts from one location to another Merely rummaging information and
A catch word used to get information.

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Leedy (1997) tells us that research is a process through which we attempt to achieve
systematically, and with the support of data, the answer to a question, the resolution of a
problem, or a greater understanding of a phenomenon. This process has eight distinct
characteristics. These are:
Research originates with a question or problem: Everywhere around us is filled with many
answered questions and unresolved problems. When we look around, we observe things that
make us wonder and to ask questions. These questions may start to spark igniting chains of
reactions which terminate in the research process. An inquisitive mind is the beginning of
research.
Research requires a clear articulation of a goal: It is critical to have a clear and unambiguous
statement of the problem. This statement gives you an exercise in intellectual honesty. The
ultimate goals of the research should be given in a grammatically complete sentence which is
precise and clear.
Research requires a specific plan of procedure: You should not hope that the data necessary to
solve the problem would somehow fortuitously come up. You have to have rather a planned
attack, a search – and – discover mission explicitly planned or designed in advance.
Research usually divides the principal problem into more manageable sub- problems: A whole
is made up of parts. This is a natural law universally accepted. So when you think about your
principal goal in research, try to observe this goal precept.
Research is guided by specific research questions, problems or hypothesis: These guide you
and direct you on what to do and how to do it in order to arrive at the solution to the problem.
Research accepts certain critical assumptions: These must be self-evident truths. These
assumptions must be valid in order to make the research to proceed. You must let others know
what you assume with respect to your study.
Research requires the collection and interpretation of data: You need to collect appropriate data,
organize them in a meaningful way so that they can be analyzed and interpreted.
Research is cyclical or helical: The process of research follows a cycle. It begins simply and
follows logical developmental steps. Before we leave this section, let us touch briefly on another
definition of research by Best and kalin (1995). This definition is a more comprehensive and
operational definition. It sees research as the systematic and objective analysis and recording of
controlled observations that may lead to the development of generalizations, principles or
theories, resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control of events. Now let us look at the
characteristics of research to classify this definition.

Research emphasizes the development of generalizations, principles or theories that will

be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence. Research
demands accurate observation and description.
Research involves gathering new data from primary or firsthand sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
Research is often characterized by carefully designed procedures that apply rigorous
analysis.
Research requires expertise.

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Research strives to be objective and logical, applying every possible test to validate the
procedures employed, the data collected and the conclusions reached.
Research involves the quest for answers to unresolved problems. Research is characterized by
patient and unhurried activity.
Research is carefully recorded and reported. Research requires courage sometimes.

Looking at the definitions and characteristics of research in this section, you must note that for
you to be a research worker, you should be a scholarly imaginative person of the highest
integrity, who is willing or spend long hours painstakingly seeking for the truth.

3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH.

The major characteristics of any research are; Objectivity, precision, design and verifiability.
3.2.1 Objectivity.
In an ideal situation, a research is beyond the subjective bias of the researcher. As a
researcher, you have to make deliberate efforts to eliminate all personal preferences. You
should resist the temptation to seek only such data which support your hypotheses or your line
of taught. In a scientific research, emphasis is on testing the hypothesis not to prove it. You
have to willingly suspend your personal judgment in order to allow the data and logic to lead
independently to a sound conclusion. If you want to achieve objectivity in your investigation, you
have to use standardized research instruments, choose appropriate research design and
analytical tools and also ensure the dependability of data.
3.2.2 Precision
When you conduct a good research and write the report but your readers do not understand
what you have done, you may have succeeded in wasting your time and efforts. Every research
should use a technical language in order to convey the exact meaning to the readers. Such
research languages include validity, reliability, random sampling variables etc. The most precise
expression in quantitative research is the mathematical equation or statistical finding which
explains or represents the truth. But in qualitative research, precision is achieved through words
rather than numbers. So you have to use a very precise language to describe your study
accurately. This is done so that the study can be replicated or the results correctly used.
3.2.3 Design
If you want to have a good research, you must have a very good and systematic design.
This implies that every scientific inquiry will generally undergo such steps as: -
Definition of the problem Statement of the hypothesis Collection and analysis of data
Testing and confirmation or rejection of hypothesis. Reporting of the results.
Any research, which has no orderly design, cannot be replicated for verification.
3.2.4 Verifiability
When you conduct a research, you write your report. This presents the research design and the
findings to the professional community. From this point other researchers and scholars will study
the report, analyze it in order to confirm or reject the outcomes. This tells you that research is a
social enterprise. Its information is open for public scrutiny. Verification is related to objectivity
and precision. It is only through further investigation or replication of the study can the results of

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any study be confirmed, revised or rejected. It is also through this process that a body of new
knowledge is developed and new questions identified. Verifiability can be achieved through two
different approaches.
Analyzing the same data on the same sample through alternative analytical tools or statistical
methods.
Replicating the study on a different sample.

3.3. TYPES OF RESEARCH

Research in general can be classified in many different ways. If we want to classify research
based on its goal or objective, then we think of two major types. These are fundamental or basic
research and applied research.
3.3.1. Fundamental Research:
The main purpose of these types of research is to obtain empirical data which can be used to
formulate, expand or evaluate a theory. It is not actually directed in design or purpose towards
the solution of practical problems. The main aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge without
the intention of having practical applications. However, the results may be applied eventually to
practical problems that have social values. Let us use hotel management as an example. You
will see that all the advances made in this area are dependent upon basic researches in foods
and nutrition, catering and hospitalities. In the same way, the progress made in business
administration practices has been related to progress in the discovery of economics theories,
administrative theories and management theories. But you have to bear in mind that the primary
concern of basic research is to create knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge. Its design is
not in any way hampered by considerations of special usefulness of the findings.

3.3.2. Applied Research:

Unlike basic research, this type is directed towards the solution to an immediate, specific and
practical problem. It is the type of research which you can conduct in relation to actual problems
and under the conditions in which they are found in practice. You can use the applied research
to solve problems at the appropriate level of complexity. Take for instance in the area of
business management, or administration or even your own area of specialization, you can
depend on basic research for discovering the more general laws of management or
administration, but you have to employ applied research to determine how these laws operate in
the real situation if scientific changes are to be affected in our lives, this approach will continue
to be very essential.
At this juncture, you have to note that there is no sharp line of demarcation between basic and
applied research. This is because applications of theory help in solving practical problems. You
always apply the theories of administration or organization in your business management. On
the other hand, basic research can also depend upon the findings of applied research to
complete the theoretical formulations for example an organizational experiment could shed
some light on a learning theory. At the same time, observations in a practical situation serve to
test theories and may lead to the formulation of new theories.

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When research is classified according to methodology, if can also be classified according to
Creswell (1994) into two broad areas. These are quantitative and qualitative approaches.

3.3.3. Quantitative and Qualitative Research:

According to Leedy (1995) Quantitative research is an inquiry into a social or human problem,
based on testing a theory composed of variables measured with numbers or figures and
analyzed with statistical procedures in order to determine whether the predictive generalizations
of the theory hold true. He also defines Qualitative research is an enquiry process of
understanding a social or human problem, based on building a complex, holistic picture formed
with words reporting detailed views of information, and conducted in a natural setting. Whereas
quantitative research, sometimes referred to as the traditional, the positivist, the experimental or
the empiricist approach, is typically used to answer questions about the relationships among
measured variables with the purpose of explaining, predicting and controlling phenomena; the
qualitative research is used to an answer questions about the nature of phenomena with the
purpose of describing and understanding the phenomena from the participant‟s points of view.
The qualitative research is sometimes referred to as the interpretative, the naturalistic, the
constructivist or the postpositive approach.

3.3.4. Other Categorizations:

These are other classifications of research based mainly on their specific method and goals.
The different types of research are:-
Action research: - A type of applied research that focuses on finding a solution to local problem
in a local setting
Case and field study research: - A type of qualitative research in which data are gathered
directly from individual or social or community groups in their natural environment for the
purpose of studying interactions, attitudes or characteristics of individuals or groups.
Correlational research: - A statistical investigation of the relationship between one factor and
one or more other factors. It looks at the surface relationship but does not necessarily probe for
casual reasons underlying them
Descriptive or Normative Survey: - A survey method used to describe the incidence, frequency
and distribution of certain characteristics of a population.
Ethnography: - A type of qualitative inquiry that involves an in-depth study of an intact cultural
group in a natural setting.
Expost facto or Evaluation research: - A type of research which observes existing causal
comparative searches back research and through the data for plausible causal factors.
Grounded theory research: - A type of qualitative research studies that aim at deriving theory
through the use of multiple stages of data collection and interpretation.
Historical research: - A type of research that attempts to solve certain problems arising out of
historical context through gathering and examining of relevant data.
Phenomenological research: - A type of qualitative research method that attempts to understand
participants‟ perspectives and views of social realities.
Quasi-experimental research: - An experimental research that is not based on randomization
and control.

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True-experimental research: - An experimental study based a random assignment of subjects to
groups and the administration of possibly different treatments followed by observations or
measurements to assess the effect of the treatments. (Leedy. 1995)

3.4. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

From what you have read so far in this unit you can simply say that the purpose of research is
the development of theories by discovering broad generalizations or principles. It becomes
evident therefore that a researcher deals with a wide range of associations, from concrete day
to day activities and problems to a philosophical level of search for truth. We can then capture in
a hierarchical or taxonomic fashion the main purpose of research as: - training, problem solving
and search of truth or knowledge generation.
3.4.1 Training in Research.
By going through this course, you are subjecting yourself to be trained on how to conduct
researches. Training takes different shapes. It depends on whether the project you are
undertaking is for the award of degree of Bachelors, Masters or Doctoral in research
methodology. Many of you who are taking this course or taking any Bachelors degree
programme are not trained on how to conduct research. You may have been working in
educational institutions or even out side the educational system, you may be working as a
business consultant, a producer, a marketer, an advertiser, a tourism guide or an hotelier, you
need to lave this training. If you want to conduct a research project in a scientific manner, you
need training in research methods. This curse is meant to provide you with the theoretical
background for year project.
3.4.2 Problem solving.
This involves diagnosing and solving the problems in the system. You know your own system,
banking and finance, tourism, Business management, hotel management among others. While
we talk of problem solving, it is necessary you develop a more comprehensive view of it. It
means a realistic understanding of a situation on the basis of data and statistics. Let us take the
case of risk management in financial accounting. You may undertake to study the difference in
the application of different aspects of risk management in the accounting system of the banks.
These days most countries of the world invest considerable amount of money on the provision
of electronic transactions-e- banking, e-payment, e-commerce, e-everything. You can take
studies on the various aspects of the electronic business and utilization and show the differential
out these using electronics and these who do not. What we are saying is that a series of studies
can go into the diagnosis in order to develop better understanding of the practices in a system.
You may also set out studies to actually get into experimenting with an innovative solution.
3.4.3 Search for Truth.
This is the biggest challenge in research. A research in search of truth is most of the times
classified as pure research. It is the ability to generalize and create knowledge. Such
generalizations are derived from occurrences in repeated instances. Generalizations are drawn
primarily on two bases. These are repeated observations in various possible situations and
applications of statistical designs where the variables are statistically controlled. Generalizations
are drawn through tests of significance, level of confidence and such others types of analyses.
Have you heard about statements like significant at 0.05 or 0.01 levels? These are typical

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research statements, which basically promise that such and such instance, will happen in 95%
or 99% of the cases, and to that extent the phenomenon is generalizable.
Your project research which is the prime focus of this course is unlikely to achieve the
sophisticated level of search for truth. But it is quite possible for you to undertake a study that
could come close to generalization through application of statistical models and methodologies;
such research will be based on quantitative techniques. However, whether you are using
qualitative or quantitative method, the most important emphasis is on the use of scientific
approach to research. This scientific approach has series of steps, which may vary from one
author to another. These steps are:
Certain phenomena are observed
A problem situation which develops therein, is noted and clarified A more or less formal
hypothesis is derived
A design developed to test the hypothesis The hypothesis is verified or refuted and
The results are subjected to farther tests and refinements.
The conclusions of a research are integrated into the existing knowledge of the subject. This
process involves such subsidiary steps as:
Review of research of experiences Manipulation of factors Measurement of the quantities
Defining of variable and
Analysis and interpretation of data

UNIT 2.0: SKILLS OF SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Scientific Method & Activities,
3.2 Facts And Theories
3.3 Hypothesis And Theory
3.4 Purpose Of Theory
3.5 Developing A Theory
3.6 Level Of Theorizing

1.0 INTRODUCTION.
In the last unit, you learnt that one of the purposes of a research is search for the truth. You also
learnt that there are basic steps, which you can take in resolving problems. These steps include
problem identification, hypothesis formulation, observation and collection of data, the
quantitative and qualitative analysis of data and drawing conclusions. You have to note that
scientific method of thinking or investigation is considered a useful approach in problem solving.
It remains the informal application of these basic steps in this unit, you will learn more about
scientific inquiry in the research process.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end this unit, you should be able to
• Discus scientific investigation
• Explain facts and theories
• Differentiate between hypothesis and theory
• List the purpose of theory
• Describe the levels of theorizing

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1. THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD AND ACTIVITIES
Let we start this section by saying that the underline goal of the scientific investigation or
method of thinking is rooted in the broad goal of science. Those of you who have studied
science in one course or the ether will know that the broad goal of science is to understand
natural phenomena. To understand these natural phenomena, three basic steps are recognized.
These basic steps are:-
Accurate description
Explaining the specified conditions necessary to obtain the phenomenon in order to attain easy
prediction of the phenomenon
Organizing the available evidence supporting the phenomenon in order to obtain an overall
picture of the relationships surrounding all the components or variables relating to the
phenomenon under consideration.Now, in order to achieve the goal of understanding the
phenomenon, the scientific method rests squarely on some basic assumptions.
Research practices shape their values based on assumptions. In the same way scientific
inquiries have some assumptions which are represented by certain Key words. These are order,
determinism, parsimony and empiricism.
The assumption of order: - This states that nature is ordered and not haphazard. All the events
in nature follow each other in regular sequences. According to wood (1977) the assumption of
order means that there is an overall pattern or scheme or order of events and it is discernible.
The assumption of determinism: - This states that events have courses, determinants or
antecedents that can be detected. This means that events in nature are related and their
patterns of relationships can be detected. That is to say that the relationship among events can
be discovered.
The assumption of parsimony: - This state that the universe is organized and an explanation of
natural phenomena should be simple and should be preferred to complex explanations. You can
see that this is the foundation of the scientific research practice. It talks about general
explanations to problem over explanations that are appropriate only to a limited range of
phenomena. This assumption is a dictate of what science should be that is, in science you
should generalize the results of an experimental investigation to cover what are real on other
similar situations. You have to note that the extent to which the generalization of your research
findings is possible depends in part on the area of research considered.
The assumption of Empiricism: - this states that science investigations must be systematic and
controllable. They should be empirical in using observable events in testing theories. The
assumption as you can see refers to a reliance on field demonstration, observation and
experiment. It insists that scientific investigations or researchers must avoid the common errors

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of selecting evidence that is consistent with their position or points of view. This is because it
has been noticed that some people select and use only the type of data that can support their
views. This is not very good. Any scientific description must be such that will allow one to predict
what happens in a given circumstances and to be sure that if given particular circumstances
again, the same thing will always happen. This is the hall mark of scientific investigation. It is
called Replication.
3.1.1 Scientific Activities:-
In the foregoing section, we have been discussing the scientific method of research. Although, it
looks a bit abstract but it is the truth for which we are doing the research. Now, let us go further
to list the sources of knowledge as (1) custom and tradition, (2) authority, (3) personal
experience, (4) syllogistic reasoning from self evident proposition and scientific inquiry. You can
see that we have already made case for the scientific inquiry as a perfect method of searching
for knowledge or what men call the truth. Man uses the scientific thinking as a source of
evidence, in his current intellectual equipment for solving the mysteries of life and nature. In this
context, and in your research efforts, your desire should be to search for the truth, to establish
the truth and provide evidence for the truth. This is what we call EMPIRICISM
The other sources of knowledge have with the passage of time been discarded as reliable
method of generating evidence for truth. This is because of the gross inaccuracies associated
with their usage.
In other to make research work more scientific, all sources of errors and inaccuracies must be
avoided. Therefore the following steps of activities making up the process of scientific thinking
employed in research work must followed logically.
These include:-
Location and definition of a problem cast in a topic statement and a question from.
Survey of past experiences with the problem, previous investigations and already recorded and
available data on the topic to get ideas about past and possible future solution and method of
investigation.
The formulation of hypotheses to represent tentative solution to the problem under investigation,
and to be employed as a guide in the collection of additional data.
The mental elaboration of the hypotheses. That is checking for agreement with facts, verifiability
and logical consistency.
The collection of additional data (if necessary) through a new appeal to experience by means of
measurements, observation and experimentation methods.
The analysis, classification and summary of data collection for the formulation of new
generalizations representing observed uniformity, explanatory principles or scientific laws.
3.2. FACTS AND THEORIES

Scientific enquiry starts with facts and then moves towards theorizing. To make the facts useful,
they must be organized. So you now see that the primary purpose of the scientific method is to
develop a mechanism for organizing the facts as they accumulate and become meaningful from
the stand point of their objectives. Scientists gather facts through empirical investigations. The
accumulation of these facts brings about the need for investigation, organization and
classification in order to make the isolated findings meaningful.

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When isolated facts are integrated into a conceptual scheme, they promote a better
understanding of their nature and significance. Science must remain close to facts. These facts
should be put in proper scientific perspective. Therefore, you must identify and explain
significant relationships in the data. So theories must be formulated. You may be wondering
what a theory is.
It is a set of interrelated constructs or concepts, definitions and propositions that present a
systematic view of a phenomenon by specifying the relationship among variables, with the
purpose of predicting and explaining the phenomenon. (Kerlinger 1973). A theory knits together
the results of observations in order to enable Scientifics make general statements about
variables and relationship among variables.
3.3. HYPOTHESIS AND THEORY
A hypothesis can be used to explain a small number of facts and the relationship among them.
Generalization is a hypothesis based on broader phenomena. Theory is used to explain even
more facts and their relationships. Theories themselves range from the simple to the more
sophisticated. Finally, we have laws which have the greatest scope and generality. At this
juncture, you have to note that theory plays a very important role in research. A theory has to be
amended or abandoned when the discovery of new facts can no longer accommodate it. Some
theories, especially those generated through these means we have enumerated above, do not
lead to „eternal truth‟.
They should be looked upon as useful conceptual frameworks which are adequate for present
purpose or a given situation. Therefore, every theory is subject to modification as and when we
have new facts and evidence that contradict the generalizations made earlier on.
3.4. PURPOSE OF THEORY:
A theory serves several purposes in the development of science. These purposes include:
It Summarized and puts the existing knowledge in a particular area in order. This permits a
deeper understanding of data and translates empirical findings into a more easily retainable and
adaptable form.
It provides a provisional explanation for observe events and relationships. Variables which are
related are identified. The natures of their relationships are also identified. If you take one theory
of learning as an example, you will notice that it could explain the relationship between learning
speed and efficiency and such other variables as motivation, reward, practice etc.
It permits the prediction of the occurrence of phenomena and enables the investigator to
postulate and eventually, to discover unknown phenomena. Theory stimulates the development
of new knowledge by providing the lead for further inquiry.
3.5. DEVELOPING A THEORY
It is very important for you to know that good theories are not born out of imagination. They do
not originate merely through arm chair reflection. A theory is built upon collected facts. You as
an investigator do some searches, make intelligent guesses as to how the fact are ordered, you
are missing ideas or link and put forward a hypothesis. You then deduce facts which are
consistent or otherwise with the deductions.
You build a wider generalization or conceptual framework on more facts. Eventually, you outline
a theory. Theories are solidily based on evidence. They are very important practical tools which
enable us to advance our knowledge still faster.

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You have to note that once a theoretical framework has been elaborated we know what fact to
look for to confirm or to deny the theory. We also have a conceptual framework inside with
which our evidence can be tested. Theories involve such terms, which refer to matter that
cannot be directly observed. These terms of theory or theoretical statements are sometime
referred to as constructs. For instance, gravity and gravitation are theoretical terms, which
cannot be observed directly, but their effect can be observed. Another example is the
motivational factor in behaviour which many learning theories refer to. You can see that
motivation is not directly
observable. It is a theoretical term which we may refers to as a construct. This term implies that
it is a construction of the scientist‟s imagination.

3.6. LEVELS OF THEORIZING

In the behavioral sciences, a product of all researchers is a set of conclusion which involves
theoretical terms. Some of these conclusions may be at a sophisticated level of theorizing while
others may be at a low level of theorizing. Psychologists agree that it is better to keep theorizing
down to the levels that involve a minimal use of abstract terms. You have to remember this
when you do some theorizing. There are six levels of theorizing.
Level 1: Hypothesis formation: - if you are going to use any hypothesis as a basis for your
research, such hypothesis must go beyond the fact on which it is based. You need to establish
the existing state of affair. Most of the surveys are conducted for this purpose. You may conduct
a survey of what customers of a hotel think of a particular aspect of the services provided for
them, how much time is spent by your customers in watching television etc

Level 2. Elementism: -
Primitive forms of classification in terms of some significant set of ideas are example of theories
at this level.
In the case of hotel management, such classification of supervisory abilities of hotel stuff or
accounting abilities derived from factor analysis or the classification of hotel acts that may be
the result of extensive observation in hotel management would come under the level of
elementism.

Level 3. Descriptive theories and taxonomies: - when you formulate descriptive theories and
taxonomies, you are operating at a more complex level than mere classifications. A hierarchal
categorization of different cases varying from the most simple to the most complex, example is
the Bloom‟s taxonomy of cognitive behaviour. These are under this level.
Level 4. Classification: If you want to develop any kind of useful classification system, there
must be a set of theoretical ideas to underline the classification. For instance, the classification
of animals became significant only after it was realized that the species could be fitted into a
system in which the evolutionary relationships among animals became the basis for
classification.
LEVEL 5 & 6. Postulates and Theories:
The higher levels: - here we have the highest levels of theorizing. They can only be observed in
the physical sciences. Here, a theory consists of a set of basic statements called axioms of

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theory, which tell us what the theory is all about. This axiomatic statements or postulates include
primitive terms which are initiatively understood and cannot be otherwise completely defined.
If we want to distinguish between levels 5 and 6, we will say that level 5 is reserved for
incomplete theories, while levels 6 theories represent the ultimate in scientific formulation.
However, both of them represent the closest approximations to what we may call the accurate
description of universal laws.

UNIT 3.0 METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION IN RESEARCH - 1

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Data collection in research
3.2. Types of data used in research investigation
3.3. Questionnaire method of data collection
3.4. Characteristics of a questionnaire
3.5. Construction of a questionnaire
3.6. Types of questionnaires
3.7. How to improve questionnaire items
3.8. Administration of the questionnaire

1.0 INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you studied terms like facts, theories, hypothesis, Law etc. You have seen that
you use data to test hypotheses. In a typical research situation, you are expected to collect data
from the field. This implies that you collect information from people who are called subjects or
respondents. You can use the information to test your hypotheses as tentative answers to the
problems or questions of your study.
In this unit, we shall look at data collection in research, from where we move on to the various
techniques for data collection.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain the term data in research
Explain the types of data Describe the questionnaire
List the characteristics of a questionnaire
Construct a typical research questionnaire

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1. DATA COLLECTION IN RESEARCH
Data can be regarded as information. It can be given out or taken for the purpose of making
interferences in research. In this case, it may include numerical or statistical results or figures
such as percentages. It may also include verbal materials like newspaper accounts, scholastic
essay etc. we can therefore say that any collection of verbal or numerical information from which

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inferences or conclusions can be drawn or analyzed is regarded as data. It means that data can
be quantitative or qualitative.
Any information which comes in numbers, figures, measures or quantities is said to be
quantitative. Where as any information which comes as a verbal description of attribute or
characteristics is regarded as qualitative. So when you have evidences obtained from other
research studies, observations made from the field and laboratory settings, information
extracted from records and documents, score collected from tests of various types etc; you say
you have data.
You can conveniently describe data collection then, as a research activity involving the process
of gathering relevant information with reference to the stated hypotheses, variables and design.
3.2. TYPES OF DATA USED IN RESEARCH INVESTIGATIONS
There are basically two categories data collected and used in research. These, according to
Gupte (1979) are: - Primary data and Secondary data. Let us touch on them briefly.
3.2.1 Primary data
These are information, facts or statistical materials which you as a researcher originate for the
purpose of the inquiry on hand. This is sometimes popularly called the “First hand information”
or “information from the horses mouth”. They are referred to as eye witness account of an event
or phenomenon. Such information is extracted from the actual participants themselves. It may
be through oral interviews or discussions or through written diaries, minutes, proceedings,
pictures, objects etc.
3.2.2 Secondary data
These refer to information, facts or statistical materials which are not originated by you as the
researcher or investigator. These are materials from someone else‟s records or other
documents like books, journals, newspaper reports and other research works that may be got
from the libraries. In the simplest form, secondary data are not first hand information. They are
reported information if you refer to the inquiry and comparism of the cost of living in the two
different societies above, you will notice that instead of going to the people themselves to obtain
information as in primary data, you may depend on research reports from journals, newspapers
and magazines: you may also resort to obtaining other records showing the peoples
expenditure on living. These data are called Secondary data
3.3. QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA
Let us start this section by letting you know that any time you want to collect data. You will need
to consider some factors before you choose the suitable method. These factors include:
Purpose, problem and hypothesis of the study Time required for the study
The accuracy desired of the study Funds available for the study Other facilities available and
The nature of the person conducting the research in terms of the level of training.
The questionnaire is generally a form containing some questions which the respondents fill out
without any help or comment from the researcher. It enables data to be collected from large
samples. However, if you decide to use it, you must make sure it is very carefully constructed.
A questionnaire is used when factual information is desired (Best and Khan 1995). When
opinions rather than facts are desired; an opinionates or attitude scale is used. According to
Okpata, Onuoha and Oyedeji (1993) a questionnaire is a self reporting instrument that has
received a good use in educational, researches, psychological and social science researches,
programme evaluation etc. it is described as the most common type of research instrument. It is

13
therefore very important that you as a researcher, master how to construct a questionnaire. This
will enable you develop an appropriate instrument, especially when you cannot lay hand on
already existing instrument that are valid and reliable. Like the test, questionnaires are
constructed for specific purposes. It is necessary for you to think of a specific study and design
before determining whether it is appropriate for you to use a questionnaire.
3.4. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD QUESTIONNAIRE
The characteristics of a good questionnaire are: -
A questionnaire deals with a significant topic. The topic or problem should be such that any
respondent will recognize it as important enough to warrant spending his time on. Therefore, the
significance should be clearly and carefully stated either on the questionnaire or in the
accompanying letter.
It seeks only such information which cannot be obtained from other sources like financial
reports, census data etc.
It is as short as possible, and only long enough to get the essential data. Do not make the
instrument very long. This is because most people find it time wasting. Most of the times, long
questionnaires find their ways into the waste basket. Therefore, make the questionnaire
response clear and very easy to complete. Keep the writing required to a minimum.
IV. It is attractive in appearance. It is neatly arranged and clearly printed or produced.
Instructions are clear and complete. Important terms are defined. Each item deals with a single
idea and is worded as simply and possible.
3.4. CONSTRUCTION OF A QUESTIONNAIRE

According to Okpala, et al (1995) a researcher is faced with respondents who have great
amount of information that could go untapped unless the questionnaire items are valid and
reliable enough to elicit the required information. Henderson et al (1978) suggested eight steps
to which the process of developing and using a questionnaire can be divided. These are;
Identifying the programmes objectives and specific information to be obtained. Select a
response format
Identifying the frame of reference of the respondents. Writing the items/questions
Preparing a data summary sheet
Critiquing the questions, trying them out and revising them Assembling the questionnaires
Administering the questionnaires

3.5. TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

There are two main types of questionnaires based on two basic types of question formats.
These are closed ended questions and open-ended questions. Closed ended questions and
those that provide respondent with fixed set of alternatives from which they are to choose. For
instance, the response format of multiple choice-items and scales are all closed-ended.
Where as open-ended questions are those questions to which the respondents write their own
response, as it is in an essay examination questions. Now lets us look at the two main types of
questionnaires.
3.6.1 The Closed – Ended Questionnaire
It can also be called restricted or closed form type. All questionnaire instruments that call for
short, check-mark responses belong to this category. For example, you may be asked to mark

14
yes or no, check an item from a list of suggested responses. Let us give some specific
examples.
Yes or No type: - Accountancy is a difficult subject. Yes/No
Short response type: - The science subjects that deals with living things is……………….
Marking from a list of suggested response.
All hotel management students should offer accountant courses. Strongly agree, Agree, Neutral,
Disagree, Strong disagree.
The Federal Palace Hotel is a Hotel. 5-star, 4-star, 3-star, 2-star, one-
star
Ranking: - Kindly rank the options in your order of importance. Why did you choose to study
Hotel management?
Advice from friends Reputation of the programme Expense factor
Professional choice
Availability of job opportunities Others (specify)
3.6.2 The Open – Ended Questionnaire:
This can also be called unrestricted questionnaire or free response type. It demands that the
subjects respond in their own words. Look at this question again. Why did you choose to study
Hotel Management? You can see that no clue is given here. The advantage is that open form
provides for greater depth of response. The respondents may reveal their frame of reference
and sometimes the reasons for their responses. It has such disadvantages as: very low returns
due to greater efforts needed on the part of the respondents in filling the questionnaire. Again,
the items can be difficult to interpret, tabulate or summarize in the research report. The
questions can generally take this form
List the causes of ………
What are your opinions about?
How do you feel about ?
What do you think about ?

3.7. HOW TO IMPROVE QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS?

The questionnaire is the basic data gathering instrument. It is therefore very important that the
items are worded carefully. You know that most questionnaires do not provide opportunities for
the clarification of questions to the respondents. Again any ambiguity in the questions
introduces sources of substantial errors. You should therefore follow these steps to improve on
your questionnaires.
All Statements or question should be clear, simple and direct. Each item should express only
one idea. No complex statements like; Open and Distance Learning mode of education is very
good, everybody should therefore support it. You can see that this is not a good item. This is
because it is possible some respondents would agree with the first part but disagree with the
second part or vice-versa.
Every slang terminology or technical jargon should be avoided. Otherwise, it should be carefully
defined or explained.
Define, qualify or explain all terms that could be misinterpreted

15
Beware, and if possible avoid double negative. Underline negative terms and phrases for clarity.
e.g. Discounts and bonuses should not be given to customers who do not patronize the hotel on
regular basis. Which of these is not a term in catering?
Always avoid inadequate alternatives. e.g. Married… Yes/No. You can see that the
options are inadequate. Widowed, Separated or Divorced are excluded.
If you wish to show special emphasis, underline such words or phrases e.g. all undergraduate
programmes should include study skills in the ODL system.
Avoid unwanted assumptions
Include only these items which are appropriately phrased for all the respondents. Construct
items that will give a complete response.
Do not include items which are socially unacceptable in the setting in which you respondents
are.
3.9. ADMINISTRATION OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE.
When you have concluded the process of developing the instruments, you need to administer
them to the subjects. But before this is done, you will have to ensure that the instrument is
usable, valid and reliable. You have to do these through the process of trial testing or pilot
testing.

3.9.1. Pilot testing of the Questionnaire

Every instrument used for data collection in research should be trial tested or pilot tested. There
are so many reasons for doing this. Among these reasons are:
i. To find out how long it takes the respondents to complete To ensure that all questions
and instructions are clear
ii. To enable the researcher to remove any items which do not yield usable data
iii. IV. To enable you include any item deemed necessary to yield some relevant
data. To use the results to find the reliability of the instrument.
iv. To use the results to do the item analysis of the instrument
v. To ensure the usability of the instrument.

Do not fall to the temptation of going straight to the distribution stage. No matter how pressed
for time you are, do your best to give the questionnaire a trial run. You should try out the
instrument on group similar to the one that will form the samples of your study. When you do
these, you come out with a good questionnaire. Your respondents will not experience difficulties
in filling out the instrument. Again you can carry out a preliminary analysis at the data collected.
3.9.2. Administering the Questionnaire proper
There are different methods of administering the questionnaire. You shall therefore try to make
early decision about how to distribute them to the respondents. You also need to decide what to
do about no response. The different methods of administering the questionnaires are: -
Administering the questionnaires personally. This has some advantages. You can explain the
purpose of the study of your respondents. The questionnaires can be completed and returned
on the spot. In this case, you have high percentage of returns. Again you are likely to get better
co-operation if you can establish personal contact with the respondents.

16
Using research assistants: - You can persuade your friends and colleagues to lend a helping
hand in the distribution. You can also use research assistants. In this case, you have to make
out time to train them on how to administer and collect the instruments.
Mailing the questionnaires. If your respondents are far away and you can not personally reach
them, you can sand the instruments to them by past. You should note that postal services are
expensive, waste time and response rate is generally low.
3.8.3 Covering letter
Remember to accompany your questionnaire with an introduction letter or a covering letter. This
should inform the respondents about the objectives of the study and therefore the questionnaire.
You need to let them know that will be done with the information collected. They need to know
the deadline for the return of the questionnaire. It will also assure them about the anonymity and
confidentiality of the information supplied.

UNIT 4.0 INTERVIEWS AND OBSERVATIONS

CONTENT
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main content
3.1. What is interview?
3.2. Types of interview
3.3. Steps in the arrangement of interview
3.4. How to conduct an interview?
3.4.1 Strengths of the interview
3.4.2 Recording the Responses.
3.5. Observation
3.6. Characteristics of a good observation
3.7. Uses of observation
3.8 Recording observations
1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you were introduced to the construction and administration of the questionnaire
as an instrument for collection of data for most of the survey researches. The questionnaire and
interview have the same fundamental features. This is because the principles which make for a
good questionnaire are also essential in the planning of a reliable and valid interview.
A distinctive similarity between the questionnaire and the interview as information as information
gathering tools is that both them seek and elicit information by asking questions. However, while
the questionnaire remains an impersonal paper and pencil instrument, the interview is a
personal face to face situation.
On the other hand, Observation is no „natural gift‟. It is a highly skilled activity for which an
extensive background knowledge and understanding is required. It provides the investigator a
capacity for original thinking and the ability to spot significant events. You can now see that

17
observation itself as a method of data collection is certainly not an easy option. In this unit, you
will study both interviews and observations as ways of collecting data in research.
Objectives
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Describe an interview as a data collection
method.
II. Explain the types of interview?
III. List the steps in the arrangement of an interview?
IV. Conduct an interview and record the responses. Explain observation as a
research tool?
VI. List the uses of observation?
VII. Record observation using different tools.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 WHAT IS AN INTERVIEW

An interview is a face to face oral interaction between the investigator and the respondents. You
as the investigator, otherwise called interviewer or your assistant as the case may be read the
questions directly to the respondents. The responses are recorded for analysis. The interview
gives you a degree of flexibility which is not available in the questionnaire. The research
interview is not as widely used as the questionnaire. The reason is that it takes a great deal of
time and fund to conduct. But you should realize that the interview is quite useful when greater
depth of information is needed. It is highly required when there is a need to follow up leads that
may arise. It is also used when an exploratory investigation of a problem is to be done.
The interview technique is used routinely in normative survey research. During the process, the
respondents or interviewees respond to some sort of direct questions posted to them by the
investigator.

3.2 TYPES OF INTERVIEW.

The different types of interviews used in research are: -

3.2.1 Informal Conversation Interview.

This is characterized by the fact that the questions emerge from the immediate context or
situation and are asked in the natural course of things. There are predetermined questions or
topics or wordings. This has some advantages. They include: -
It increases the silence and relevance of the questions Interviews are built on and emerge from
observations.
The interview can be matched to individuals and circumstances.
The disadvantages are: -
Different information‟s are collected from different questions. It is less systematic and
comprehensive
Data organization and analysis can be quite difficult.
3.2.2 Interviewer guided approach:

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In this type, topics and issues to be covered are specified in advance, in an outline format. You
as an interviewer will decide the sequence and wording of the questions in the course of the
interview. The advantages include: -
The outline increases the comprehensiveness of the data. It makes data collection somewhat
systematic.
Logical gaps in data can be anticipated and closed. Interview is fairly conversational and
situational
The disadvantages include: -
Important and silent topics may be inadvertently omitted.
Interviewer flexibility in sequencing and wording of questions can result in substantially different
responses from different perspectives. This will reduce the comparability of the responses.
3.2.3 Standardized Open-ended interview:
In this case, the exact wording and sequencing of the questions are determined in advance by
the researcher. All interviewees are asked the same basic question in the same order.
Questions are worded in a completely open – ended format. The advantages include: -
All respondents answer the same questions. This increases the comparability of the responses.
Information collected are complete for each respondents on the topics addressed in the
interview.
It reduced interviewer effects and biases when several interviewers are used.
It permits the users of evaluations to see and review the instrument used for evaluation. It
facilitates organization and analysis of the data.
The disadvantages include: -
Little flexibility in relating the interview to particular individuals and circumstances. Limited and
constrained naturalness and relevance of questions and answers.
3.2.4 Closed or Fixed Response Interview
In this type which is the most popular in research studies, questions and response categories
are determined in advance. Responses are fixed. The respondents choose from among the
fixed responses provided. The advantages include: -
Data analysis is simple
Responses can be directly compared and easily aggregated Many questions can be asked and
answered in a short time
The disadvantages may include:
Respondents must fit their experiences, knowledge and feeling into the researcher‟s response
categories.
Sometimes it may be seen as impersonal, irrelevant and mechanistic
There can be a distortion of what respondents really mean or experienced by so completely
limiting their response choices.
3.3 STEPS IN THE ARRANGEMENT OF INTERVIEWS.

For the successful handling of the interviews as a data collection technique for your research
studies, you will need to follow some simple but very important steps. These steps include: -
You should set up the interview plan used in advance.
You will prepare and send the set of questions which you will ask to the interviewee in advance
Sort for permission to tape-recorded the interview Confirm the date of interview in writing

19
Send a reminder, together with the same set of questions to the interviewee, about 10 days to
the interview date.
On the interview day, be prompt, have another copy of the set of questions for your interviewee,
should he/she has misplace his/her copy?
Follow the questions serially as it is in the set.
After the interview, prepare and submit a type script of the interview either in soft or hard copy to
the interviewee tries to get a written acknowledgement of its accuracy or a corrected copy from
the interviewee.
Ask for final approval and written permission to use the information in your research report.
After you have incorporated the information in your research report, send the relevant section of
the report to the interviewee.
3.4. HOW TO CONDUCT AN INTERVIEW?
An interview is a social interaction or relationship designed to exchange information between
the interviewer and the interviewee. The goal is to collect data and not make friends. Therefore
the quantity of information exchanged or received depends on how astute and creative you are
at understanding and managing the relationship. According to Schofield (1972) much of the
success or failure of the interview depends on how you handle the opening few minutes. This
signifies the need for good public relations and good approach in conducting the interview. This
is to enable you and the respondents establish a report of a good two-wag communication.
If you can achieve this fit, you will be assured of a successful interview that will be a pleasant
experience for you and your respondents. In appearance, you must be neat, clean and
business- like but also friendly. Make sure that your first contact with the interviewee must be
appealing. Note that such characteristics as socio-economic statues, age, race and ethnicity
might influence the interview schedule the interview to begin with the simple non-threatening
questions and then let the interview progress according to the schedule. Employ the use of
probes, or follow-up questions that are intended to elicit clearer and most complete responses.
Use probe as a pause in conversation to encourage your subject to elaborate or an explicit
request to classify on elaborate or something. Note also that an open-ended questions in which
your respondents are encouraged to answer in their own words at some length is likely to
provide greater depth of response. Closed questions are easier to record but may yield more
superficial information. In order to obtain valid interview results Schofield (1972) advised the
researcher to:-
Listen to the respondent in a friendly and patient but intelligent critical manner. Refrain from
showing an authoritarian attitude
Refrain from giving advice on moral instruction.
Avoid asking questions which compel the subject to give the reply which you want to have.
Avoid leading or prompting the subject towards certain answers.
Avoid entering into argument with your interviewee. Avoid the use of double-barreled questions.
You can only use questions or statements in order to: -
Prompt the interviewee to talk freely and coherently.
Congratulate the subject on the quality of his response, the originality of his ideas and so on.
Clarify points on which there are uncertainties and to ascertain precisely what the subject
means in places where the interviewer could interpret the candidate‟s remarks in a way
detrimental to him.

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3.4.1. Strengths of the interview
The interview is often regarded as being superior to other data-collecting devices. One of the
reasons is that people prefer to talk than to write, especially when it comes to controversial
issues. When the interview has gained support or when you have established a friendly
relationship with your interviewee, certain confidential information may be obtained. Such
information that an individual might be reluctant to put in writing could be elicited from subjects.
You can explain more explicitly the purpose of the investigation and what type of information you
want, especially: - If the subjects misinterpret the questions, you may also follow with a
clarifying question. It is possible to seek the same information in several ways during the
interview. It is also possible to stimulate the interviewee and possibly explore significant areas
not anticipated in the original plan of investigation. Again interview is particularly appropriate
when dealing with children and illiterate respondents.
3.4.2. Recording the Responses

As an interviewer, your central task is to record the responses from the respondents. There are
four most common ways of recording responses. These are: - Classifying responses into
predetermined categories; summarizing the high points of what is said; taking verbatim notes or
recording the interview with a tape recorder or video machine.
To record the responses you can be taking notes as the interviews are going o, or take the
notes immediately after, when the information is still fresh in your mind. This is called mental
note. Alternatively, you can record the interview with recording machines
3.5. OBSERVATION AS A DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUE
Observation can be described as the act of looking out for and recording the presence or
absence of both verbal and non-verbal behaviour of an individual or group of individuals. When
you use a specially designed evaluation instrument to collect observational data, it is referred to
as observational technique. If you look back from the earliest history of scientific activity, you
would see that observation has been the prevailing method of inquiring. When the observation
of natural phenomena is aided by systematic classification and measurement, it leads to the
development of theories and laws. Every type of research, whether experimental, descriptive or
qualitative, incorporates the use of observational techniques.
According to Monette, et al (1994) observational technique is the collection of data through
direct visual or auditory behaviour or experience. It includes video or audio recording of
behaviour. It means that you as a researcher looks or listens in order to see or hear the
behaviours or words respectively. These provide the information needed for the research.
There are two main types of observation. The first is called participant observation. In this case
the researcher become part and participates in the activities of the people, group or situation
that is being studied. Participant observation is very good for a highly qualitative research. The
second is the non-participant observation. In this case the researcher is not part of and does not
in any way participate in the activities of the people, group or situation. He observes through
recording instruments or from outside.
3.6. CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD OBSERVATION.
Observational process as data collection method in research demands a rigorous utilization of
the spirit of scientific inquiry. According to Best and Khan (1995) the following standards should
be the characteristics of observers and their observations. These characteristics are: -

21
Observation is carefully planned. Observers who are systematic and perceptively know what to
look for. They are not distracted by irrelevant situations.
Observers are aware of the wholeness of what is observed. They are alert to significant details.
They know that the whole is often greater than the sum of its parts.
Observers are objective. They recognize likely bases and strive to eliminate their influence on
what they see and report.
Observers separate the facts from the interpretation of facts. They observe the facts and make
their interpretations later.
Observations are checked and verified by repetition or comparison with the other competent
observers.
Observations are expertly recorded. They use appropriate instruments to systematize, quantify
and preserve the results of their observations.
Observations are made in such a way as to make sure that the data collected are valid and
reliable.
3.7. USES OF OBSERVATION.

Yoloye (1977) has given a summary of the situations in which observational data could be
useful. These are: -
Measuring classroom process variables Measuring attainment of programme objectives
Measuring the extent of programme implementation Identifying difficulties in programme use.
Identifying changes introduced by hotel owners, teachers etc Identifying typical pathways to
customer services.
Supplementing data from other sources.

3.7.1. What to be Observed

There are some general categories of things you have to observe and record. These include
The Setting: - This could be a hotel, a bank, a company etc. The records should contain
descriptions of the general physical and social setting being observed.
The People: - These include customers, staff, management etc. The records should include a
physical and social description of the main characters who are the focus of your observation
Individual Behaviour: - The cares of observations in most studies are the behaviour of the
individuals in the settings.
Group Behaviours: - Most of the times, the behaviour of a group of individuals like customers,
staff etc. may provide an important bit of information for your studies.
3.8. RECORDING OBSERVATION
There are different kinds of devices used extensively to aid the recording of information gained
through observation. These devices include checklist, rating scales, scorecards, scaled
specimens etc. these provide systematic means for summarizing and/or quantifying data
collected through observation or examination. For instance, you can prepare a type of form or
sheet of paper to rate such things as type of food served, quality of served, neatness of the
staff, neatness of the rooms, neatness of the bidding, services provided, entertainment provided
etc. such assessment sheet from the observational scale which you can use for your studies.

22
UNIT 5.0 PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION IN RESEARCH

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. The concept of problems in Research
3.2. Characteristics of Research Problems
3.3. Some sources of suitable Research problems
3.4. Selecting a Research topic.
3.5. Shaping and refining the problem

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last two units, you were exposed to the different techniques for collecting data in
research. But before you think of data collection, you would have selected a research problem
or topic in your area of specialization. In this unit, we are going to discuss how to select a
research topic. This is because you have to select your own research topic and write the
research project report as a requirement for the award of the degree to you. In very few cases,
and that‟s if you are very

lucky, your supervisor may help you choose a topic but the final choice of topic is yours. This is
why you have to carefully study this unit, so as to scale with ease, the first hurdle which will
confront you in your research.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain the concept of problem in research
Enumerate the characteristics of a research problem. Identify the various sources of suitable
research problems. Select a research topic for investigation.
Shape and refine the problem.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 THE CONCEPT OF PROBLEMS IN RESEARCH
In a research process, you have to select a topic of study from your area of study. After this you
narrow down this topic for your study. The next concern is to define the problem which you are
focusing on. Kerlinger (1979) defines a research problem in two ways. The first is in a general
sense in which he regards a research problem as a question that states situation needing
discussion, inquiring, decision or solution. The second one which is a more satisfactory
definition, he regards a research problem as a question that asks for how two or more variables
are related. It means therefore that a research problem must state and show how two or more
variables are related. This may be stated in a question form. The most important fact here is that

23
the relationship between two or more variables must be specified in the research problem. Look
at these problems. Does the social class/status of parent play significant role in the academic
achievement of secondary school students in Abia state of Nigeria? Does intelligence differ in
the children from the middle and lower income class families? Does the size of a hotel play
significant role in the type of services rendered to customers? Do customers‟ satisfactions
depend on hotel management styles? Looking at these definitions and examples of problems in
research, you should be able to identify some key characteristics of problems in research. Now
let us look at the characteristics of research problem.
3.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
From the examples in section 3.1 above, you can see that a research problem is always stated
in a sentence, in a question or interrogative form. You have also noticed that a research problem
is a question which states the relationship among Phenomena or variables. According to
Tuckman (1972) some characteristics of a problem in research are outlined as follows: -
It should ask about a relationship between two or more variables
It should be stated clearly and unambiguously, usually in question form
It should be possible to collect data on it so as to answer the question(s) asked. It should not
represent a moral or ethnic position indicating bias or feeling of preference.
From these you must note that every research topic must have two more variables that can be
measured or manipulated or controlled. The research problem must ask for the relationships
between the variables contained in it. E.g. what is the relationship between the socio-economic
status of parents and the intelligent quotient of their children? A problem must be researchable
i.e. testable through empirical methods of field or laboratory observation and collection of data.
You should try as much as you can to avoid value prepositions, ideals and moral judgments that
are expressed by words like good, bad, best, desirable, reliable etc when writing research
problems. It is very difficult to realistically collect data on human judgment and its moral
imperatives which by all standards are highly subjective.
Remember that your research problem should be an empirically testable proposition stated in a
question form containing two or more measurable or manipulative variables whose relationships
are sort for in the problem statement itself. As a researcher, you are required to state your
research problems in accordance with some principles. These principles listed by Egon Guba
(1973) are as follows: -
State the problem in terms intelligible to someone who is generally sophisticated but who is
relatively uninformed in the are of the problem
Define and delimit the specific area of the research.
Fore-shadow the hypothesis to be tested or the questions to be raised in the problem statement.
3.3 SOME SOURCES OF SUITABLE RESEARCH PROBLEMS

Most of the problems confronted in the school system, the community, banking industry, hotel
and hospitality industries, etc, lend themselves to investigations. You can see that today we are
having technological changes and developments. These are constantly bringing forth new
problems and new opportunities for research.
The whole area of computer education and literacy provide avenue for a good number of
research topics through the internet and websites. You can also get topics through international
abstracts typed for computer processed.

24
Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar reports and out of class exchanges of ideas with
fellow students and lecturers can suggest many stimulating problems for solution. When you
read assignments, journal articles, textbooks, research report, term paper, etc can also suggest
additional area of needed research.
Some research topics can be selected on the basis of their use in verifying and testing a
particular theory. You know that every research has some implications for existing theory.
Therefore some research topics are selected specially for the purpose of testing some aspects
of a given theory. In your exploration in an area, you may come across additional problems that
need resolving. Most of these problems are often theoretically framed.
A very important function of your supervisor is to help you clarify your thinking, achieve a sense
of focus and develop a manageable problem from one that may be vague, complex or not
researchable.

3.4. SELECTING A RESEARCH PROBLEM

Selecting a research problem is one of the most difficult tasks you have to face in the research
process. This statement of fact is not in anyway intended to discourage you. However, we are
going to discuss some appropriate guidance to make it easier for you. According to Best and
Khan (1995) one of the most difficult phases of the graduate research project is the choice of a
suitable problem. This is because most students often select problems that are too broad in
scope. Of course, they do this because they lack the understanding of the nature of research
and systematic problem-solving ability. Sometimes, they are so enthusiastic to solve an
important problem quickly. But you have to understand that research is often very tasking, slow
and rarely spectacular. you should painstakingly select your problem of study upon these
considerations: -
3.6. SHAPING AND REFINING THE PROBLEM
You have been informed earlier in this unit that it could be frustrating if you become ensnared in
choosing a topic which is too broad and encompassing but by itself offers little guidance in terms
on how to move on or proceeds. Look at this topic for instance; Equity in hotel management and
tourism in Nigeria. You can see that this is too broad and lacks focus. So when you choose a
problem area, the next step is translating the general topic of interest into a precise
researchable problem.
You will now narrow down the scope of the problem into a manageable proportion. The refining,
shaping, narrowing and focusing of a research problem do not occur at once. It is a continuous
process involving a number of procedures such as conceptual development, review of literature,
etc. The successful selection of a research problem means it has to be definitely formulated,
structural and well stated.
Problems in research can be stated in these various forms: As a question or questions namely: -
A single question Several questions
A single question followed by several sub questions.
As a declarative statement taking the form of being
A single statement
A single statement containing several phrases A series of complete statemenst
A general statement followed by subordinate statements

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As a statement followed by a re-statement in the form of a question. As a statement followed by
a series of propositions.
You are advised to use each of these forms one at a time to state a single problem. The types of
statement you may employ in stating a formulated problem depend on your preference and the
nature of the problem structured for study in your research encounter.
What are we saying is that after the formulation of your research problem, you still need to
define and delimit it? You are at liberty to use any or many of the procedures available in
defining and delimiting your study in order to make for clarification.
However you are expected to specify the problems in details and with precision. You need to
specify each question and sub-ordinate question to be answered. The assumptions made and
the limits of the investigations should also be determined and specified.

UNIT 6.0 STEPS IN RESEARCH AGENDA

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Components of setting the problem
3.1.1 Delimitation
3.1.2 Assumption
3.1.3 Significance
3.1.4 Definition of terms
3.2. Hypothesis
3.3. Variables
3.4. Feasibility of a Research Problem.

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you learnt how to select a research problem and the guiding principles which
underly the selection. Every research problem should have some components. These
components include objectives, research questions and hypotheses problem statement etc.
After you have selected, shaped and refined your research problem, it becomes very important
that you look at the feasibility of the study. In this unit, you are going to look at the steps in the
research agenda, including some components of the research problem.
1.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
List the steps in a research process.
Explain the components of setting the problem Propose some hypotheses for your study
Discuss the types of variables
Explain the feasibility of a research problem.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1. COMPONENT OF SETTING THE PROBLEM

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In every research process or encounter, there are components which help in shaping and
refining the problem in order to provide a focus and manageable scope for the research. These
components help you to quicken the pace of the study and that of the reader of the research
report in understanding it. Before we look at these components, let us first list the steps which
you will follow when conducting your research.
Step I. identifying the problem
You have already studied this step in details in the last unit. But let us say that it involves the
discovery and definition of scientific research problem within a topic area which you have
chosen to study. It may include questions which require answer in our area of study. For
instance, what are the causes and effects of lecturers‟ strike on the standard of Education in
Nigeria? Are men better managers than women?
Step II. Constructing Hypotheses
When you identify a researchable problem, it automatically leads to the proposition of a
hypothesis as a tentative answer. Once you have identified a problem, you use the logical
processes of deduction and induction to formulate an expectation of the outcome of the study.
This expectation should be stated and tested. This implies that you are hypothesizing about the
probable relationship existing between the concepts, variables identified in the problem. The
hypotheses are the pointers to your solutions.
Step III. Identifying and labeling the variables
The next step is to identify and label all the variables in the problem and hypotheses stated.
There are different types of variables in research. We shall look at them later.
Step IV. Proposing Operational definition of terms
All terms, concepts and variables should be converted from their abstract or conceptual forms to
operational forms that can be quantified or measured using some forms of specified
measurement instruments. In technical terms, when you aperationalise the variables in your
research, it means that you are stating them in observable and measurable forms which make
them available for clear understanding, definition, manipulation, control and examination.
Step V.Manipulating and controlling variables.
If you have to manipulate and control the variables in your study, you must understand the
concepts of internal and external validity. This is because you need to control or manipulate and
regulate these variables in order to study the relationship between variables in research. You
will have them discussed later.
Step VI. Constructing the Research Design
You can describe a research design as a specification or plan of operation for the testing of a
stated hypothesis under a given set of conditions. It comes in specific types such as
one-variable design, factorial design, experimental and quasi-experimental design etc.
Step VII. Identifying and constructing data collection Devices
After defining your variables and choosing the design for the study you need to adopt, adapt or
develop some instruments for measuring the selected variables. You can use standardized
instruments or construct your own as you have learnt in this course.
Step VIII. Constructing Questionnaires and Interview Schedules:
Most research studies in the social sciences and business rely on questionnaires and interviews
as their source of data. You should employ recommended guidelines to develop and use these
measurement devices for your data collection to test your hypotheses.

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Step IX. Sampling and Collection of Data:-
As soon as you have got your instrument for data collection, you are expected to choose your
respondents or subjects. You to do this according to some specified statistical methods of
sampling either in the random techniques or non-random way. After getting your respondents or
samples from the population of your target, you now administer the instruments to them in order
to extract the needed information from them.
Step X. Carrying out Statistical Analysis or Data Analysis
The data you have collected above must be reduced, arranged and presented in an arranged
and presented in an organized form for easy analysis. The data as organized are subjected to
specified or suitable statistical indices for testing the hypothesis in order to generate some
results or findings. From these conclusions, generalizations are drawn. You can employ the use
of computers for easy and accurate data analysis. This aspect is very sensitive and requires
some professional expertise, care and endurance.
Step XI. Discussion of Research Findings

You have to discuss at this stage, your research findings or the results from the data analysis.
This is to justify, interprete, explain and further develop a given theory for knowledge based on
the findings generated. This is where you show your disposition and prowess. You have to note
that the discussion flows normally in the context and direction of the information collected in the
process of review of related literature. The implication is that you have to make thorough and
adequate review of literature related to your topic or area of study. This is because sound
literature review in research makes for very sound and balanced discussions of the findings or
results.
Step XII. Drawing Conclusions, Generalizations and Recommendation
At this stage you are expected to draw your conclusions from your findings and to make
generalizations of the findings generated from the samples to the larger population from which
the sample was drawn. It is very important that your findings must be valid, your generalizations
must be correct and your recommendations from the research findings must be possible for
application so as to bring progress in the development and practice of the area.
Step XIII. Writing the Research Report:
Writing the final research report is very important and constitutes the major secretariat or clerical
activities of the research process. There are different styles and formats with their respective
instructions and guidelines. You can therefore choose a desired format in order to produce your
final research report. The American Psychological Association (APA) format is the most popular
and most used in research. Your supervisor will make it available to you if you demand it.
3.1.1 Delimitations

Delimitations give you the boundaries of the study. The conclusions are not to be extended
beyond these boundaries. It tells you about the target population, what the research intends to
do and what he intends not to do. When stating the delimitations, you are required to rule out all
variables and issues considered irrelevant to the research. It is not the same thing as limitations.
For the purposes of clarification limitation are those conditions beyond the control of the
researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the study and their applications to

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other situations. These may include the use of unvalidated instrument, inability to randomly solid
and assign subjects to experimental and control groups, some administrative policies etc.

3.1.2 Assumptions.
These are statement of what the researcher believes to be facts but cannot be verified. They
are what the research takes for granted. You have to state your assumptions in a study because
it is easier to evaluate your conclusions based on the assumptions. You should not leave
anything on your problem must be clearly and unreservedly spelt out.
3.1.3 Significance of the study:
What is the use of the study? What are the practical values of the study? Who are the
beneficiaries of the findings and how would they benefit and how the study will be useful to
them?
3.1.4 Definition of terms:
You have to define all unusual terms that could be misinterpreted. These definitions will help you
to establish the frame of reference with which you approach the problem. The definitions are in
operational forms. Without explicitly knowing what a term means, you cannot evaluate the
research or determine, if you have carried out what you set out as the main objectives of your
study. The definitions must interpret the terms as they are used in relation to the study. This
means that you determine what you wish the term to mean within the contact of the problem or
its sub-problem.
3.2. HYPOTHESIS.
Let us start this section by describing a hypothesis as tentative but intelligent guess posited to
direct your thinking toward the solution of the problem. It is a tentative proposition set forth a
possible explanation for an occurrence or a provisional conjecture to assist in guiding the
investigation of a problem. Hypotheses and research questions are very helpful in research
because you need some points around which to orient the research in searching for relevant
data and in establishing tentative goals against which to project the data.
Hypotheses can be stated in two different forms. These are the null hypothesis, H0 and the
alternative hypothesis H1.
3.2.1 The Null Hypothesis H0:
This type relates to a statistical method of interpreting conclusions about population
characteristics that are inferred from the variable relationships observed in samples. It asserts
that observed differences or relationship merely results from chance errors inherent in the
sampling process. It is a non-directional hypothesis. e.g. there is no significant difference in the
academic performance of day students and boarders. There is no significant difference in the
spending pattern of men and women in relation to fashion. There is no significant difference in
the choice of accommodation between the young and elderly people.
3.2.2 Alternative Hypothesis H1:
This is directional hypothesis. It gives the directory of the relationship between the variables.
E.g. Women spend more money in fashion than men. Young people choose costlier
accommodations than the elderly people etc.
3.3. VARIABLES
A variable is a property that takes on different values. According to Kerlinger (1977) a variable is
a symbol to which we assign numerical values.

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Some important variables in the humanities are sex, income, social class, aptitude, anxiety etc.
A variable may have only two values e.g. male, female, dead or alive etc. Some variables used
in behavioural researches are true dichotomies. This means that they are characterized by the
presence or absence of a property e.g. good-bad, employed-unemployed etc. Some variables
are polytomies e.g. the Nigerian citizens can be Igbo, Hausa, Yoruba, Efik, Nupe, Gwari, TIV,
etc. Most variables are theoretically capable of taking on continuous values e.g. intelligence,
achievement etc.
The different types of variables are:
3.3.1 Independent and Dependent Variables:
An independent variable is the presumed cause of the dependent variable which is the
presumed effect. The independent variable is the antecedent while the dependent variable is the
one that is consequent. In experiments, the independent variable is the one that is manipulated
while the dependent variable is the effect of the manipulation. Let us look at this topic. Effect of
increased funding on the quality of services depends on the increased funding. It means that
increased funding is the independent variable and quality of services is the dependent variable.
If you increase the funding, the quality of services will improve and vice-versa.
3.3.2 Discrete and continuous variables:
Discrete variables are those with finite number of distinct and separate values. They have only
whole numbers and no fraction e.g. sex, race, number of days, family size etc. Continuous
variables are those that least theoretically can take an infinite number of values. It can take both
number and fractions e.g. age, test scores etc. there are other types of variables. These are to
be treated in other units. These include extraneous, intervening, moderating etc variables.
3.4. Feasibility of a Research Problem
This implies that before you have a full scale investigation into the problem of your study, you
would have considered in clear terms the practical issues involving feasibility. It involves
consideration of practical issues of what can be reasonably accomplished given the time and
resources available. This will help you to decide to reduce the scope or to increase it.
You have to carefully and honestly assess the time and fund required to accomplish the study.
The major aspects to be considered are
3.4.1. Time constraint:
You need to find out if the time available is sufficient and adequate to complete the study. Factor
related to time are:
i. Population: - Time to cover the population in relation to the required characteristics.
ii. Proper development of measuring devices. You need to consider the time to develop
and validate or trial test your data collection instruments
iii. Time required for data collection. This should be
iv. considered Time for analysis of data should be considered.
3.4.2 Financial Constraint:
All the financial expenses for the study should be assessed. The major areas of financial
involvement include: Production of instrument, payment for research assistants, transportation
cost, cost of analysis of data, office supply and equipment and miscellaneous.
3.4.3 Anticipating and Avoiding Problems:
Whether you are knowledgeable in research or not, you have to be able to identify potential
trouble spots in your proposal. You can make some modifications to avoid them. You need to

30
conduct a pilot study. This involves a preliminary run through on a small scale of all the
procedures that will be employed in the study. If there are problems in the pilot study they can
be estimated and taken care of. If the problem is that of time or money, you can scale the
problem down by reducing the sample size, the number of hypothesis etc.

UNIT 7.0 THE TYPOLOGIES OF THE RESEARCH METHODS I

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Empiricism
3.1.1 Empirical Enquiry
3.1.2 Empirical Research Process
3.2. Phenomenology
3.2.1 Phenomenological Approaches in research
3.3. Critical Research
3.3.1 Element of Critical Social Research.
3.3.2 Critical Research Process
3.3.3 Approaches in Critical Social Research

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, we discussed the steps and components of the research process. You have now
known these steps, for you to continue in your research encounter, you must choose a research
method or type. There are many of them some of them are quantitative, while others are
qualitative. In this unit and other units that follow, you will enable you make up your mind on
what method to use in your research study. Specifically in this unit you will look at empiricism,
phenomenology and the critical research processes.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain empiricism
Describe the empirical research process Explain the meaning of phenomenology
Discuss the phenomenological approaches in social science research Describe the elements of
critical research

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Describe the approaches in critical social research.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 EMPIRICISM
Let us start this section by section by stating that an empiricist is one who practices empiricism.
The question then is what is empiricism? Any system which does not agree with all past
knowledge which rests solely on experience can be regarded as empiricism. In other words it
lays emphasis on induction, the use of direct observation to confirm ideas and the linking
together of observed facts to form theories or explanations of how natural phenomena and
events work. You know that social life is visibly chaotic. Its concrete ingredients are people. The
substance of our observation remains the events and phenomena. Each of these are unique,
just as human beings are unique. Therefore to be an empiricist, you must be ready to confront
the truth. You should be ready to work with apparent disorder, nonreplicable people and
non-repetitive events and phenomena.

3.1.1 Empirical Enquiry

An empirical scientific research can be regarded as a way of looking at things. We can also
think of it as a method of approaching to the empirical world. You already know that science
consists of theory and facts. You also know that a fact is an empirically verifiable observation
and a theory tries to find relationships among facts. The facts of science are the products of
observations. The construction of a theory is the most important purpose of empirical scientific
inquires. Theory gives orientation to empirical inquiries it guides the collection of relevant date
and offers conceptual scheme that will bind them together in a more systematic manner,
theories are said to represent improvement in knowledge. This is the main focus in research.
While theories help us to predict facts, facts help to initiate theories and to test the validity of
existing theories. Facts clarify and redefine theory. But theories and facts stimulate each other
and contribute to the growth of empirical knowledge.
3.1.2 Empirical Research Process
In empirical research method, you proceed in a systematic and orderly manner in order to
pursue the truth as determined by facts and logical considerations. The main purpose is to find
a systematic interrelation of facts by experimentation, observation and logical procedures. It
means that it can only be conducted based on a rigorous impersonal procedure dictated by the
demand of logic and objective procedures. The steps involved are
i. Data collection through careful and critical observation with patience, precision and
impartiality
Measurement
Classification, Organization and Tabulation of data Data analysis and Reduction
Formulation of hypotheses and Formulation of theory and Law
The main features of empirical scientific research are:
Observation: In order to obtain knowledge, empirical research relies on observation. It is the
cornerstone of any empirical inquiry. It supplies us with the thing that we try to understand and
explain observation in an empirical research is not casual, but a conscious and deliberate
activity designed to reduce error. It requires improved accuracy. It uses certain devices which
add great precision to scientific observation. Meaningful observation results in the establishment

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of facts. These are used for verifying empirical theories, building them and modifying or
improving them.
Concepts: These are the building blocks of scientific empirical research. Theories consist of
several inter-related concepts.
Although concepts are said to be fundamental to all human communication and thought, yet the
concept we use in our day to day affairs are not always clear and precise. They have to be
defined with precision to foster clear thinking; precise definitions convey exact meaning and
explanation to both the empiricist and the readers.
Objectivity: This indicates that all the conclusions you reach in your empirical research are not
affected by your personal views, values or biases. It permits repetition of observations under
practically identical conditions, to get the same results. It facilitates the verification of facts and
theories by many empiricists independently.
IV. Verifiability: The findings of your research are said to be empirical if only they can be
verified. Any theory which contains facts that cannot be verified tends to be metaphysical rather
than scientific. Therefore all empirical conclusions are liable for verification at any time. An
empirical scientific theory of generalization stands to be rejected or modified at anytime.
Predictability: Accurate and precise predictions constitute one of the most impressive
achievements of empirical researches. Predictability depends on the nature of the phenomena
and our knowledge of the causes of the phenomena. If there is more number of cause‟s
predictions become more and more difficult. Prediction also depends on our ability to have
precise theories and accurate measurement.
V. Systematic Nature: Empirical investigations are systematic, thorough and rigorous in
making use of designs to guard against errors from data collection, interpretation and
generalization from the data. Empirical investigations are systematic in the methods used for
data collection, formulation of hypotheses, data analysis techniques and the logic use for
making generalizations. It self – correcting because you have the opportunity to find any flows
that may come in at any stage of investigation. It is the systematic nature of empirical inquiry
that distinguishes it from other non-scientific investigations.

3.2 PHENOMENOLOGY
This is a philosophy of knowledge which emphasis directs observation of phenomena. It refers
to a person‟s construction of the meaning of a phenomenon as opposed to the phenomenon as
it exists external to the person. It is a research method that attempts to understand the
participant‟s perspective and views of social realistic. The phenomenologists seek to perceive
reality and to describe it in words rather than numbers. It is a qualitative research employing the
use of words that reflect consciousness and perception. The phenomenologist concentrates on
the phenomena and tries to produce convincing descriptions of what they experience rather
than ordinary explanations and causes. The phenomenon experienced or studied may be an
event, a relationship, an emotion or a programme. Phenomenologist try to understand that a
particular experience is all about by describing it as it is found in concrete situations and as it
appears to the people who are involved in it. The central qualities of phenomenological research
are attention to experience and intention to describe the experience.
3.2.1 Phenomenological Approaches in Social Research

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Hermeneutical Phenomenology: This is one of most influential phenomenological field work. It
involves a dialogue between a text, such as myth, drama, fairy story, dream report, oral history,
etc and the experiences evoked in people participating in the text. The meaning of the text can
be developed within the consciousness of living people. There is a movement from the initial
hearing of the text that may then lead to experiences that illuminate the meaning of the text.
People can later start reflecting conceptually on both the text and the memory of experiences
related to the text.
Transpersonal Phenomenology: This involves the recognition of extraordinary experiences as
legitimate and useful data. Such experiences that in some sense go beyond the boundaries of
ordinary ego-consciousness are called extraordinary. They include such phenomena as
out-of–body experiences, visions, possession states, near-death experiences, meditative,
ecstatic, unique and mystical experiences.
Social Phenomenology: This has become increasingly an influence on anthropological thinking
of the social dimensions of experience. The object of scrutiny is your relationship to another
person. It is not about the non-human objects of the world. What are the essential qualities of
the social relationship?
Neuro-Phenomenology: This provides the most direct route to uncover the essential structures
of consciousness. You can do this by stepping in the cross-cultural evidence that pertains to
human experience and to explore the universal structures of experience. The neurosciences
provide an independent source of looking directly at the architecture of the organ of experience
– the human brain.
3.3 CRITICAL RESEARCH
This lays emphasis on the fact that knowledge is problematic and capable of systematic
distortion. Its concern is to understand the theory as well as the practices.
It is extremely varied the critical methodology based on a number of building blocks. These
blocks should not be considered as discrete units which can simply be placed next to one
another. They are elements which are drawn together in various ways in the process of
deconstruction and reconstruction.

3.3.1 Elements of Critical Social Research

The elements are abstraction, totality, essence, praxis, ideology, history and structure.
Abstraction
This is often misunderstood in term of a distillation of sensory perception of the world of objects
into conceptual categories. It starts from the literally objective world and selects out the
recurrent or apparently the core or the defining features until an abstract concept is formed, at
least in our minds if not in a directly communicable form. It works by moving from the abstract to
the concrete. It starts with abstract generalizations and then to their investigations.
Totality
This refers to the view that social phenomena are interrelated and form a total whole. It means
that a social phenomenon should be situated in a wider social context. Therefore social
phenomena should not be analyzed in isolation. A totalistic view indicates that all the
components are interrelated into a coherent structure which can only make meaning in terms of
the structure, but then the structure relies on the component parts.
Essence

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This refers to the fundamental elements of analytic process. Critical social researchers see
essence as a fundamental concept that can be used as the key to unlock the process of
deconstruction.
Praxis
This refers to the practical reflective activity. It involves what you do most of the time as a
human being. It excludes such instinctive or mindless activities like sleeping, breathing etc or
activities that involve repetitive work tasks. It is what changes the world. The critical social
researcher believes that knowledge not just about finding out things about the world. It is about
changing it. You need therefore to engage in praxis.
Ideology
This is a concept which has a long history. Its current usage is developed as an analytic and
critical tool in the work of Marx. It has been an important feature of Marxism. There are two
approaches to a critical analysis of ideology. These are the positive and the negative views of
ideology.

Structure
In critical social research, structure is viewed holistically as complex set of interrelated elements
which are interdependent and which can only be adequately conceived in terms of the complete
structure.

History
This refers to both the reconstructed account of past events and the process by which this
reconstruction is made. That is the process of doing history. It involves both a view about the
nature of history and the assembling of historical materials.
3.3.2 Critical Research Process
The process here involves deconstruction and reconstruction. Note that this does no means
taking a house apart brick by brick and may be building another house using that same bricks.
Reconstruction is not only rebuilding, it involves reconceptualization. Critical research starts with
observation, concern, frustration or doubt which provoked the enquiry.
You can start by asking series of questions like why are things appear like this? Why do they
persist? Why has nothing been done about them? Does it mean they have not been noticed?
Why it that people accept what is is not in their interest? These and more questions will lead you
into getting a clearer picture of what you are looking for. These questions will lead you to three
related lines of enquiry. What is essentially going on? Why has this historically been the case?
Why structures reproduce this state of affairs?
Start to broaden the enquiry. Do not assume relationships as the enquiry develops but
undertake further empirical enquiry. After the investigation is completed, you write the report as
your chance to share the understanding wit others. Note the critical social research is primarily
concerned with analysis and reporting of substantive issues rather than the artificial logic of the
research process.
3.3.3 Approaches in Critical Social Research
There are four approaches in critical social research

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Critical case study: Here you select for detailed empirical which provides a specific focus on
analysis of a myth or contradiction. A variety of different data collection techniques can be used
within a critical case study approach.
You will rely principally on structured interviews augmented by observation in ascertaining the
interests, attitudes, social network and life-styles of the case-study groups.
Radical Historicism: This presupposes that constructing histories is an interpretative process
rather than the recording of facts it attempts to dig beneath the surface of the historical
development of structural forms. Radical historicism is concerned with the uncovering of
historical evidence.
The meaning of the evidence depends on a conceptualization of dominant social structures. The
reconstruction of history takes place alongside structural analysis. It informs and is also
informed by it.
Critical Ethnography: This is widely used and it involves a close attention to details which
characterize ethnography. It is very useful in rendering all the invisible to be visible and for
revealing anomalies and common sense notions. It transforms all the anomalies and all details
taken for granted into contradictions and myths by situating them in broader social and historical
analysis. It focuses on the way contradictions are negotiated and myths re- presented.
Structuralist techniques: The two types of structuralist techniques used in critical social research
are:
Semiological Analysis: This attempt to undercover the connoted level of denoted messages
though widely used in the mass media. It is applicable to and derives from a general approach
to the analysis of any system; it sees a sign as any cultural symbol which conveys a meaning.
The sign is made up of two elements – signifier and signified.
Identification of binary oppositions and narrative sequences: which draws on linguistics and
presupposes that the structure of language is inherently dichotomous and consequently, the
symbolic meaning of an image is determined only by differences.

UNIT 8.0 PHILOSOPHICAL AND HISTORICAL RESEARCH CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0. Main content
3.1. Philosophical Research
3.1.1 Main steps in Philosophical inquiry
3.2. Historical Research
3.2.1 Features of Historical Research
3.2.2 Main steps in historical Research

1.0. INTRODUCTION
Else where in this course, you have studied to the fact that the qualitative methods treat human
mind, especially the mental insights and impressionistic view as the major means of generating
knowledge. They are employed for inquires in different fields such as Philosophy, History,
Social Anthropology, Field Psychology , cortex specific problems, prognosis and diagnosis of
problem cases etc. you have seen that, the last unit dealt with some qualitative research

36
methods. In this unit, you will continue with other qualitative research methods like Philosophical
and Historical research methods, and may continue in the next unit.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain Philosophical research
List the main steps in Philosophical inquiry Explain Historical research
Discuss the main features of Historical research List the main steps in Historical research.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 PHILOSOPHICAL RESEARCH
Philosophical studies aim at the assessment of the status of knowledge through analysis of
meaning and relationships of different concepts and exposition of underlying assumptions. They
also aim at a fruitful synthesis of ideas from different fields concerning the theories and
practices. It means that if you are a researcher in this area, you will be aiming at the analyses of
meaning and nature of different concepts and the reluctance of different kinds of practices. You
will have to identify appropriate norms and standard for practices through cross examination of
ideas reflected by the different thinkers in your field of specialization. The main thrust of
philosophical research can be summarized as follows:
Study of the contributions made by a philosophers or groups of philosophers: These are
philosophers or groups of philosophers who follow similar lines of thought expressing their ideas
about the aspects of occasions in different forms – speeches, discourses, writing and
institutional practices.
Study of the philosophical ideas propounded by a particular school of thought: You already know
that philosophy is classified under different schools of thought, such as Idealism, naturalism,
realism, existentialism, pragmatism, socialism or communism i.e. dialectical materialism.
Study of the philosophical bases of the curriculum: So many questions are raised in the context
of curriculum development. These include the desirability of the state of mind to learn, the
criteria for identifying the desirability of the state of the mind. These are some of the issues
related to theoretical and practical aspects which are the concerns of the philosopher.
Study of the philosophical bases of instructional process: Philosophical research probes in to
the alternative to instructional designs and system, their worth and social desirability in the
overall frame work and understanding to human development.
Study and philosophical analysis of contributions made by theories in psychology: Philosophical
studies probe into the contributions of need theories and concept formation from the
psychological process.
Study and philosophical analysis of social theories: Issues like freedom, autonomy, democratic
values, equality of opportunities, policies and practices, require philosophical analysis from time
to time in order to accommodate the changes which improve or develop the societies.
3.1.1 Main Steps in Philosophical Inquiry
There are well defined steps that need to be considered and followed in order to make a
successful philosophical inquiry.
Identification of appropriate topic: As it is in every other research method, philosophical studies
start with the selection of appropriate topic. You have to ensure that the topic chosen is capable
of yielding a system, of thought with sound justification. Of course, you have to consult available
literature before you finalize the topic. Look at these two topics.

37
“A critical study of the educational implications of existentialism”. “A philosophical study of
Equality of Educational opportunity”.
Collection of data: After the identification of the topic and raising some preliminary questions
about this topic, you then go to collect all possible data relevant to the topic. Data can be
collected from different sources including available literature. The type and sources of data may
be of literary nature like to rite ups or opinions of the philosophers concerned, commentaries on
relevant philosophical works which appear in the form of books, journals, transcriptions,
recording, research reports etc. collection of these types of data is mostly done through library
work. You have t note that this is a very crucial stage in this type of research process. You will
have to decide the relevance and authenticity of the data and the nature of the sources.
Classification of data and the interpretation: Logical classification of the data under different
heads that focus on the topic of investigation is required here. After the classification comes the
interpretation. This follows different processes such as description, comparison, appraisal, cross
examination, etc. of the different ideas or concepts in the context of the major question under
consideration, interpretation. Here is a scholarly exercise it rests on our analytical insight and
your synthesizing ability.

According to varma (1965) the task of interpretation is chiefly that of ascribing a significance,
meaning, purpose and relatedness to a common end and to an apparently heterogeneous mass
of data. Personal biases and subjectivity must be as much as possible avoided.
Reporting the study: This is the final stage of the research. You have to maintain logical
sequences among the different heads of classification appropriate conclusion are drawn
towards the end of the presentation.
You have to be careful to ensure clarity and precision in your presentation. Cite appropriate
references with quotations as well as all necessary points and emphasis on the presentations
very carefully in the report.
3.2 HISTORICAL RESEARCH
Right from your primary school, you have known that history is the study of the past. Therefore a
historical research consists of the studies of the past happenings. In this process of searching
for the amount of what happened in the past, the historian may reveal several interacting factors
that contributed to a particular event within a specific context of time and space occurring.
Historical studies highlight some causal relationships of past events and unearth the
background for the purpose of understanding the social phenomena both past and the present.
It means that the understanding of our past will help us to develop better perceptions of the
dynamics of the present times. History is a study of the road for the march of progress indicating
the nature of advance in socio-economic and political contexts. According to Borg (1963)
historical research can be seen as the systematic and objective location, evaluation and
synthesis of evidence in order to establish facts and draw conclusions about past events.
3.2.1 Main Features of Historical Research
Historical method of research otherwise called „historiography‟ has some unique features that
make it count as a method of scientific inquiry.
These features are:
It aims at developing knowledge of past events within a particular framework of time and social
– political, economic and cultural context. As a historical researcher, you attach importance to

38
the meaning of specific events which have already occurred and explain their casual
relationships on the basis of the analysis of the existing data.
You dig into the significant data that tell us about the past events. You do not have any control
over data because you are studying situations that do not exist in the
present. You have to consider every piece of information of the past which are relevant to your
problem of investigation for analysis.
Historical research is conducted based on the analysis of all the known information related to
the research problem.
Data concerning the past events are available through different sources. These sources are
classified into primary and secondary sources. Before we go on let look at these.
3.2.1(A) Primary sources of Historical data.

These provide first hand information about the past events. They include direct observation and
reporting a recording of experiences. Other primary sources include:
Personal primary sources such as personal direct observation of events which the participated
in the past.
Physical artifacts like collections in museum or evidence of historical spots, relics, remains etc.
Mechanical artifacts like films, video, audio and photographs
Records written by actual participants or observers in the form autobiographies, charters, court
decisions, official minute or record deeds, wills, permits, licenses, certificates, bills, receipts,
maps, pictures, paintings etc.

3.2.1 (B) Secondary Sources of data:

These involve second-hand information about past events. The person giving the information is
neither a participant nor an eye witness of events. The information can be in the form of written
materials such as newspaper articles, magazine, books, research reports etc. You have to note
that secondary sources of data are usually of limited worth because of the errors which result
when information is passed on from one person to another.
Another major feature of historical research is the evaluation of data. Doubts can be raised
about the validity, reliability and relevance of the data. The process of evaluation is called
historical criticism. This can be external or internal criticism. External criticism is concerned with
testing the authenticity of the sources of data, while the internal criticism is concerned with the
verification of the content of the data.
3.2.1 Main steps in Historical Research

Identification of the problem: As usual this is the first step. It involves selecting a problem which
falls in the area of history or which has issues of historical significance.
Specification of the population of data: There may be a lot of information about the past
available in most cases. You need to point out the types that are relevant to your study.
Data Collection: The description of the required population of data will help you to develop an
overview about the data and to assess whether all relevant information is available or not. You
need to study the relevant literature and make efforts to discover new data in addition to what is
available. To collect data:-
You should be aware of all the data known to exist.

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You should know sources of data and be ready to explore new data from the existing sources.
You should be ready to exercise great care in exploring the sources and previously known data
in the context of the problem under investigation.
Organization of Data: Here you arrange the data under different headings in order to show a
holistic picture of the problem. This will enable you to scrutinize the data in hand to see if they
are enough for the study or if there is need for more.
Interpretation of data: At this stage you have to show the events which give details of what
happened to whom, in that place and at what time. This will lead you into being curious to know
why something happened. It poses a great challenge because interpretation is based on forces
which shaped event and determined policies. A sound knowledge of related fields like sociology,
political science, economics, philosophy, geography, educational management and educational
technology, will enable you to develop a holistic view about the situation and to deduce the
implication for the present.
Report writing: This starts once the first round of data collection is over. There is the interaction
between writing interpretations, selections of additional data and subsequent reached. The final
touch will be given to the study by way of preparing a systematic and comprehensive report.

UNIT 9.0 NATURALISTIC INQUIRY AND CASE STUDY

CONTENT
1.0. Introduction
2.0. Objectives
3.0. Main content
3.1. Naturalistic Inquiry
3.1.1 Uniqueness of Naturalistic Inquiry
3.2. Main steps in Naturalistic Inquiry
3.2.1 Trustworthiness and objectivity in Naturalistic studies
3.3. Case study Research
3.3.1 Characteristics of case study research
3.4 Main steps in case study

1.0. INTRODUCTION
In the last unit, you learnt two research methods which are qualitative. This unit is a continuation
you are going to learn yet another two methods of research which are qualitative. These are the
Naturalistic research method and the case study method. Under these we are going to discuss
the meaning, significance, their uses and the steps in conducting them.
2.0 OBJECTIVES

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At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain the meaning of naturalistic inquiry
Discuss the uniqueness of the naturalistic inquiry Describe the main steps in naturalistic inquiry
Explain case study research
Mention the characteristics of case study List the main steps in case study.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 NATURALISTIC INQUIRY
As the name implies, this can be said to mean all investigations about social and educational
phenomena conducted in natural settings. It is identified with the concept of field studies in the
areas of Anthropology and Sociology. It has a unique position in the conduct of social sciences
researches. For instance, if you are interested in studying the problems of hotel management in
Nigeria, you may decide to use the naturalistic inquiry method. In this case, it means that you
have to go down to the natural settings of the hotels and their management in order to study the
problems.
In an ordinary scientific inquiry, you start with the statement of the hypotheses, which you
formulated through a deductive process. You can then start collecting data in order to test the
hypotheses or theoretical questions. You may use a physically controlled situation or statistically
controlled techniques. In whatever you are doing, objectivity must be ensured through the use of
representative samples, standardized instruments and different sophisticated statistical designs
for treatment of data and generalization of finds. Naturalistic inquiry does not follow these steps.
It follows an altogether different conceptual framework this takes into account such factors as:-
Multiple Realities: Naturalists believe that multiple realities exist in social situations. These exist
in concrete forms. Realities can be regarded as what people perceive at a particular point in
time. You know that social situations keep changing from time to time. Therefore, realities will
also be changing.
Meanings and Interpretations: Naturalists lay emphasis on the meaning and interpretations
given to objects, events and processes concerning social and educational situations. You need
to understand human behavioural or social phenomenon in order to see the changes, the way
people see them, what they are doing or how they participate in an activity.
Generation of Knowledge: Naturalists insist on the generation of knowledge as a result of the
interaction between the researcher and the respondents. The respondents answer questions
from the investigator in order to show their perceptions or the meanings attached to their
actions. This makes the respondents to achieve maximum levels of responsiveness and insight
into the problem under investigation.
Generalization: Naturalists do not believe in generalization as is done by the scientists. They
believe that the process of knowledge generalization must take into account the differences or
the real evidence existing in specific situations.
Human Relations: There are several intrinsic factors, events and processes that keep
influencing each other. If is not possible to identify one to one cause and effect relationship in
the case of naturalistic studies. Causality in social studies is not demonstrated in the hard
sense, but only patterns of plausible influences can be inferred from social and behavioural
studies.
Value Systems: There is no value – free inquiry. Naturalists assume the influence of value
systems in the identification of problems, selection of samples, use of tools for data collection,

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the conditions in which data are gathered, and the possible interaction that takes place between
the investigator and the respondents. Naturalist‟s points out that the researcher‟s bias is always
there and should be mentioned in the research reports and to be ignored.
3.1.1 The Uniqueness of Naturalistic Inquiry
In terms of procedures, naturalistic research is quite unique. Let us highlight the uniqueness as
follows:
Holistic Approach: The intention of naturalists of the development of deeper understanding of a
given situations in a holistic manner. All possible information in regards to all the significant
dimensions of the situation under study is collected with a view to show the situation in the
totality.
Insightful Inquiry: This is emphasized by the naturalists where human beings are treated as the
sole means of data collection.
Naturalistic research makes use of qualitative methods such as participant observation informal
interviews and discussions, review of relevant literature, daily observation notes and dairy
writing, very often for field work. It can also make use of quantitative method like use of tests,
questionnaires etc sometimes for data collection.
No a Prior Theory: A naturalistic research is such that you go to the field collect data without
having any pre-specified theory in mind. Your belief as a naturalist is that and a prior limits the
inquiry to those elements which may have been significant before developing an understanding
of the situation. The process of holistic inquiry is blocked. Theoretical propositions are
insistence on the development of theories afresh in every enquiry conducted.
No Pre-specified design of study: There is no explicit statement on the hypotheses and the
conditions for data collection, analyses and interpretation. You can only develop; decisions are
taken about the samples during the field work. Experiences got through personal insights,
intuition, personal images and apprehensions are recast into appropriate propositions during the
period of data collection. The data collected are used to analyze and adopt the study to the
pattern of relationship.
Naturalistic setting: in the description of naturalistic research above, you learnt that it takes
place in the natural setting. So naturalistic believe in conducting their studies in realistic settings
since reality cannot be studied in fragmented and controlled situations. They try to bring out
what happens in the realistic situation i.e. a hotel room, restaurant, bar, recreation, club etc.
3.2 MAIN STEPS IN NATURALISTIC RESEARCH.
There are two groups of naturalists. One believes in the procedural details of the study, while
the radical naturalists believe in non-specification of the processes of conducting the study.
However, these are the main steps:
Identifications of broader questions of Inquiry: You have to first specify the pertinent issues or
questions related to the settings and which can be resolved or answered through field study.
Your main focus should be on the specific structure of occurrences rather than general
character of the Phenomenon.
Your emphasis should be on identifying individual perceptions as regards his own decisions or
contributions to the occurrence of the events or processes. You should focus on the
understanding of the realities by identifying satisfactory patterns in the action of the individuals
participating in the activities.

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Collection of the initial level data: The next step is to make deliberate attempts to identify a full
range of variations in the social and organisational arrangement related to the problem under
study. You may start the investigation from a broader context of the problem before you proceed
to the specific occurrences of the events.
Procedures for data collection: You can collect data in different phases through participant
observation. Data collection can be done through all the relevant and available sources and
means like:
Review of available literature, records and documents, dairies, pictures, photographs etc.
Interactions with the people concerned in the programme Direct observation and experiences
about the programme.
Note that you have to use flexible approaches in the field to identify: The situation for
participation to take place
The persons for intensive interaction that is required The people with whom dialogue is needed
Devices of data collection: Different types of devices can be employed for the purpose
of data collection. These include: writing notes about an observed situation; using electronic
appliances such as tape recorders and video camera; taking photographs; and collecting
relevant documents and literature on the problem. You can also make arrangements for informal
interviews or dialogues with different groups of respondents. In this case you have to record
their opinions and perceptions.
You have to be taking daily diaries about your experiences in the field. We have already told you
that field work can be conducted in phases. So after the first phase, you can analyze the data
qualitatively, refine the previous questions and arrive at new specific questions for further
verification.
Data Analysis: Data are analyzed by describing them. The frequency data are presented in two
or three way contingency tables to show the patterns of behaviour. You can some of the times
use descriptive or nonparametric tests like chi-square, Man Whitney, rank order correlation etc
to identify certain patterns of relationships in the context of the specific situation under study.
A sound naturalistic research follows a cyclical process. This involves, data collection,
generation of hypothesis, data examination, further generation and or modification of
hypotheses, further data collection and verification until specific research questions are
identified and the patterns of refined relations are arrived at.
3.2.1 Trustworthiness and objectivity in Naturalistic Research
Trustworthiness: The naturalistic process of inquiry has been criticized based on the issue of
trustworthiness. It is noted that qualitative approaches bring about subjectivity of inquiry. Again
the investigation biases may not allow him to produce authentic information. As a result of
subjectivity valid knowledge may not be generated. The naturalists have objected these attacks.
They have made efforts to fix certain standards to check the trustworthiness of the investigation.
Credibility: This is the level of agreement between the researcher‟s data and the interpretation
and the multiple realities that exist in the minds of the respondents
Transferability: This is the quality that makes it possible to derive accruable meaning of
information on interpretation available in specific contexts.
Dependability: This is the stability of information sought and interpretation derived in different
situations on specific issues.

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Confirmability: This is the possibility of studying the collected objective / systematic information
and getting the same or similar conclusions by different researchers.
The following principles guide naturalistic research in achieving the four criteria above.
The use of prolonged field work to overcome biases and wrong perceptions that may appear in
one short trip.
Persistent observation of certain typical meaningful features can help to increase the credibility
of the study.
Interaction with colleagues helps to evolve suitable designs, share anxieties, apprehension and
feelings about field work
Variety of data sources using different investigators with different perspectives help to project a
consolidated picture of the field and enhance dependability and confirmability of data.
Varieties of related references materials like documents, pictures, films, video and audio tapes
helps to increase trustworthiness
Using varieties of data collection techniques can help to increase confirmability and
dependability of data.
Cross checking of data and interpretations by some of the respondents can enhance internal
validity of the study.
Increasing purposive sampling to collect different instances across a wide range of events can
be useful in maximizing the range of information an increase external validity of data.
Substantive description of events in specific contexts can be useful in establishing the reliability
and dependability of information and conclusion.
Note that these cannot guarantee trustworthiness, but can generate a convincing situation about
the meaningfulness of study.

3.3 CASE STUDY RESEARCH

This can be defined as our intensive investigation about pertinent aspects of a particular unit in
a given situation. This unit of investigation can be an individual, a family, a group of individuals
or families, educational or social institutions, a community or a culture, a village, a tribe, a slum
area, or even a hotel unit, a bank or group of banks or hotel etc. Whatever the unit is, it is
treated as a whole in the context of specific situations. This wholeness is determined through an
abstraction of ideas. A case study conducted on individuals may be linked with the processes of
growth and development of a child, the behaviour of gifted children, psycho-analysis of a
problem child, role of a leader in a specific social movement, the role of a manager in a
company, etc.
Case studies are conducted for developing deeper understanding of intricate relationships
existing in the process – aspects of a specific unit or unit through qualitative investigation. It is
not very different from naturalistic methods. This is why most of the times; it is treated as kind of
naturalistic research.
3.3.1 Characteristics of Case Study Method
Certain specific characteristics shown by the procedural aspect of a full-pledged case study
include:
Continuity in investigation: A continuous and prolonged enquiry about the situations is very
necessary till the underlying factors are explored and plausible patterns of their interaction or
relationship are identified. For example, if you want to study the problems militating against

44
learners support services in the Open University, NOUN for instance, you will see that is not
something you can study in one ego. You have to take prolonged inquires.
Completeness: A sound case study must involve extensive collection of data from internal and
external environment of the unit under study. Data collection will continue till the completeness
of data is ensured and a complete picture emerges.
Authenticity of Data: A case study report must be based on meaningful, reliable and valid
information about the case. Appropriate applications of both qualitative and quantitative
methods like interviews, observations, records, surveys and the administration of tests and
questionnaires can be made. The use of multi-techniques approaches to data collection and
cross examination of data through different methods can take care of the authenticity of data.
Confidential recording: All data involving personal and ethnical issues like relationships of
teachers and pupils with the management, discipline, confidential records, documents about the
institutions etc, must be handled tactfully and care must be taken to maintain their secrecy.
Intellectual synthesis: You know that case study involves multi-method of inquiry and deals with
all significant situations concerning the unit, appropriate synthesis of the data is very necessary
in order to show the uniqueness of the unit and to explore significant relationships. If you are
skilled in the investigation with theoretical sophistication, insightfulness and writing skills, then
you can do justice and prepare a sound case study.

3.4 Main Steps in Case Study

Case study method is sometimes treated as a naturalistic inquiry in that, the same steps
followed by the naturalists are also followed in case study. But the following steps are very
significant.
Selection of a case for investigation: In selecting your case for investigation, there are some
basic questions:
Are you interested in the study of a normal situation with a view to developing deeper in the
phenomenon?
Are you determined to solve the problems of a typical institution?
Are you assigned the job of evaluating the functioning of an institution?
Are you interested in identifying the underlying factors contributing to the excellent performance
of an institution?
Once you have identified the case, then you need to determine the status of the case based on
preliminary information collected about the background of the case.

Data Collection: The process of data collection can be through both qualitative and quantitative
techniques like observations, interviews, check lists, Performa, open ended questionnaires,
surveys, records, psychological tests etc. Personal interaction should come first. Then care
must be taken to make sure that only tools relevant to the case are used.
Analysis of first round data: This is done systematically in order to identify the more complicated
situations or problems and therefore raise important questions about the influential factors.
Second Round Investigation: This is conducted for these specific questions or factors which are
identified during the first round data analysis. This second round involves intensive investigation
through prolonged observations. Formal and informal interviews, questionnaires,

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cross-examination of different documents and record, administration of specific test etc. After
this round analysis and interpretations of data begin.
Introduction of alternative measures: This is mostly done in clinical studies where most of the
suitable alternatives as hypothesized through investigations are introduced.
Follow-up activities: The effectiveness of the alternative measures introduced should be
investigated. This will give a feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of the corrective
measures.
3.4.1 Is Case Study Scientific in Nature?
There are criticisms against case study research for lack of scientific approach. A criticism is
that case study is useful in the exploration of knowledge related to a single unit but has no
scope to test hypothesis or confirm any evidence. This limitation of the case study cannot
undermine its meaningfulness in the process of generating knowledge. Moreover, it
accommodates the process of hypothesizing in a manner different from that o survey and
experimental studies.
Generating hypothesis in case studies: Hypotheses are stated in the form of questions or
statements related to the various aspects of the process. These hypotheses are tested or
confirmed using qualitative method in the given context of the investigation.
Testing hypotheses in the case study method: This follows a qualitative approach. This involves
your insight into an impressionistic view about the process under investigation. But data
processed in quantitative terms can be integrated with qualitative treatment for developing a
holistic perspective regarding the case.
Generalization of case study findings: The process of evidence-generalization here depends on
several considerations. These include the nature of the case study, the theoretical framework
generated, and the extent of objectivity possible. There also possibilities of considering the
findings of a case which are significantly similar to another case that will be studied at a later
stage. There are also situations where studies of different cases can be useful in developing a
new trend.

UNIT 10.0 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Introduction to Descriptive Research
3.2. Main Steps in Descriptive Research
3.3. Types of Descriptive Research
3.3.1 Survey Study
3.3.2 Analysis of Documents
3.3.3 Correlational Studies
3.3.4 Causal Comparative studies

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1.0. INTRODUCTION

In the preceding units, you have been learning some research studies that adopt the qualitative
approach. You have got enough of that. So let us shift our studies to those research methods
which adopt the quantitative approaches. In this unit, you are going to learn the details of
descriptive research. Descriptive research as the name implies describes what is. This involves
the description, recording, analyzing and interpreting such conditions that exist. It is one of the
most popular research methods in the world.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain descriptive research
Describe the main steps in conducting descriptive research Discuss the types of descriptive
research

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
The main aim of descriptive research is to describe “What exists” with respect to variables or
conditions in a situation. They are designed to obtain information about the current status of a
given phenomenon. You can say that they are concerned with the existing conditions or
relationships, prevailing practices, current beliefs, points of view or attitudes processes that are
on-going and their effects, developing trends etc. They determine the nature of situations as
they exist at the time of the study. It is very appropriate in behavioural sciences. You can see
that there are behaviours which may be of interest to you as a researcher and which cannot be
arranged in a realistic setting. Think of one example of this. For instance, you know it is not
possible for you as a researcher to arrange for a motorcycle accident to happen so that you can
assess the effectiveness of the use of crash helmets in preventing serious injuries by „Okada‟
riders. Again, you know that it is not possible for you to bring some people and give them
cigarettes to be smoking so that you can study the effects and relationship with lung cancer.
3.2 MAIN STEPS IN DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH.
Descriptive studies do not present private convictions or data based on casual or cursory
observations rather you:
Examine the Problematic situations
Define the problems and state your hypotheses.
List the assumptions upon which your hypotheses and procedures are based. Select
appropriate subjects and source materials.
Select or construct techniques for collecting data.
Validate the data gathering techniques.
Make objective an discrimination observations
Describe analyses and interpret your data in clear, precise terms.
The summary of it all is that as a research, what you do is to collect evidence on the basis of
some hypotheses, tabulate and summarize the data carefully, and then analyze the results
thoroughly in order to draw meaningful generalizations that will advance knowledge.

3.2.1 Collection of data

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When you write you descriptive research report, you must identify the kind of data obtained as
well as the exact nature of all population. What are the units that constitute your population? Are
they people, items, events or objects? After you have identified the population, you must decide
whether to collect data from the total population or a representative sample of the population.
Total Population
If you want to obtain information from every unit of a small population, it may not be very difficult
in some cases, but the findings can not be applicable to any population outside the group
studied. For instance when you collect information, from every student of school of Business
and Human Resources Management from Lagos study centre, you may draw your
generalizations based on the information. But you cannot claim these generalizations will hold
true for students from the same school of BHRM outside Lagos Centre.
Sample Population:
When you try to obtain information from a large population for instance all the teachers in Imo
state, you will see that it is often not practicable, impossible or exorbitantly costly. If you try to
contact, observe, measure or interview every unit in the group, you will realize that it may take
so much time that the information may become still or absolute before you complete the study.
To this effect what you do is to collect information from a few carefully selected units drawn from
the population. This few units are called samples.
For instance assuming you want to study the study habits of NOUN students and there are
about 75,000 students in all study centres of NOUN. You can see that you cannot collect data
from all these students. What will you do? You will have to select a representative sample of this
population.

It means you have to select your sample from different categories of the student population.
Hence, male/female, employed/unemployed, graduates/undergraduates etc. If you sample
represents accurately the characteristics of the population, the any generalizations based on the
data obtained from them may be applied to the entire group. But it is not easy to select a
representative sample. We shall discuss this in other parts.

3.3. TYPES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

There are different types of descriptive research. Note that this categorization is not sacrosanct.
It is just to help you understand the research more clearly.
3.3.4 Survey Studies
Most of the times, descriptive research is called survey research. But it is better to call survey a
category under descriptive research survey itself is the most widely used method for obtaining
descriptive and evaluative information. This can be used when trying to solve problems in
education, government, industry, politics, organization etc. When detailed descriptions of
existing phenomena are collected, they can be used with the aim of employing the data to justify
current conditions or practices or to make more intelligent plans for improving them. In a survey
studies, we may need to collect three types of data
Data concerning existing status: e.g. find out the study habits of students of NOUN
Comparison of status and standards: e.g. to compare the study habits of distance education
students and those in face to face

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Means of improving status: e.g. to find ay of helping distance education students improve on
their study habits.
Survey can be broad or narrow in scope. They may be confined to a small geographical area
like community, a local government a state or even the whole country or more.
Data may be gathered from every member of a specified population or from a carefully selected
sample. The steps involved in survey research are in general, similar to what obtains for
descriptive research:
Planning: This involves determining what topic to be studied, the type of population to be
investigated and the methods and procedures to be used for data collection.
Sampling: This involves a decision about which people from the population to be included in the
survey. Note that if you are going to generalize from the sample to the population. Then your
selected sample must be representative of the population.
Development of data collection instrument: This involves listing the questions and planning for
the format of the instrument to be used. Is it personal interview, questionnaires, rating scales
etc?
Carrying out the survey: This includes pre-testing the instruments to see if it will yield the
desired data, interviewing the subjects or administering the questionnaires and verifying the
accuracy of the data collected.
Processing the data: This includes tabulating the data, analyzing the data (you can use
computers if you like) interpreting the results and reporting the findings.
3.3.5 Analysis of documents:
Documents and records can be used to bring out pertinent data. Documentary analysis
otherwise referred to as context activity or informational analysis is very much like the historical
research. But while historical research is primarily concerned with the more distant past,
descriptive research is concerned chiefly with the present. There are wide varieties of
documentary surveys made; some researchers can analyze judicial decisions, state laws or
court rulings. Some others may collect and analyze data describing existing practices,
processes and conditions from administrative records, forms and reports, committee reports and
minutes of meetings, budgets and financial records etc. university catalogues, bulletins, syllabi,
courses of study, reading lists, text book and others may be useful in the investigation.
Also newspaper, periodicals, motion pictures, cartoons and other sources can also help. Some
of the advantages include:
To describe the prevailing practices or conditions in the field
To discover the relative importance of, or interest in certain problems or topics i.e. to spot trends.
To discover the level of difficulty of presentations available in text books or in other publications.
To evaluate bias, prejudices or propaganda in text book presentations. To analyze the types of
errors and weakness in performance.
To evaluate the relationships of stated objectives and what is being done practically.
To identify the literary style, concepts or beliefs of a writer. Documentary research produces
valuable information, but the method can have its own limitations. A faulty conclusion from the
data may be drawn by the investigator. There is no representativeness in the samples of
sources of materials used.
3.3.6 Correlational Studies

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In order to have a fuller understanding of human behaviour is to begin by testing out simple
relationship between factors and elements which are supposed to have some bearings on the
phenomenon in question. The value of Correlational research is that it is able to achieve this
end. You know that one of the primary purposes of science is to discover relationships among
phenomena with a view ultimately to predicting and, in some situations, controlling their
occurrences. Most of the researches in social sciences and education are concerned with the
establishment of interrelationships among variables. Therefore we can simply say that
Correlational studies are concerned with determining the extent of relationship existing between
ariables they enable us to measure the extent to which variations in one variable are associated
with variations in another. For instance, what is the relationship between the income level of
individuals and their expenditure patterns? What is the link between personality and academic
achievement?
Correlational studies are intended to answer such questions as:
Is there a relationship between two variables or two sets of data? If the answer is yes then look
at the questions below
What is the direction of the relationship?
What is the magnitude of the relationship? This is determined by a correlation coefficient.
Correlational studies can be broadly classified into two methods.
Relational Studies: Which is particularly useful in exploratory studies in the fields where title or
no previous research has been conducted. It is a shot in the dark in order to verify haunches
which you have about presumed relationships between some characteristics of variables.
Prediction Studies: Which are usually conducted in an area having a firm and secure knowledge
base? It is based on the assumption that at least some of the factors that will lead to the
behaviour to be predicted are present and measurable at the time the prediction is made.
3.3.7 Causal-Comparative studies
Some of the times, it is very necessary to discover how and why a particular event occurs,
instead to confirming ourselves to investigations about what the event is like. So you try to
compare the similarities and differences among phenomena to find what factors or
circumstances seem to accompany or contribute to the occurrence of certain events, conditions,
activities, practices etc. In the behavioural sciences you cannot select, control or manipulate
factors that necessary to study cause effect relationships. You see that you cannot manipulate
things like domestic background, social lass, intelligence, etc. so if you can not manipulate the
independent variable and establish the controls that are required in true experiment, you can
conduct a causal comparative study. Here, you study a real life situation in which subjects have
experienced what you want to investigate.
Causal comparative studies provide the means for tackling problems that cannot be probed in
laboratory situations.
Again they yield valuable information and elites about the nature of phenomena and are well
suited to many types of field studies seeking to establish causal relationships. Their limitations
are:
Lack of control is a serious limitations and weakness
It is usually difficult to identify the relevant factors causing the particular conditions or
phenomena

50
When a relationship between variable is established, it is difficult to distinguish between the
cause and the effect.
The classification of subjects into dichotomous groups for the purpose of comparison also
presents problems
In comparative studies of natural situations, you do not have the same control over the selection
of subjects as you have in experimental studies.

UNIT 11.0 EXPERIMENTAL AND ACTION RESEARCHES

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Experimental Research
3.2. Characteristics of Experimental Research
3.3. Steps in Experimental Research
3.4. Experimental Designs
3.4.1 Pre-experimental design
3.4.2 True Experimental Designs
3.4.3 Quasi Experimental designs
3.4.4 Factorial Design
3.4.5 Time series Research
3.5 Action Research
3.6 Stages of action research

1.0. INTRODUCTION
A research method, as you have studied in the previous units, is a particular way of studying a
problem. The method is determined by the features of the research problem and also the field
inquiry. You have seen many of these research methods before now.
In this unit, which is a continuation of the others we shall discuss one of the most important
methods of research the experimental research. Again we are going to conclude the unit by
concluding our discussions on the research methods with other research.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain the experimental research?
Give the characteristics of experimental research List the steps in experimental design
Explain the types of experimental designs Describe action research

51
Discuss the stages of action research.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
The studies here are designed fro establishing causal relationships. The method begins with a
question concerning the relationship between two or more variables. In order to do this, you
propose one or more hypotheses stating the nature of the expected relationship. Thus an
experiment is the events planned and carried out so as to enable you collect evidence relevant
to the hypotheses. Kerlinger (1974) considers experimental research the idea of science
because answers to research questions obtained in experiments are on the whole clearer and
less ambiguous than answers obtained in non-experimental research types. An experimental
research may be described as a research study in which one ore more independent variables
are manipulated and in which all or nearly all possible influential variables not pertinent to the
problem of investigation kept to a minimum. You may conduct a field experiment or a laboratory
experiment from which you collect data for analysis and then subsequent making of
generalizations.
An experimental research in its simplest form has three characteristics. These are The
manipulation of the independent variable.
All other variables except the independent variable are hold constant
The effect of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable is
observed.
You have to note that both the independent and the dependent change variables are very
important in an experiment. You manipulate the independent variable and then observe the
effects of the changes or manipulation on the dependent variable. The dependent variable is so
called because its value is hypothesized to depend upon and vary with the value of the
independent variable. For instance, you can investigate the effect of warm reception on the
attitude of customers. Here, you will continue to change the type of reception given to your
customers and observe their attitudes. The independent variable is type of reception while the
dependent variable is the attitudes of the customers.
3.2 Characteristics of Experimental Research.
In the conduct of an experiment, there are three major ingredients. These are Control,
Manipulation and Observation
3.2.1 Control:
This is very important in experimental studies because without it, it is impossible to evaluate
unambiguously the effect of an independent variable. The major purpose of control is to arrange
a situation I which the effects of variables only can be measured. We can simply say that control
is the term used to indicate your procedures or methods fro eliminating the differential effects of
all variables extraneous to the purpose of the study. Note that an extraneous variable is one
which is not related to the purpose of the study but which may affect or have influence on the
dependent variable.
3.2.2 Manipulation
This refers to a deliberate operation performed by the researcher. In the behavioural sciences
and education, the manipulation of a variable takes a characteristic form in which the
experimenter imposes a predetermined set of varied conditions on the subjects. This set of

52
varied conditions is referred to as the independent variable, the experimental variable or the
treatment variable.
3.2.3 Observation:
In an experimental study, we are interested to know the effect of the manipulation of the
independent variable on a dependent variable. Therefore you make observations with respect to
some characteristics of the behaviour of the subjects used in the research. These observations,
which are most of the times quantitative in nature, may constitute the dependent variable. For
instance in an educational situation, we are interested to know the performance of students after
going through some learning.
These performances can only be estimated through measures like scores in a test. If we want to
explain or predict student‟s performance we use their test scores. It means that these test
scores are the dependent variables or observations rather than performance.
3.3. Steps in Experimental Research
There are number of steps involved in experimental studies. The steps that will lead you to the
actual experiment are:
Making a survey of the literature related to the problem. Identification and definition of the
problem.
Formulating the hypotheses and defining basic terms and variables. Hypotheses must be
formulated in an experimental research. This is because they suggest how an antecedent
condition or phenomenon or the independent variable is related to the occurrence of another
condition, phenomenon, event or effect otherwise called the dependent variable. For you to test
the hypothesis, you have to attempt to control all the conditions except the independent variable
which you manipulate. You now observe if the effect on the dependent variable is as a result of
the exposure to the independent variable.
Construction of the experimental plan. This refers to the conceptual frame work in which the
experiment is conducted. The plan involves:
Identification of all the non-experimental variables that might contaminate the experiment and
determine how to control them.
Selection of a research design
Selection of the sample of subjects to represent a given population and the assignment of the
subjects to groups and experimental treatments to the groups.
Construction or selection and validation of the instruments for measuring the outcomes of the
experiment.
Outlining the procedures for collecting the data and possibly conducting a plot or trial test to
perfect the instrument or design.
State the statistical or null hypothesis.
These steps above will bring you the actual experiment. After the experiment, you apply
statistical measures to the data obtained and then test the significance of the results.
3.4. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
You have to note that a well developed design will provide the structure and strategy for you to
control the investigation and get dependable answers to the questions raised in the problem or
hypothesis. Again you have to note also that the nature of the problem determines the
appropriateness of the design. Let us look at the various types of designs.
3.4.1 Pre-experimental Designs

53
These are so classified because they offer minimal control of extraneous variables. Let us see
examples.
One group Pre-test, Post-test design.
This involves three steps:
Administering a pre-test measuring the dependent variable. Applying the experimental treatment
X to the subjects Administering a post-test measuring the dependent variable.
This can be presented as shown below.

O1 X O2
Pretest treatment posttest
When the pretest and post tests are compared, any difference can be attributed to the
application of the experimental treatment. Let us use one example. Assuming you want to
assess the effectiveness of a particular self instructional materials (SIM) in a business
management course. At the start of the semester you give all the students taking this course a
standardized test that measures the objectives of the course. After the test, you give the student
the SIM on the course. At the end of the semester, you give the students the same standardized
test. You compare the scores of two tests. Any difference will be attributed to the use of the SIM.
This design has some faults. With the passage of time some students would have grown
mentally or physically, or may have acquired additional learning experiences, like extra lesson or
electronic devices etc. this may have affected the dependent variable. This is an extraneous
variable called maturation. Other factors are history, practice effects, instrument reaction etc.
Static Group Comparison:
This design uses two or more groups. Only one of them is exposed to experimental treatment X.
However the groups are assumed to be equivalent in all relevant aspects except in treatment.
This can be shown as follows.
E = Experimental Group while C = Control Group.

You can see that this design has two groups experimental E and control C. These are
compared. If the E group is superior the difference is attributed to the treatment. But there is no
randomization or matching of the groups to ensure equivalence. Therefore, we cannot be sure
that the groups are equivalent before the experimental treatment.
3.4.2. True Experimental Design
This is so called because it provides:
Random assignment of subject to the groups Random assignment of treatment to the groups
Post testing of all groups.
(A) Randomized Groups Post – test only control group design
There are two groups to which subjects are randomly assigned. Each group is assigned to a
different condition. There is no pre-test given. Randomization is used to control all the possible
extraneous variables. Only the experimental group is exposed to the experimental treatment.
Both groups are given the post test and their performances are compared. This can be
represented as follows:

54
RE X O2 R=randomized
RC - O2
Randomized matched subject pre-test, control group. This is very similar to design above. The
differences are that
Subjects are matched on one or more variables than can be measured conveniently, like IQ,
reading scores or mathematical ability. The matching variables used are generally those that
have significant correlation with the dependent variable
Pre-test is given to the groups before treatment to the experimental group. At the end of
treatment, the two groups are given the post test. The two tests are compared. It should be
assumed that the post test scores of the experimental group should be better than the pre-test
scores, if the experimental treatment is effective. This can be represented thus:
MR.E O1 X O2 M= Matched
MR.C O1 - 02
3.4.3. Quasi-Experimental Design
The difference between this type of design and the true experimental design is that the groups
are not randomized nor matched. Therefore, they are likely not to be comparable. Because of
this reason of non-randomization, the design is called quasi-experimental design and not true
experimental design. Otherwise all the designs in the true experiment, and we have given only
two examples, are applicable to the quasi-experimental designs. See this example: non-
randomized control group pre-test post-test design shown below.

E O1 X O2
C O1 - O2
3.4.4. Time Series Design

This is also not a true experimental design. It can also use one group or two groups as above.
But instead of a one –tone pre-test, the pre-test is repeated three or four or more times before
treatment is administered. This can be used to generate data on the trend of behaviour. Again,
after the treatment, instead of one time post – test, there are also several times of post test
given. This provides data to derive the trend in the change of behaviour. Because the pre-test
and post- tests are used over a time. It is called time series design. Look at these two examples.

i. O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
ii. E O1 O2 O3 O4 X O5 O6 O7 O8
C O1 O2 O3 O4 - O5 O6 O7 O8

3.5. ACTION RESEARCH

Let us start this section by looking at the two words – action and research. Action indicates a
here and now activity, whereas research is a planned, carefully applied sophisticated
methodology for generating knowledge that can be generalized. Therefore the meaning of
action research can be implied in the two words. We can then say that if you super-impose
relevant research methods and processes over action, then you have the main intention of
action research as a means of solving problems. Put specifically, action research is a research
intended to solve practical problems of an individual or a group or an institution through planned

55
intervention in the day-to day working. You can see that the emphasis lies on solving problems
through adoption of alternative practices. According to Cohen and Marion (1989) action
research is a small – scale intervention in the functioning of the real world and a close
examination of the effects of such intervention. It is characterized by:
Situational: It is derived out of situational needs and a solution is also designed with regards to
the situation.
Collaborative and Participation: It can be carried out on individual basis. But it is increasingly
becoming a team work where practitioners and colleagues in an organization collaborate and
participate with the researchers.
Self evaluation: This is necessary where the research team evaluates the outcome of the
exercise. Remember that the study is self-initiated and evolves out of the perception of the
problems by the practicing individual or group.
3.6 STAGES OF ACTION RESEARCH
There are four main stages in the conduct of action research
3.6.1 Stage One: Diagnosis
The actual diagnosis of the problem involves going beyond the symptomatic perception and
deep into the problem to diagnose it clearly.
At this stage we have the following:
Identification, evaluation and formulation of problems i.e. diagnosing the problem on the basis of
the symptoms.
Preliminary discussions and negotiations among interested parties
Review of literature – although not in all cases, but some types of problems may call for this
before articulating the problem.
Modification and redefinition of initial statement of problem.

3.6.2 Stage Two: Planning and Intervention

This involves the selection of the research procedure-designing the intervention, sampling,
administration, choice of material and methods of evaluation.
3.6.3 Stage Three: Intervention and impact assessment
This is the actual implementation, collection and analysis of data to assess the change in the
magnitude of the problem. It involves:
Implementation of the project: That is actually carrying out the treatment designed on the
sample. It will include collection of relevant data.
Interpretation of data: Using minimal statistical or qualitative analysis, the data collected can be
interpreted so that the impact of the treatment on the alleviation of the problem can be
assessed.
3.6.4 Stage Four: Reflection
At this stage you look beyond the factual data based result, with the main purpose of
interpreting the results. Reflect on the why‟s and how‟s of the finding and the onward
destination.

56
UNIT 12.0 POPULATION AND SAMPLING

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Population and Samples
3.2. The purpose of Sampling
3.3. Types and procedures for sampling
3.3.1 Probability Sampling
3.3.2 Non Probability Sampling
3.4. Sampling Techniques
3.4.1 Simple Random Sampling
3.4.2 Systematic Sampling
3.4.3 Stratified Random Sampling
3.4.4 Cluster Sampling
3.4.5 Non-Probability sampling Methods
3.5 Sample size

1.0. INTRODUCTION
As a student of research, you will always be concerned with populations and samples as
concepts in the research process, especially at the levels of data collection and analysis.
Population parameters and sampling techniques are of paramount importance and are regarded
as very critical factors for the success of most researches. In this unit, you will be exposed to
concepts, processes and methods or techniques for selecting your samples from your target
population.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Define a population?
Describe a sample?

57
Differentiate between probability and non-probability samples? Explain the sampling
techniques?
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLES
In your research studies, you need to administer questionnaires or conduct interviews or use
other methods to collect information about some persons, objects, events or ideas from some
particular group of people like all accountants in the banks, all bank managers in Lagos State,
all hotel owners in Lagos etc. Each of these groups of persons constitutes target groups called
the population of study. You can see that each group is a collection of persons with the same
characteristics or qualities required in the research situation. According to Best and Khan (1995)
a population is any group of individuals that have one or more characteristics in common that
are of interest to the researcher.
3.2 THE PURPOSE OF SAMPLING.
The major purpose of studying samples instead of the entire population is that the population is
sometimes too large that it is not feasible to study it. Take for instance a population consisting of
all banking and finance students in Nigerian Universities.
You can see that it is not possible to study each student across Nigeria. The lost of time and the
weight of volume of the report would be very prohibitive. So sampling allows you to study a
workable number of cases from a large group to get findings that are relevant to all members of
the group.
3.3. TYPES AND PROCEDURES FOR SAMPLING
You have to note that not all studies lend themselves to sampling. Sampling is only appropriate
whenever large populations that have outward semblance of homogeneity are to be studied.
Sampling techniques are simply defined as methods of drawing samples from total populations.
They are classified into two: Probability and Non-probability sampling techniques
Probability Sampling
In this technique, the components of the samples are chosen from the larger population by a
process known as randomization. The principle of randomization ensures that all the individual
subjects of the larger population have equal chances of being selected and included to be
members of the drawn samples. This generates valid samples that are truly representative of
the larger populations. This will also permit you to estimate precisely the likelihood of a sample
differing from the true population by a given amount. It can be calculated as sampling error. This
is an estimate of the extent to which the values of the sample differ from those of the population
from which it is drawn.

Non-Probability Sampling
This is a type of sampling where you do not know the probability of each population element
being included in the sample. They are known to generate biased samples that are not truly
representative of the target population from which they are drawn. Any sample that is non-valid
can encourage errors in findings that cannot be generalized to the total population. The greatest
limitations of the non-probability samples are:
Because there is no probability in the selection of the elements for the samples no real claim of
representativeness can be made. This greatly limits the ability to generalize findings beyond the
level of the sample cases.

58
The degree of sampling errors remains unknown and unknowable. The method of estimating
samples errors are not applicable to non-probability samples because there is no clear
population represented by the samples.
All the statistical test of significance is based on laws of probability and assume that a random
process is used in selecting the samples. So non-probability samples do not qualify for test of
significance.
However, they are very useful in research especially where there is no intention to generalize
the results from the sample to larger population.
3.4. SAMPLING TECHNIQUES
In the section above, you learnt that the two broad sampling techniques are probability and non-
probability sampling. Each of these sampling techniques has a number of sampling approaches
or methods under it. For instance the probability sampling has under it, simple random,
systematic, stratified and cluster sampling. Let us look at them.
3.4.1 Simple random sampling

This is based on the principle that individuals are chosen from a target population such that
each has an equal chance of being selected, and each choice is independent of the other.
Another and more convenent method of doing the same thing is to use a table of random
numbers. This is mostly used these days in lotteries and try your luck games. You can get it in
texts.
3.4.2 Systematic Sampling
If your target population can be accurately listed, then this method can be used to get what
approximates a random sample. It consists of the selection of a Kth number from the list.

3.4.3 Stratified Random Sampling

In the case the population is sub-divided into smaller subgroups called strata, e.g. male, female,
urban, rural, Christians, Muslim, traditionalist etc. Then simple random sampling is employed to
draw required samples from each of the strata.
3.4.4 Cluster sampling
When the population is spread across a large area, it becomes difficult to make a list to select
samples for study through the normal simple random process. The large area has to be sub-
divided into sub-units for effective handling. For instance a state could be sub divided into
zones, local governments or wards and a series of cluster sampling is done from each of these
sub units to get the sample which will be truly representative of the target population.
3.4.5 Non – Probability Sampling
This type of method uses whatever subjects are available rather than following a specific
subject selection process. This method produces samples which do not accurately reflect the
characteristics of the population of interest. Such samples may lead to unwarranted
generalizations and should not be used if randomization is possible. Under this we may have
Accident or Continuance Sampling: This takes the subjects as they come to the scene or as
they are presented to you by mere happenstance. There is no attempt to control biases.
Quota Sampling: This selects the respondents in the same ratio as they appear or are found in
the target population. It is also an unregulated type of sampling. This is because you have no

59
probability of how the subjects will be selected. Others in this category are Availability Sampling,
Purposive Sampling, and Dimensional Sampling etc.
3.6. SAMPLING SIZE
Most of the times, such questions like what samples size is adequate enough for a study, may
arise. According to Best and Khan (1995) the ideal sample is large enough to serve as an
adequate representative of the population about which the researcher wishes to generalize and
small enough to be selected economically in terms of subject availability, expenses in both time
and money, the complexity of data analysis etc.
In other-words there is no fixed number or percentage of subjects that determines the size of an
adequate sample. The size may depend on the nature of the population of interest or the data to
be collected and analyzed. Samples of 30 and above are considered large samples and less
than 30 are considered small samples. However, it is important that care must be taken in the
selection of the samples. Emphasis should be on representativeness rather than sample size.
Random sampling or letting chance or law of probability determine which members of the target
population are to be selected is the ideal thing to do.

UNIT 13.0 STATISTICAL TOOLS OF ANALYSIS

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Data Analysis: Definition and Meaning
3.2. What is Statistics?
3.3. Parametric and Non-Parametric Statistics
3.4. Measures of central tendency
3.5. Measures of variability
3.6. The Normal Curve
3.7. Measures of association
3.8. Parametric Tests
3.9. Non-Parametric Tests

1.0. INTRODUCTION

When you have successfully collected your data through the use of any f he data collection
instruments or tools, the next thing to do is to organize the data collected using tables, graphs,
pie chart, diagrams, frequency distribution tables, polygon, curves among others. At this stage
you saddled with the responsibility of analyzing the organized data in order to test your stated
hypotheses for results or situations to the problem of study.

60
After the analysis of data comes the interpretation of data as maybe found in most quantitative
research studies. Data analysis is essentially statistical but in this unit little instruction is
provided on statistics. This is because it is not the purpose of the unit to deal on statistics, but to
provide guidance to its uses in research. You will get the detailed statistical methods in some of
you courses on statistics.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain data analysis?
Describe the concept of statistics
Differentiate between parametric and nonparametric statistics Calculate each of the measures
of central variability
Explain How to use each of the measures of variability Discuss the use of measures of
association
Distinguish between parametric and non parametric tests.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 DATA ANALYSIS: DEFINITION AND MEANING.
Nwana (1981) has described data analysis as referring to those techniques whereby the
investigator extracts from data, information that was not apparently there before and which
would enable a summary description of the subject being studied, whether human or material, to
be made. To Kerlinger (1971) data analysis is the categorizing, ordering, manipulating and
summarizing of data, adding that its purpose is to reduce large quantities of raw data to
manageable and interpretable form so that characteristics of situations, events and people can
be succulently described and the relations among variable studied and interpreted. A look at
these definitions indicate that the process of data analysis in research involves a series of
activities that are all practical applications of theories, models, principles and laws of the science
of descriptive, sampling and inferential statistics.
3.2. WHAT IS STATISTICS?

Let us start this section by describing statistics as a body of mathematical technique or

processes for gathering, organizing analyzing and interpreting numerical data. You know that
most research yields such quantitative data. Therefore statistics is a basic tool of measurement,
evaluation and research. The concept statistics is sometimes used to describe the numerical
data that are collected. Statistical data describe group behaviour or group characteristics
abstracted from a number of individual observations that are combined to make generalizations
possible
According to Kerlinger (1971) statistics is considered the theory and method of analyzing data
obtained from samples of observations in order to describe population, to study and compare
sources of variances, to help make decisions to accept or reject relations among phenomena,
and to aid the process of making reliable relations among empirical observations. The point is
that unless abstract and concrete phenomena are quantified and represented by figures are
numerals, their nature relations and dynamics will not be understood.
3.3. PARAMETRIC AND NON-PARAMETRIC STATISTICS.
In general statistics can be divided into two broad categories. These are parametric and
nonparametric statistics. For parametric statistics, we assume that most populations have at

61
least one parameter. A parameter is a characteristic or quality of a population that, in concept is
a constant but whose value is a variable. In statistics parameters refers to characteristics of a
population. But when you have similar characteristics of a sample, these sample characteristics
can be called statistic. Before we move to the next stage let us look at some of the concepts you
my meet as you go on in this discussion.
Non Parametric Data: These are data which are either counted or ranked. They are sometimes
known as distribution free tests. They do not depend on the assumption of normally distributed
populations.
Descriptive Analysis: In this type of statistical analysis, generalizations are limited to the
particular group of individuals observed. The conclusions are not extended beyond the group.
Similarity to those outside the group cannot be assumed. So the data can only describe one
group and that group only. Most of the simple action researches you conduct involve descriptive
analysis and provide valuable information about the nature of a particular group of individuals.
Inferential Analysis: This type of statistical analysis involves the process of sampling and the
selection of a small group that is assumed to be representative of the population from which it is
drawn. So drawing conclusions about population based on observation of the samples is the
purpose of inferential analysis. We shall briefly touch on both descriptive and inferential
statistics which you will be using in your research projects.
3.4. MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY OR LOCATION

These are used to indicate the central point around which data revolve. They are of several
forms. The most common is statistical analysis of data are the mean, median and mode. They
help you to find out from your data of numerical values what values can be representative of the
sample of people or objects which you are studying.
3.4.1 Mean
This is the arithmetic average of the values in a distribution. It is obtained by adding up all the
values in the distribution or group of scores and dividing by the total number o values. It is the
most useful of all statistical measures, because, in addition to the information that it provides, it
is the base from which many other important measures are computed. For instance if
X = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8
Then ∑X = 2+3+4+5+6+7+8 = 35
N=7
X = 35/7 = 5
Depending on the type of data distribution of scores, the mean can be computed in different
ways. There is a method for calculating the mean for grouped frequency distributions and a
method for calculating the mean using the assumed mean method.
3.4.2 The Median

This is a point or value that divides the distribution of values into two equal groups with as many
cases above it as below it. It is a measure of position rather than of magnitude.
It can be found by both inspection and calculation. When we have single values we use
inspection. But if the values are grouped we use calculation. For instance if
X = 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. You can see that the middle number is 5. It is the median. But if we have

62
see 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9. The middle number is added and divided by 2. In this distribution 5 + 6
=
11 ÷ 2 = 5.5. The median is 5.5

3.4.3 Mode
This is the value which is characterized as the highest number of frequencies in a frequency
distribution of values. It is the value that occurs most frequently in a distribution. It can be
located by inspection when values are listed or by calculation when values are grouped. For
instance:
2, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9. You can see that the highest occurring number in this set of
number is 4. It is the mode.

3.5. MEASURES OF VARIABILITY OR DISPERSION

These tell us how the values spread in a scale of distribution. According to Nwana (1981) the
variability of a set of values can contribute immensely to the need for researchers to determine
objectivity, the extent to which marks, weights, heights, views, opinions and infact all values of a
variable obtained in a research do differ from one another. Let us look at some of these
measures.
3.5.1 The range
This is the difference between the highest value and the lowest value in a set of data. It is the
difference between the two extreme values in a distribution of figures. It is an unreliable
measure, because it does not guarantee the researcher a fair and dependable index of
variability. This is because of the use of the two extreme values. If you look at the mathematics
test in activity 1, you will see the highest number is 95 and the lowest number is 55. Therefore
the range is
95 – 55 = 40. There are two types of range but we can not go to that now.

3.5.2 Mean Deviation

This is the average distance away from the mean in which the measure lies. It is used by the
researcher to determine the power of representativeness of the mean as a measure standing in
for other measures in the same distribution. A value expressed as its distance from the mean is
called a deviation value. It is given by the formula X = (X – X). For the mean deviation it will be
X. (X – X) 2/N. This can be done regardless of the signs.
3.5.3 Variance (δ2)
You will note that the value of the sum of the deviations from the mean is always zero. So when
you square the deviations around the mean and sum up the value and divide by N what you get
is the variance. It will give you a positive value.
It is given by δ2 = ∑(X –X) 2. The variance is a value that describe how all the
values in a distribution are dispersed to spread about the mean. It is very useful in describing
the characteristics of a distribution and will be employed in a number of very important statistical
tests.

∑(X – X) 2 = 1500

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3.5.4 Standard Deviation
This is the square root of the variance. It is the most frequently used measure of variability or
spread in a distribution.
According to Cohen (1976) it is the most reliable of all the available measures of dispersion. It is
given by
δ2 =
∑(X –X) 2or
∑X2

N
N
In the above example where variance δ2 = 1666. 67 The standard deviation will be 166.67 =
12.91
Both the variance and standard deviation can be calculated using the raw score method. It is
given by

3.6. The Normal Curve:

The law of probability and the normal curve that illustrate if it is based on the law of chance or
the probability occurrence of certain events. If a set of observations conforms to the
mathematical form it is represented by a bell-shaped curve which has definite characteristics.
3.6.1. Features of a normal Curve
The curve is symmetrical around its vertical curve axis. The terms cluster the centre or median
The mean, median and the mode have the same value
The curve has no boundaries in either direction for the curve The cover touches the base line no
matter how far it is extended. The curve is a curve of probability not certainty.
3.6.2. Characteristics of the Normal Curve.
It is symmetrical – the percentage of frequencies is the same for equal intervals below or above
the mean.
The terms of values cluster or crowd around the mean The terms curve is highest at the mean.
The curve has no boundaries.
3.6.3. Applications of the normal curve.
To calculate the percentile rank in a normal distribution
To normalize a frequency distribution an important process in standardizing a psychological test
or inventory.
To test the significance of observed measures in an experiment.
3.7. MEASURES OF ASSOCIATION OR RELATIONSHIP
These measures called correlation coefficients are concerned with the determination of the
relationships between variables and variables. They are mostly used in determining whether or
not there is a relationship is always expressed in some degree of coefficient the degree of
relationship, direction, and amount are always represented by the index of positive or negative
called correlation is a method in which an index of coefficient. Technically, in quantitative
research, correlation is a method in which an index of coefficient is calculated to describe the
degree of relationship or association between two sets of paired values and then tested to

64
determine the probability or the chances of occurrence of the relationship. Correlation is
indicated by +1.00 No correlation or association is indicated by 0.00. While perfect negative
relationship is indicated by -1.00. There are different types of techniques are spearman‟s rank
correlation coefficient. For details of the copulation consult your course material on statistics
3.8. PARAMETRIC TESTS.
These are the powerful tests in statistics and should be prefentially used if their base
assumptions are not. The assumptions are related to the nature of the population distribution
and on the way the type of scale is used to quantify the data observations.
However some parametric tests are so robust that they can be appropriately applied even when
some of the assumptions are violated.
These assumptions according to the Best and Khan (1995) are as follows.
The observation are independent selection of case is not dependent on the selection of another
case.
The sample have equal or nearby equal variances
The variance described are expressed in interval or ratio scales

3.8.1 The Null Hypothesis (Ho)

Elsewhere, you have been told that a hypothesis is an academic or speculation as regard the
result, outcome or solution of a research problem. We have also told you that there are two
types of hypotheses. These are the null hypothesis (Ho) and the alternative hypothesis (H1).
The null hypothesis says that there is no significant difference to relationship between two or
more parameters. It is concerned with the judgment as to whether apparent differences or
relationships are true or whether they merely result from sampling error. When you propose for
statistical purpose, a null hypothesis we have the alternative hypothesis. These propose that
differences will exist.
3.8.2 The Level of Significance
When you propose a hypothesis for your problem, you have a direction as to how to collect your
data. You analyze the data collected in order to test the hypothesis. Based on stronger test of
logic and evidence before you, you can accept or reject the null hypothesis. Of course, when
you reject a null hypothesis, you accept the alternative and vise versa. The acceptance or
rejection of a null hypothesis is based on some level of significance otherwise called alpha (α)
level of significance.
When you choose the 5% or 0.05 alpha levels, it shows that out of 100 replications of your
experiment sampling error will account for 5% of the results. In other words 95% probability that
any difference between the experimental treatment. This is to say that if you conduct the
experiment 100 times 95 of them will be correct while 5% will have error due to chance or
sampling error. A more rigorous test of significance is the 1% (0.01) alpha level.
3.8.3 Decision Making
In the above section, you were told that based on the evidence before you, you make a decision
as to whether to accept or reject the null hypothesis such statistical decisions about parameters
based on evidence observed in samples may have the possibility of error. Statisticians do not
deal with decisions based on certainty. They estimate the probability or otherwise of occurrence
of events when you reject a null hypothesis when it really true and should of have been rejected,
there is an error. This called type I error when you accept a null hypothesis when it is really false

65
and should have been rejected, there is also an error, and this called type II errors. So you set
the level of significance you will consider the relative seriousness of making type I or type II
error.
3.9. Non Parametric tests
The major difference between parametric and non-parametric test lies in the sophistication of
the measures used for calculating the variability of the values. Non-parametric tests are much
simple to calculate. A major criterion for selecting an appropriate non parametric test is based
on whether you have used same subject for all experimental conditions or different groups of
subjects for each conditions. Let us look at some of the test under this.
The Chi-square (λ2): This is employed in comparism between observed and theoretical or
expected frequencies or in testing the mathematical fit or frequency of an observed frequency
distribution. So for frequency evaluation in certain research instances this is the most
appropriate statistical method.
The Mann Whitney U Test: This is the counterpart of the t-test in parametric measurements. It is
used for a two-condition unrelated design when different subjects are used for each of the
conditions.
Wilcoxon signed ranked tests: This is used for a two-condition related design when the same
subjects perform under both conditions i.e. matched subjects.
Friedman tests: This extension of the Wilcoxon tests. It is used for a related design if the same
subjects or matched subjects are performing under three or more conditions. Others are Paye‟s
L. Trend test. For trends between three or more conditions. Kris Kal – Walhi test which is an
extension of the Mann Whitney test using three or more conditions unrelated design when
different subjects are used. Jonckheere Trend Test which is an extension of the Kruskal Wallis
test etc.

UNIT 14.0 WRITING RESEARCH REPORTS AND PROPOSALS.

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Chapter and sections constituting a research project report
3.2. The preliminary pages
3.3. Chapter one- Introduction
3.4. Chapter Two- Literature Review
3.5. Chapter three- Methodology
3.6. Presentation and Analysis
3.7. The Discussion
3.8. Recommendation, Implications Supplementary Pages.

66
1.0. INTRODUCTION
You have been told that research is useful for generating findings that are used for rational
decision making and as a spring board for further research. Therefore the findings and the
procedures used to generate such findings must be disseminated to make research serve these
purposes. To do this, the research reports are written for circulation to a wide audience. The
final stage of the research report is to communicate to the literate world the findings of the
researches activities in the course of conducting the study. The contents of your research report
in principle should include the description of the research problem investigated why the problem
was investigated, how it was investigated and the method used in the process, what the findings
and conclusions of the analysis were.
In order to present a lucid and co-ordinated research, you must have a through grasp of the
entire nature of the research process as well as a good command of written English. This unit
will help you learn the details of how to write your research project report, and more.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:-
List the chapters and sections constituting a research reports Describe the chapters and
sections of a research project report Explain the differences between research proposal and
report.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 CHAPTER AND SECTIONS CONSTITUTING A RESEARCH PROJECT
REPORT
Speaking technically, the research process is a model of the scientific method of thinking or of
analyzing problems. As a model of science, the research process in its simplified form will be
constituted by the following stages of activities:
Problem identification and definition Hypothesis or answer(s) formulation Research design and
data collection Data analysis and discussion Conclusion and generalization making
In all applied research studies, these basic stages of activities are mechanically followed in the
process of investigating problems peculiar to the various specific areas of life. In writing the
research report, the impersonal mode is preferred for communication. Instead of stating that “I
did this” or “I did that”, you can say “the study was carried out……, the samples are…….,” the
research report will depend on the research philosophy and the culture of the institution,
organization or the department in control. NOUN has different schools which have their own
house styles. Before you start writing your research report, find out the house style of your own
school.
The arrangement of different parts of the report should make it possible for a reader to easily
locate any section of particular interest to him. To give you a guideline, a conventional format fro
arranging research reports in these/dissertations is given in this section. A particular thesis need
not have all the sections therefore; relevant sections would be used in the appropriate order.
The format is as follows:
Preliminary pages:
Title page
Acceptance page or approval page Dedication
Acknowledgement Abstract
Table of content List of tables List of figures

67
List of appendices Chapter One- Introduction:
Background to the problem or Rationale for the problem Statement of the problem
Significance of the study
Objectives of the study or purpose of the study Scope of the study
Area of study / context of the study Research questions and or hypothesis Definition of terms
(operational definitions)
Review of literature:
Theoretical and conceptual frame work Review of related researches
Research Methodology
Research design Population
Sampling technique and samples
Instrumentation – development and administration of instruments Data collection
Data analysis techniques Limitations
Results and discussion
Presentation and analysis of data Interpretation of the findings
Summary and Conclusion Summary of results. General conclusion
Implications of the study and / or recommendations.
Suggestion for further study g.Supplementary
Bibliography Appendix Index
Let us describe some of these sections

3.2 THE PRELIMINARY PAGES

The first page of the report is the title page, where the table of the project is clearly, briefly and
to the point stated. The title should contain such essential elements as the major variables and
the target population. It should be phrased in such a way that it describes what the study is all
about. It should not be phrased in an emotionally laden way in order to suggest that a particular
point of view is being sold or emphasized to the reader. Look at this title „Gender differences in
Mathematics enrolment among NECO candidate in 2008”. You will notice that the title clearly
shows the variable is gender and mathematics enrolment while the target population is NECO
candidates in 2008.
The acceptance page: This is laid out in a way specified by the institution to which the research
project report is submitted for a degree. This page may contain the following information: The
names, signatures of the departmental head, the dean, the supervisors, the dates, and the
name of the students and very importantly an attestation of the originality of the research report.
Some institutions also require the name and signature of the external examiner.
The dedication page: This permits emotionally laden words in which tribute is paid to individual
or group who are dear to the writer or hose who would be interested in the research findings.
The Acknowledgment Page: This page expresses gratitude to all those who helped you in the
research process, that is in conducting the research and preparing the report.
Abstract: This succinctly summarizes the research process by stating the aim of the
investigation, the population, samples, and methods of investigation, the measuring instruments
used and the findings.

68
The Table of Content: This lays out in a tabular form, the chapters, headings and sub-headings
of the report with the page numbers in which various sections of the report may be located. You
have to sequentially arrange and number the content from preliminary to supplementary pages.
The List of Tables: This is similar to the table of contents. It shows the page numbers in which
the table presented in the report are located. The number and title of each table should be
serially listed. Similarly, the list of figures tabulates all figures, their numbers, titles and the
pages where they are presented in the report or where they can be located. Again, the list of
appendices should also be serially arranged in numerical order.
3.3 CHAPTER ONE – The Introduction.
The background to the problem: This presents reasonable statements to indicate that it is
valuably worthwhile to spend time, energy, to dissipate resources to carry out this investigation
in the problem area. You have to present the reasoning to be clear and convincing to the
readers. The problem statement: Some of the times, this is stated in interrogative or question
statements which define and limit the scope and direction of interest of the researcher in his
topic of study. It deals with the nature of the topic or issue of study which needs clarification.
The significance of the study: This shows the utility value of the research. The findings of your
research are expected to profit some individuals or institutions, etc. These beneficiaries and the
benefit expected to accrue to them ought to be mentioned.
The objectives of the study: This should state the specific aspects of the problem investigated in
the research and the reasons for focusing on these aspects. This section should give a brief
overview of all the elements that would be investigated. Some of the times this section is
interchanged with the purpose of the study.
The scope of the study: This indicates the extent to which the researcher intended to cover the
topic, the geographical area, time period and variables to be covered. Some of the times, this
section is interchanged with delimitation of the study.
The research questions and / or hypotheses: These are stated in order to guide and direct the
researcher in the investigation especially in the area of literature review, collection an analysis of
data, discussion etc.
The definition of terms: This section is used to educate and inform the reader on the operational
meaning of any coined or technical words, phrases or expression which cannot otherwise be
understood because of their unconventional usage. You should not include any terms to which
appropriate meaning is attached by conventional usage. The essence of definition is to make
sure your readers understand the specific meanings you ascribe to the term in your study.
3.5 CHAPTER TWO – Literature Review.
In this chapter section, you are expected to show what other researchers and writers have
done, said, written, found out in the area of the research topic you are investigating. You are
expected to make reviews of theoretical, conceptual and empirical literature. Any literature
review should provide guidance on the research hypotheses/questions and problem, the
methodology to use for the study and on the anticipated findings of the study.
3.5 CHAPTER THREE – Methodology
The research design: In this section, you should make a write up to show the extent to which
extraneous variables were controlled or eliminated. You should also report any lapses as
limitations. The design may or may not fall into the neat categories of research design described
earlier. Infact, you can use a combination of design if need be. Effective control of extraneous

69
variables may dictate the use of unlabelled designs. Therefore any plan that you use should be
clearly described even if it cannot be classified under a conventional label used in research.
The population: You should make a description of this in order to specify all the necessary
parameters to ensure that all he constituents and characteristics of the target population are not
ambiguous. You should not take the population as the area of study. For instance, an area of
study could be hotel management staff. To enhance the population description, you should
tabulate the constituent‟s elements and their characteristics. For instance, you can take hotel
management staff in Lagos state to be managers, accountants, supervisors, board members
etc. The hotels could be classified as five stars, four stars, three stars etc. These could also be
classified according to gender.
The sampling technique: This should be described in such a way as not a leave your readers in
doubt about what you have actually done in selecting your sample. It is not enough to say „A
simple random sample of 100 respondents was drawn from the population.
You have to report the specific manner in which a simple random sample was drawn. For
instance, you can report that a table of random numbers was used to select 100 out of 1000
subjects or that pieces of numbered papers were jumbled in a basket and members of the
population were picked from it. This is very important.
Instrumentation: In this section, you have to describe the tools used for data collection, such as
questionnaire, attitude scales, tests opinionnaire, etc. in order to show their essential
characteristics. You should also report the reliability indices and validation procedures. If you
have used a standard instrument, you have to report and give reasons why you considered it
most appropriate. You also have to show that all necessary conditions for its administration were
fulfilled. But if you developed new instrument, you have to outline the procedures followed in the
development.
Data Collection: In this section, you should indicate the method(s) through which you obtained
the data. Such details as whether research assistance were used, if yes, whether they were
trained, whether you wee present at each location to collect the data or postal system were
used, did you obtain permission before collecting data etc, should all be reported. You should
also report whether the instruments used for recording went faulty during data collection and
steps taken to correct them. These details, when reported will help future researchers to be
formed. These practical details and problems encountered when reported will serve the
additional purpose of confirming that you actually carried out the investigation and experience
the realities of research. So, you have to report all the steps you have taken in order to ensure
the collection of valid data.
Data Analysis techniques: This section describes the methods you have applied to the data and,
if applicable, the reasons for their choice. These reasons for choice should be related to the
research design, the nature of the sample and the types of data. If the mode of analysis is not
widely known, you have to report it in details. Note that it is better as far as possible to use the
simplest, ell known techniques. It is not very necessary to report the formula and details of
computation of very popular techniques like chi-square, t-test or ANOVA.
Limitations of the study: In this section, you are expected to state the desirable conditions which
were not met and which are expected to influence the external and /or internal validity of the
research study. It may be possible, for instance that an experimental study is inevitably 164
limited in generalizability of the findings to the target population because of restrictive conditions

70
in which the research was conducted. While a non-experimental research may fail to control for
all the relevant extraneous variables therefore, it will reduce the internal validity of the research
study.
3.6 DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
Usually in chapter four of the report, results of analysis of data collected is presented. It should
clearly and concisely set out the results using the most illuminative modes of presentation. You
can exploit fully the use of tables and figures. All tables and figures should be serially
numbered. They must have titles or headings. You should highlight the findings of interest
displayed in these using brief verbal descriptions. These should be directly related to the
hypotheses and / or research questions. It is always better to organize the data presentation
and analysis around the hypotheses and research questions. You have to treat each hypothesis
or research questions. You have to treat each hypothesis or research questions in turn. All the
detailed calculations of the data may be included in the appendix.
Interpretation of the findings: In this section, you have to make the results more meaningful to
your readers by discussing possible explanations for the findings. In doing this, you have to cite
relevant literature to provide convincing evidence that the interpretation makes a contribution to
existing theory and knowledge in the area. You have to make available to the reader all the
insights obtained while analyzing the data.
3.7 THE DISCUSSION
Because of the importance of this section, we want to bring it out again for further explanation.
The function of this section enable you to evaluate and interprete the implications or meaning
especially with respect to the original hypothesis stated in the study. You have to use the fact
and figures contained in the reviewed literature to effect accurate interpretations of the finings
and the implications. You are free to examine interprete and qualify the research results as well
as draw or make inferences, reasons, and guesses in order to justify or rationalize the results or
findings. This is where you have the opportunity to show your scholastic prowess in your area of
study. You are expected to give particular emphasis to any theoretical consequences of the
results and the validity of your findings, conclusions, and implications. plications and
suggestions
3.8 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS,
IMPLICATIONS

These are usually parts of the final chapter which constitutes chapter five of the research report.
The Summary: In this section you should clearly and concisely restate the problem, the
hypotheses and / or research questions and findings.
The Conclusion: These should be based solely on the findings generated by the research.
Recommendations: Based on the findings and conclusions of the study you may make some
valuable recommendation you think are appropriate for application in your area of practice in
order to make activities processes more effective. The overall goal of research is to provide
answers to question thereby producing new theories to increase knowledge or generate better
theories to increase knowledge for results and better ways of doing things to achieve better
results to make life better. You should therefore make clear, relevant and verifiable
recommendations that will be of practical value.

71
Implications of the study: At this stage you may wish to include personal ideas on the relevance
of the findings to theory and practice. These ideas should be directly derived from the study. It is
an error if you use this section for speculative statements about which your research had no
evidence. You will gain nothing by making an unnecessarily lengthy implication section. Instead
you loose some marks for speculating outside the scope of the study.
Suggestion for further study: You should genuinely provide these as if they are matters arising
from the research study. You are also expected to produce some implications for further study,
for further refinement or for repetition to ensure continuous growth of knowledge in the chosen
activities in all areas of human life endeavors. Research is for control, improvement and control
strategies in the different areas of life.
3.10. SUPPLEMENTARY PAGES
The Bibliography or Reference: These include all references which you have cited in the repot.
All the related literature which shed light on the problem but were not cited are also included for
more exhaustive study by interested readers. The method with which you can arrange the
bibliographical entries depends on the referencing style. Whatever style you want to use, you
have to make the format uniform through out the research report. Most institutions make use of
the author/date system in which the entries are arranged alphabetical order of the authors‟
names. If an author has more than one work in a year, use the alphabetical suffices a, b, c, d,
etc added to the year of publication to distinguish between the different publications. They have
to be serially arranged with in the year. Where an author has publication in different years, you
should arrange them serially with the earlier work entered first.

UNIT 15.0 RESEARCH REFERENCING, PROPOSAL CONTENTS

AND ETHNICAL ISSUES

CONTENT
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main content
3.1. Research Referencing
3.1.1 Books
3.1.2 Articles or chapters in Books
3.1.3 Government document
3.1.4 Periodical
3.1.5 Others

72
3.2. Proposal Content
3.3. Ethnical Issues in Research

1.0. INTRODUCTION

You have come to the last unit of this course. You have already learnt enough to enable you
conduct your research investigations. After writing your research report, you need to cite all
reference materials used in the research report. In this unit, you will also learn about the
proposal content and research ethnics. These are some of the things you need to know in your
research process.
2.0 OBJECTIVES
At the end of this unit, you should be able to:- Explain research referencing
Write reference from variety of sources
List differences between research reports and proposals Discuss ethnical issues in research
3.0 MAIN CONTENT
3.1 RESEARCH REFERENCING
In writing your research report, you have to make sure that you list all the references cited with
full details. You should ensure that the details of the author, date, place of publications,
publisher and page numbers are accurate. This will enable your reader to retrieve the source
cited. Some of the times some additional references not cited are included in the references.
This is then called the bibliography. Such additional references draw the reader‟s attention to
further literature in the area. There are different types of methods used. Some of them are
Turabian or numeric index, the American Psychological Associational system. This is the most
popular. Therefore we shall follow it in this unit. Let us see how to use it in the reports.
3.1.1 Books
When you make a book reference, you should include the following details in the sequence in
which we have listed them.
Surname of the author(s) or editor(s) separated from the initials with comma(s)
Add the initials of the author(s) or editor(s).
Use the abbreviations Ed or Eds in parenthesis to specify the editor or editor(s).
Put the year of publication in parenthesis, separated from the title with a full stop. If it is a
reprinted book, the year of the first publication is used. If it is a revised edition, the date of the
revision is used.
Where applicable, include sub titles to the titles delimited by a full stop
All editions other than the first should be specified using such abbreviations as 2nd ed., rev. ed.,
African ed. In parenthesis. A full stop should be used to separate the edition from the volume
number, serial numb or town of publication as applicable.
Add the volume number and/ or series number and a full stop.
Add town of publication separated from the publisher with a colon. If the towns are more than
one, they should be delimited using commas.
The last is the publisher followed by full stop.

73
Johnston, J. W. C. and Rivera, R. C. (1965). Volunteers for Learning Chicago: Aldline Publishing
Co.
Kanu, O. R. (1994). Teacher Education in Nigeria: A historical perspective. Umuahia, Owerri,
nugu, Lagos: Ark Publishers
McKean, D. G. (1977). Introduction to Biology (West African Ed.) London: John Murray Ltd.
Nkpa, N (1992). A Practical Guide to Continuous Assessment in Science. Umuahia, Owerri,
Enugu, Lagos, Sokoto: Ark Publishers

3.1.2 Articles or Chapters in Books

For this, essential features of references are as follows.
Author of articles or chapter is listed. Year of publication is listed in parenthesis
The title of the article is added. This is not underlined. It is delimited with a full stop. Use the
term „in‟ to show that the article is contained in a more comprehensive work. Editor(s) of the
book is added with the initials before the surname.
Add Ed. or Eds in parenthesis, separated from the title by a full stop. Add the title of the book
underlined and delimited by a full stop.
Add town of publication separated from the publisher by a colon. Put the publisher delimited
with a comma.
Add the page numbers in which the article appeared. Examples:-

Dash, N. K. (1993). Research possibilities in Distance Education. In M. Co. Moore (Ed).

Contemporary issues in American Distance Education. New-York. Pergamon Press. PP
386-396
Ohuche, R. O. Nwachukwu, V. and Nzewi, U. (1990). Trends in unpublished higher degree
research in Nigeria (1965-1887). In R. O. Ohuche and M. Anyanwu (Eds) Perspective in
Educational Research and National Development. Volume I. Onitsha: Summer Educational
Publishers Limited, 63 – 73

3.1.3. Government Document

Examples in this category are
Abia State of Nigeria (1995): Government White Paper on the Report of the Panel of Inquiry into
the Affairs of the Secondary Education Management Board. Umuahia: Government Press.
Federal Republic of Nigeria (1981). National Policy on Education (Rev. Ed.) Lagos: Federal
Government Press.
National Open University of Nigeria (2004). Educational Research methods. EDU 702. Lagos:
Noun.
3.1.4. Periodicals
These are published and issued at regular intervals. They may include Journals, magazines,
bulletins, News letters, News papers etc. Essentially, these are to be included:-
Author‟s name separated from the initials with a comma. Year of publication enclosed in
parenthesis.
Title of the article. Only the first letter of the title is written in capitals Name of the periodical
underlined
Volume number underlined, issue number in parenthesis or page numbers.

74
Example.
Nkpa, N. (1992). The Chinese checkers motion game. STAN Bulletin. 6(2), 13-15.
Osuji, U. S. A. (2007). Improving educational access through open and distance learning: The
way forward to globalization in Nigeria. International Journal of Development Studies. Vol.
2. No. 2. 100-104.
3.1.5. Others
Technical Reports and Monographs: References for these are entered in the same manner as
books. Some monographs or reports may be together without publishers. Examples.
ASUU (1995). The Destruction of the University of Abuja. Academic staff union of universities.
UNESCO/ICDE (1990). Developments in Distance Education in Asia: An Analysis of Five Case
Studies, Bangkok. UNESCO.
Published Conference and Workshop Proceedings: References to this are documented in the
same way as that for periodicals but the volume and issue numbers are not available.
Osuji, U. S. A. and Okonkwo, C. A. (2005). Open and Distance Learning: A liberalization of
Educational Opportunities through integration of ICTs in Teachings and Education. Conference
proceedings of the e-learning held at University of Ibadan. 1-10
Unpublished conference and Workshop, proceedings; manuscripts.
Balogun, T. A. (1975). Some current science curriculum development: Levels and global
rationale. Unpublished Mimeograph. University of Ibadan
Nzeako, U. (1980). Perspectives in education. Unpublished Manuscripts
Personal Communications: These include letters, memos and telephone conversations.
They can be cited only in the text by the authors name and dates e.g.
M. A. Obioha (Personal Communication, June 20, 2004)
Minutes of Meetings: These are cited by the details indicated on the minutes for example: PTA,
Federal Government College, Okigwe (2002). Minutes of the meetings of the Parent /
Teacher Association of the Federal Government College, Okigwe held on March 10, 2001.
UTU (2008). Minerals of the meeting of the Umuihi Town Union Lagos Branch held on Sunday
November 2 2008 at the Bolade Grammar school Oshodi Lagos.
Published Dissertations: These are documented by citing the Volume, issue and page numbers
in which their abstracts appear in the Dissertation Abstract International, and their order number
e.g.
Nkpa, N. (1984). Clear biology teaching: Students and Observer Perspectives. Dissertations
Abstracts International. 45 (a) 2746 – A, N0. Da 84267:7
Unpublished Dissertations: These are listed mentioning the educational institution awarding the
degree. The number of pages may be included. For instance.
Osuji, U. S. A. (1992). The effects of group-self evaluation on learning outcomes. Unpublished
M. Ed. Dissertation. Abia State University Uturu.
Okpala, P. N. (1985). Teacher attitudinal variables in instructional and assessment practices as
correlates of learning outcomes in Physics. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Ibadan. 261 pp.
3.2 PROPOSAL CONTENTS
In the last unit, you studied in details how to write the research project report. We think it is very
necessary for you to learn about research proposals. The research proposal is written before
the actual research work is carried out. It tells the reader the type of problem or issue you are

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intending to study, why and how you intend o carry out the study. It is usually differentiated from
the final research report from the language used in writing the proposal. In other words,
thelanguage of the future is usually cast in the proposing write up. That is to say that you use
such expressions in the language of the future tense.
3.2. ETHICAL ISSUES IN RESEARCH
It is very important to talk about ethical issues in research process. Ethics in research process
have assumed considerable significance especially when the area of study transgresses
national boundaries and because information needs to be disseminated or distributed accurately
and with equity. In designing your questionnaires tests and experimental procedures you have
to take into considerations the diversity in the circumstances of the students, and in relation to
the effective data collection procedures and ethical requirements. According to Evans and
Jakupee (1996); Sample participants in the research projects should be informed very clearly
about the objectives of the research, the procedure and the implications of the research findings
including their utilization. When you have distance participants in Pestal or telephonic
interviews, you must try to empower them in order to be able to respond to the research
questions. Again, before you start the interview or the questionnaire administration you should
try to get written contents from them to ensure their freedom and to reduce uncertain or
unproductive travel time and cost. Strong ethical considerations are required for the conduct
and utilization of institutional research. You have to make a distinction between students‟
research and research involving evaluation for the improvement of courses and students
services. You need to exercise caution and restrain in your temptation to publish result or
present them in a conference, when the findings are essentially meant for institutional
monitoring and quality assurance.

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