DNA: THE CODE OF LIFE

Paper 2: 27 Marks
INTRODUCTION

Nucleic acids are organic molecules that are essential to life as they control the
synthesis of proteins in all living cells by storing and transferring genetic
information.

Nucleic acids contain nucleotides.

Two types of nucleic acid:

1. DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

2. RNA (Ribonucleic acid)

DNA
FUNCTION OF DNA

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a molecule that makes up

the genes which carry hereditary information that control
protein synthesis.

Function of DNA:

 DNA makes up the genes which carry hereditary

information.

 DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis.

LOCATION OF DNA IN A CELL

Location of DNA in a cell:

 Mostly found in the nucleus (nuclear DNA) – makes up genes on

chromosomes.

 In the mitochondria (mitochondrial DNA).

Extranuclear DNA:
DNA found outside of the nucleus
 In chloroplasts (chloroplastic DNA) in plants.
Chromosomes: long, thin thread like structures
composed of DNA wrapped around proteins called
histones.

Gene: is a short segment of a DNA molecule that codes

for a particular protein.
 HISTORY OF THE DISCOVERY OF THE DNA
MOLECULE

Date Discovery
1952 Rosalind Franklin takes X-ray photos of DNA using crystallography.
Maurice Wilkins shows the unpublished photo to Watson and Crick.
1953 James Watson and Francis Crick formulate the double helix structure of
DNA using a 3D model.
1962 Watson, Crick and Wilkins receive a Nobel Prize.
Franklin did NOT receive a prize, as she died at the age of 32 and didn’t
give the prize posthumously.
STRUCTURE OF DNA

 DNA is a giant molecule, consisting of two

strands that are twisted to form a double helix.

 DNA is a polymer (huge in complexity not size).

 The monomers of DNA (building blocks) are

called nucleotides.
NUCLEOTIDES OF DNA

Nucleotides in DNA consist of 3 parts:

1. Sugar molecule (D – Deoxyribose)

2. Phosphate group (P – Phosphate)

3. Nitrogenous bases linked by weak hydrogen bonds

 Adenine (A)

 Thymine (T)

 Guanine (G)

 Cytosine (C)
 CUT THE PY
PURE AS 2 GOLD RINGS
Pyrimidines
Purines
Cytosine
Adenine
Uracil
Guanine
Nucleotides Thymine

Purines Pyrimidines
(large) (small)

Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Thymine (T) Cytosine (C)

NUCLEOTIDES OF DNA

Complimentary base pairing:

 Nitrogen bases that always pair with each other. A large

purine will always bond to a smaller pyrimidine.

o Adenine always bonds to thymine (Always Together)

o Guanine always bonds to cytosine (Good Company)

DNA molecule has equal number of Adenine and Thymine bases and
equal Guanine and Cytosine bases.

A =T & G =C
 STICK DIAGRAM OF A DNA MOLECULE
Nitrogenous base Weak hydrogen bonds
Phosphate

Deoxyribose sugar

Sugar phosphate bond

ROLE OF DNA

In the nucleus, DNA:

 Controls the functioning of the cell.

 Controls protein synthesis, the formation of proteins, hormones, enzymes.

 Stores hereditary information and transmits this information from one generation to
another.

In the chloroplasts and mitochondria, DNA:

 Controls protein synthesis.

ROLE OF DNA

DNA is responsible for the transmission of hereditary characteristics (hair colour, eye
colour, height) are found in short segments of DNA called genes.
• Gene is made up of atleast 150 nucleotides in a specific sequence.

DNA also controls protein synthesis. Proteins are long chains of amino acids.
• Part of the DNA molecule that codes for the formation of proteins is called exons.

• Part of the DNA molecule that doesn’t code for the formation of proteins is called introns.

• Introns are non-coding DNA and can be referred to as junk DNA.

MARKING GUIDELINES

The location, structure and functions of a DNA molecule:

 The DNA is in the nucleus✓/chromosome/genes/mitochondria/chloroplast
 DNA is a nucleic acid ✓
 It is double stranded ✓ molecule
 and arranged in the form of a helix ✓
 consisting of building blocks called nucleotides ✓
 The three components of a nucleotide are as follows:
 Nitrogenous bases ✓
 Phosphate portion ✓
 Deoxyribose sugar portion✓ (in DNA)
 4 nitrogenous bases ✓ are A, T, C, G ✓
 adenine (A) binds with thymine (T) ✓ and cytosine (C) binds with guanine (G) ✓
 by weak hydrogen bonds ✓
 Sections of DNA carry hereditary information
 DNA contains coded information for protein synthesis ✓
DNA REPLICATION
DNA REPLICATION

DNA replication is the process of making new identical DNA from existing DNA.

 When: Interphase. Before mitosis and meiosis occurs.

 Where: Nucleus of somatic cell (body cell).

 Controlled by: Enzymes.

 Why: During mitotic cell division, one mother cell divides into two daughter cells.
• It is essential that DNA makes identical copies of itself before cell division to ensure
each daughter cell contains the same genetic information as the mother cell.
• Each daughter cell has identical DNA composition to the mother cell.
DNA REPLICATION

 How:
Double helix DNA unwinds to show ladder shape.
Step 1:

Weak hydrogen bonds break between nitrogen bases by enzymes.

Step 2: The molecule unzips and the two single strands move apart.

Each single strand serves as a template to form a new complimentary strand by picking up
free nucleotides from the nucleoplasm and becomes double stranded again through
Step 3:
complimentary base pairing (A=T, G≡C).

Two new double strands are identical to each other and to the original. Each double strand
now becomes twisted and helical in structure.
Step 4:
Two genetically identical DNA molecules are formed.
Parental DNA

Daughter DNA
DNA REPLICATION

Significance (importance) of DNA replication:

1. DNA replication ensures daughter cells in mitosis have identical genetic make-up as the
parent cell.

2. DNA replication before mitosis ensures chromosome number in each daughter cell is
the same as the number in the parent cell.

3. DNA replication ensures genetic properties are transmitted from one generation to
another.
MARKING GUIDELINES

Process of dna replication:

 The DNA- double helix molecule unwinds within the nucleus

 Weak hydrogen bonds between the two strands break/ the molecule unzips

 Each strand serves as a template to form a new strand

 Free DNA nucleotides attach to the individual strands - with complementary

 Nitrogenous bases pairing (A to T and C to G)

 Two genetically identical DNA molecules are formed

 Process is controlled by enzymes

DNA PROFILING

DNA profiling is the analysis of DNA samples to identify individuals or

relationships between individuals.

 Scientists are able to extract DNA from human body cells.

o Biological specimens include skin, hair with root, and bodily fluids including blood, saliva and
semen.

 DNA is prepped and processed to obtain “a barcode” pattern. This pattern is known as the
persons DNA profile bars / DNA fingerprint. Non-coding DNA is used in DNA profiling.
DNA PROFILING
DNA PROFILING

Each pattern obtained is unique to an individual and is known as their

DNA profile.
▪ With exception of identical twins.
▪ The probability of two people having the same DNA profile is very rare.
▪ DNA profiling therefore has became a popular method for determining guilty from the
innocent.
▪ This method of forensic evidence is not always accepted in court since there is no
uniform method or standard for taking the profile.
▪ DNA can also be planted at the crime scene to frame a person.
DNA PROFILING

Uses of DNA profiling:

 Identify crime suspects in forensic investigations.
 Identify dead bodies.
 Identify relatives.
 Proof of paternity (determining the father of the child).
 Determine the probability and / causes of genetic defects.
 Trace missing persons.
 Establish compatibility of tissue types for organ transplants.
DNA PROFILING

Advantages of DNA profiling Disadvantages of DNA profiling

(For DNA profiling) (Against DNA profiling)
Proof of paternity of child Is an expensive process
Tracing lost relatives / separated siblings Process is subject to human error
Identifying remains of victims of wars / Be used to frame innocent people
accidents
Determine possibility of genetic defects Not everyone's DNA has been profiled
Treatment of genetic defects Profiling an innocent persons DNA may
infringe on their human rights
Solving criminal cases in forensics
MARKING GUIDELINES

Uses of DNA profiling / analysis:

 To investigate crimes ✓/ resolve disputes
 To identify organisms from their remains ✓
 To identify family relationships other than paternity ✓ e.g. siblings or cousins
 To test for the presence of specific alleles ✓ / genes that cause a genetic disorder
 To establish matching tissues for organ transplants ✓
DNA SEQUENCES

All the nuclear DNA in a cell of an organisms is said to make up its genome.
 Every organism has its own unique genome with a complete set present in every
cell.
 The DNA sequence of an organism refers to the particular sequence in which the
nucleotides are arranged in the DNA molecule.
 Determining the DNA sequence of an individual is a long and expensive
procedure.
 The DNA sequence of only a few species has been determined.
o These include humans and chimpanzees.
DNA SEQUENCES

 When studying two organisms thought to be descended from a common ancestor the
physical appearance and behavioural patterns can be observed and compared. This was
the only comparison used until very recently.

 Now scientists can analyse the DNA of organisms to see how closely related they are

 The more similar the nucleotide sequences of organisms the more closely related these
organisms are.

 There is about a 40% similarity between the DNA of humans and a banana, 85% similarity
with a mouse, 98% with a chimpanzee and 99% with any other human beings.
PRACTICAL – DNA
EXTRACTION
 DNA EXTRACTION PRACTICAL

SUBSTANCE FUNCTION
Onion, strawberry, wheatgerm etc. Source of DNA

Dishwashing liquid Breaks down cell membranes

Salt Combines with nucleic acid to form visible
crystals, since DNA is not visible

Meat tenderizer, pineapple juice, contact lens Contains enzyme to break down the histone
solution proteins
Alcohol/ methylated spirits DNA is NOT soluble in these solvents and will
therefore appear as a stringy or cloudy mass
The DNA in raw wheat germ is enclosed
in the nucleus of the cell.
• To extract the DNA, first break open
the cellulose cell wall by vigorously
shaking a mixture of cells and warm
water. The warm water will deactivate
an enzyme in the cell that can break
down DNA.
• After the cell wall is broken down, our
next barriers are the cell membrane
and nuclear membrane. The warm
water will melt the membranes and
soap can be added to dissolve the
lipid layers.
• Once the DNA is free in the mixture, it
can be precipitated out by adding a
layer of ethanol. The DNA precipitates
out because it is insoluble in ethanol
and now the DNA can be spooled
onto a wooden stick for collection.
DNA EXTRACTION PRACTICAL

Why is water temperature important?

 The heat softens the phospholipids (fats) in the membranes that surround the cell and the
nucleus.

 It also denatures the deoxyribonuclease enzymes (DNase) which, if present, would cut the
DNA into such small fragments that it would not be visible.

 Denatured enzymes and DNA unravel, lose their shape, and thus become inactive.
Enzymes denature at 60° Celsius, and DNA denatures (falls apart) at 80° Celsius.
DNA EXTRACTION PRACTICAL

Why is detergent / soap important?

 Pulls apart the fats (lipids) and proteins that make up the membranes surrounding the
cell and nucleus. Once these membranes are broken apart, the DNA is released from
the cell.
DNA EXTRACTION PRACTICAL

Why use concentrated alcohol/methylated spirits?

 DNA precipitates or separates and moves through the alcohol layer with small bubbles
attached to the strands.
 The DNA released from the cell nucleus is dissolved in the water/detergent/wheat germ
solution and cannot be seen.
 DNA precipitates out of solution in alcohol, where it can be seen as white mucous-like
strands.
 Alcohol separates the DNA from the other parts of the cell. You should use 70-95%
alcohol, or methylated spirits –that is very concentrated (less water).
 Why cold ethanol? The cold temperature keeps the DNA from breaking apart (dissolving)
so easily. DNA is very thin and fragile.
DNA EXTRACTION PRACTICAL

Recommendation to improve extraction of DNA:

 Place the methylated spirits in a fridge before the practical activity, so that its
temperature is colder than that of the water. This would ensure that distinct layers are
formed.

 Grating the onion, increases the surface area for the dishwashing liquid, salt and
tenderizer to act on.

 Placing the beaker in hot water allows for the cell breakdown to occur faster.
DNA EXTRACTION PRACTICAL

Safety precautions:
 Methylated spirits is flammable, so keep it away from an open flame.

 Do not ingest the methylated spirits. Methylated spirits contains a substance that would
induce vomiting.

 Ensure that the workspace is kept clean during this practical activity. Dishwashing liquid is
slippery, and learners could slip and fall, causing serious injuries such as broken bones.

 Do not fool around with sharp objects such as toothpicks and wooden skewers. If a person
is accidentally poked in the eye, for example, damage to the eye could result in blindness.
RNA
LOCATION OF RNA

RNA occurs in the:

 Nucleus

 Cytoplasm

 And forms part of the ribosomes

TYPES OF RNA

There are three different types of RNA that are found in different parts of
the cell:

1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)

2. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

3. Transfer RNA (tRNA)

Anti-codon
 RNA type Location Structure Function
Copies the genetic code from
DNA and carries to the
Single – stranded and long. ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
Messenger RNA (mRNA) Nucleus
Every 3 bases – codon.
mRNA obtains the code for
protein synthesis from DNA.

Has an anti-codon which

determines the amino acid it
Small molecule shaped like a
must transfer during protein
three-leafed clover.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) Cell cytoplasm synthesis to the ribosome.
Has an anti-codon on one end
and amino acid on the other end.

Single-stranded and makes up

Makes up ribosome structure
Ribosomal RNA most of the structure of a
Ribosomes which is the site for protein
(rRNA) ribosome.
synthesis.
No definite shape.
TYPES OF RNA – STICK DIAGRAMS

mRNA tRNA
STRUCTURE OF A RNA MOLECULE

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a single-stranded molecule

shorter than DNA and consists of nucleotides.

Nucleotides in RNA consist of 3 parts:

1. Sugar molecule – ribose (R).

2. Phosphate group (P).

3. Four nitrogenous bases.

 Adenine (A)
 Uracil (U)
 Guanine (G)
 Cytosine (C)
 CUT THE PY
PURE AS 2 GOLD RINGS
Pyrimidines
Purines
Cytosine
Adenine
Thymine
Guanine
Nucleotides Uracil

Purines Pyrimidines
(large) (small)

Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Uracil (U) Cytosine (C)

FUNCTION OF A RNA MOLECULE

RNA plays a role in protein synthesis.

HOW TO IDENTIFY A RNA MOLECULE

Ribose sugar
Single-strand R
Uracil nitrogenous base
DNA VS RNA
STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES
DNA VS RNA

DNA RNA
Double stranded molecule Single stranded molecule
Helix shape Straight molecule
One of the nitrogenous bases is thymine Nitrogen base uracil in place of thymine
Contains deoxyribose sugar Contains ribose sugar
Longer molecule Shorter molecule
Paired bases Unpaired bases
SIMILARITIES BETWEEN DNA AND RNA

BOTH DNA AND RNA HAVE

Both have nucleotides consist of a phosphate, a sugar and a nitrogenous
base.

Both molecules are found in the nucleus.

Both consist of the nitrogenous bases cytosine, adenine and guanine.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
PROTEINS OVERVIEW

A protein is a large organic molecule (polymer) and is made up of building blocks

(monomers) called amino acids.

 There are 20 different amino acids.

 Amino acids are joined together by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain (fewer than

50 amino acids) or a protein (more than 50 amino acids).

 Type of protein is determined by the sequence and type of amino acids.

 Proteins are synthesised according to the genetic code of DNA.

PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Protein synthesis is the process whereby proteins are made in living cells.
The process is controlled by DNA and RNA.

2 Main steps:
O DNA
1. Transcription R
mRNA
D
tRNA
2. Translation E
R Amino acids
 Codon is a group of three adjacent nucleotide bases on a mRNA
strand. Codon is the code for a specific amino acid.

Anticodon found on the tRNA is a group of three adjacent

nucleotides that recognises the codons of mRNA, forms a base pair
with codons on a strand of mRNA.

Codon is a group of three adjacent nucleotide bases on a mRNA

strand.
TRANSCRIPTION

Transcription is the process by which DNA makes mRNA.

Where: nucleus.

 mRNA carries the encoded message of which protein to make from the DNA to
the ribosomes.

 After mRNA is formed it moves from the nucleus to the ribosomes of the cell.
 TRANSCRIPTION PROCESS

Step 1: Double helix DNA unwinds.

Double-stranded DNA unzips and weak hydrogen bonds break to form two separate
Step 2:
strands.

Step 3: One strand is used as a template to form mRNA.

Free RNA nucleotides (A, U, C, G) from the nucleoplasm become attached to the DNA
template to form mRNA.
Step 4:
The mRNA is complementary to the DNA.
The mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis.

mRNA separates from the DNA and moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and
Step 5:
attaches to the ribosome.
MARKING GUIDELINES

Transcription in protein synthesis:

 Double helix DNA unwinds. ✓
 Double-stranded DNA unzips, weak hydrogen bonds break to form two separate
strands. ✓
 One strand is used as a template. ✓
 To form mRNA. ✓
 Using free RNA nucleotides from the nucleoplasm. ✓
 The mRNA is complementary to the DNA. ✓
 mRNA now has the coded message for protein synthesis. ✓
TRANSLATION

Translation is the process by which the information from the DNA carried
on the mRNA is used to form chains of amino acids that make up protein.

Where: ribosomes in the cytoplasm.

 TRANSLATION PROCESS

mRNA moves from the nucleus to the cytoplasm and attaches to the
Step 1: ribosome.

Step 2: Each tRNA carries a specific amino acid.

When the anticodon on the tRNA matches the codon on the mRNA then
Step 3: tRNA brings the required amino acid to the ribosome.
Amino acids become attached to each other by peptide bonds to form the
Step 4: required protein.
MARKING GUIDELINES

Translation in protein synthesis: (apply to an example)

 mRNA moves from the nucleus ✓ to the cytoplasm and attaches to the ribosome.
 When the [anticodon on the tRNA] ✓
 matches the [codon on the mRNA] ✓
 Then tRNA brings the required amino acid ✓
 To the ribosome. ✓
 Amino acids are joined by peptide bonds ✓
 to form the required protein. ✓
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS ORDER

Example

DNA CAT O
R
mRNA Codon GUA D
E
R
tRNA Anti-codon CAU

Amino acid CAU

MARKING GUIDELINES

How a gene mutation influences the structure of a protein: (Apply to an

example)
 A mutation is a change in the nucleotide/nitrogenous base sequence
 of a DNA molecule/a gene
 since mRNA is copied from the DNA molecule
 during transcription
 This will result in a change in the codons
 As a result, different tRNA molecules
 carrying different amino acids will be required
 The sequence of amino acids changes
 resulting in the formation of a different protein
 If the same amino acid  is coded for
 there will be no change in the protein structure
GENETIC CODE
GENETIC CODE

Genetic code is a set of rules by which information encoded within the

genetic material (DNA or mRNA sequences) is translated into proteins
(amino acid sequences) by living cells .

 The code is the form of three nucleotides on DNA called triplets.

 Triplets determine the mRNA codons (64 different types).

 All codons except 3 of them code for one of the 20 amino acids.
GENETIC CODE

 Start codon: AUG and is always translated first into a protein.

 Stop codons: UGA, UAA, UAG and chain always stops with one of these
stop codons as there are no anti-codons for them.
 Sequence of nitrogenous bases in DNA
(A-T, G-C)
Determines

Sequence of nitrogenous bases in mRNA

Determines
The order in which the tRNA gets attached to
the mRNA
Determines
The sequence in which amino acids appear in a
protein molecule
Determines

Type of protein formed