Natural Science Laboratory

Constructor University
Electrical and Computer Engineering
Signals and Systems Lab

Fall Semester 2024

Lab Experiment 1 -
RLC-Circuits -
Transient Response
Author of the report: Ms.Huda Farhat

Experiment conducted by : Ms. Huda Farhat, Ms. Zhaniya Yesnazarova

Place of execution : Research III, Room 54
Date of execution : September 25th, 2024

1
1. Introduction and Theory
Second-order systems are crucial in electrical engineering as they aid in
comprehending oscillatory behavior and stability. They are essential in creating filters
and oscillators. One of the most common second-order systems is utilized in this
experiment - the RLC circuit. Throughout the procedure, the different cases of the
transient response are observed.

RLC Series Circuit

An RLC series circuit consists of a resistor ®, an inductor (L), and a capacitor ©
connected in a single loop. This type of circuit is fundamental in electrical engineering
as it exhibits a range of behaviors depending on the frequency of the input signal. The
RLC series circuit is characterized by its ability to resonate at a particular frequency,
where the inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other out, resulting in a
purely resistive impedance.

Second-Order System
A second-order system is one whose behavior is described by a second-order
differential equation. These systems are prevalent in various engineering fields,
including mechanical, electrical, and control systems. The defining feature of a
second-order system is the presence of two energy storage elements, such as inductors
and capacitors in electrical circuits, which result in a characteristic equation with a
quadratic form. The response of these systems can exhibit oscillatory behavior, and the
damping ratio and the natural frequency influence their stability and performance.

Second-Order-Differential Equation
A second-order differential equation involves the second derivative of a function and is
fundamental in describing the dynamics of systems with two energy storage elements.
In electrical engineering, these equations often arise in the analysis of RLC circuits. The
general form of a second-order differential equation is,

2
 2
𝑑 𝑦 (𝑡) 𝑑 𝑦(𝑡) 2
2 + 2α 𝑑𝑡
+ ω0 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑦𝑝(𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

Here α is the damping coefficient and ω0 is the undamped natural frequency.

𝑦𝑃(𝑡) is the forced solution, and often the circuit when 𝑡 → ∞.

Transient Response Of Second-Order DE

The transient response of a second-order differential equation describes how a system
reacts to a change in input before reaching a steady state. This response is crucial in
understanding how systems behave under non-steady conditions, such as when a
switch is turned on or off. The transient response is influenced by α and ω0 , which

determines whether the system will oscillate, and if so, how quickly it will settle to its
steady state value.

Over-Damped Case
In the over-damped case, α > ω0 , resulting in a response that does not oscillate.

Instead, the system returns to its steady-state value exponentially without overshooting.
This behavior is typical in systems where the resistance is high relative to the
inductance and capacitance, leading to a slow but stable return to equilibrium.

Critically Damped Case

A critically damped system has α = ω0, which allows it to return to its steady-state

value as quickly as possible without oscillating. This is the ideal damping condition for
many applications, as it ensures the fastest response time without overshooting. Critical
damping is often desired in systems where stability and speed are necessary.

3
Under-Damped Case
In the under-damped case, α < ω0, causing the system to oscillate before eventually

settling to its steady-state value. This oscillatory behavior is characterized by a decaying

sinusoidal response. Typically known as the ringing phenomenon. Under-damped
systems are common in applications where some degree of oscillation is acceptable or
even desired, such as in oscillators.

Complete Response Of Second-Order DE Series RLC Circuit

The complete response of a second-order differential equation in a series RLC circuit
includes both the transient and steady-state components. The transient response
captures the initial behavior following a disturbance, while the steady-state response
describes the long-term behavior of the circuit. By solving the second-order differential
equation governing the RLC circuit, one can predict how the voltage and current evolve
over time, providing a comprehensive understanding of the circuit and its time-varying
dynamic.

KVL & KCL

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) and Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) are fundamental
principles in circuit analysis. KVL states that the sum of all voltages around a closed
loop in a circuit must equal zero, reflecting the conservation of energy. KCL states that
the sum of currents entering a junction must equal the sum of currents leaving the
junction, reflecting the conservation of charge. These laws are essential tools and are
used to derive the differential equations for voltages and currents of second-order
differential equations.

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2. Execution
Experimental Setup
Workbench No: 4
Tools and Instruments:
➔ Agilent 33220A Generator
➔ Oscilloscope
➔ Breadboard
➔ Resistor-Decade, Inductor, Capacitor
➔ Wires, probes

Problem: Design of an RLC circuit

Setup
For this experiment, the following circuit was arranged on the breadboard. The
generator was connected and set to produce a 100Hz square wave, a peak-to-peak
voltage of 1V at a 0.5V offset. The oscilloscope was connected in parallel to the
capacitor and was observed for a modulating signal. The arrangement is shown below.

Execution and Results

The damped frequency was measured, while a ringing phenomenon was observed, and
is presented in the hard copies below.

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6
Next, the damped radian frequency was calculated.

1 𝑅 2 1 100 + 50 2
𝑤𝑑 = 𝐿𝐶
− ( 2𝐿 ) = −3 −9 − ( −9 )
(10 * 10 )(6.8 * 10 ) 2(6.8 * 10 )

10 3 2 10
= (1. 47 * 10 ) − (7. 5 * 10 ) = 1. 464375 * 10
5
= 1. 210 * 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
5
𝑤 1.210 * 10
𝑓 = 2𝛑
= 2𝛑
= 19. 26 𝑘𝐻𝑧

As can be observed, the calculated value of the frequency matches the one displayed
by the oscilloscope - approximately 19 kHz. Therefore, the experiment was proceeded
with.

Next, the resistance was calculated to obtain a critically damped case.

−3
𝐿 10 * 10
𝑅 = 2 𝐶
= 2 −9 = 2. 425 𝑘Ω
6.8 * 10

The R-decade was set to this value and the following was observed.

7
The R-decade was varied slightly to obtain more clear critical damping. This was at
2.325 kΩ.

Finally, the R-decade is set to 30kΩ to observe the over-damped case.

3. Evaluation & Conclusion

8
Problem: Design of an RLC circuit
Question 1:
Obtaining Differential Equation For Volatge V_C(t) Across Capacitor With
R=100Ω

We use KVL around the circuit loop,

𝑣𝑅(𝑡) + 𝑣𝐿(𝑡) + 𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑖𝑛

These voltages are as follows,

𝑑𝑖(𝑡) 1
𝑣𝑅(𝑡) = 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑅 , 𝑣𝐿(𝑡) = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
, 𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = 𝐶
∫ 𝑖(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡

And the current is as follows,

𝑑𝑣𝐶(𝑡)
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

Substituting back into the KVL equation,

𝑑𝑣𝐶(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑑𝑣𝐶(𝑡)
𝑅(𝐶 𝑑𝑡
) + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
(𝐶 𝑑𝑡
) + 𝑣𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
2
𝑑𝑣𝐶(𝑡) 𝑑 𝑣𝐶(𝑡)
𝑅(𝐶 𝑑𝑡
) + 𝐿𝐶( 2 ) + 𝑣𝑐(𝑡) = 𝑣𝑖𝑛
𝑑𝑡

Then, this is the differential equation for the homogeneous solution for 𝑣𝑐(𝑡) :
2
𝑑 𝑣𝐶(𝑡) 𝑅 𝑑𝑣𝐶(𝑡) 1
2 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐿𝐶
𝑣 (𝑡) = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑐

This may also be referred to as the characteristic equation.

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Identifying The Damping Nature Of The Circuit
To identify the damping nature of the circuit, the discriminant of the characteristic
equation is analyzed.
𝑅𝑇 150
α = 2𝐿
= −3 = 7500 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2 ( 10 * 10 )

1 1 2
ω0 = = = 1213 * 10 𝑘 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝐿𝐶 −3 −9
(10 * 10 )(6.8 * 10 )

Since α < ω0 , the circuit is underdamped. The ringing phenomenom also verifies this.

Determining The Values For The Coefficients C1 and C2.

To determine the values for the coefficients, the solution to the differential equation is
presented. Here, the homogeneous solution along with the particular solution is
presented
−α𝑡
𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑒 (𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑑𝑡) + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑑𝑡)) + 𝑣𝑖𝑛

These coefficients are dependant on the initial condition. Namely

𝑑 𝑉𝐶(0)
𝑣𝑐(0) = 0 𝑑𝑡
= 0

At 𝑡 = 0,
𝑣𝐶(0) = 𝐶1 + 1

Therefore,
𝐶1 = −1

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Next, the derivative of the voltage is obtained for the second coefficient,
𝑑 𝑣𝐶(𝑡) −α𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑒 (− α (𝐶1 𝑐𝑜𝑠(ω𝑑𝑡) + 𝐶2 𝑠𝑖𝑛(ω𝑑𝑡)) + ω𝑑 𝐶2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 (ω𝑑𝑡) − ω𝑑 𝐶 𝑠𝑖𝑛 (ω𝑑𝑡)
1

At 𝑡 = 0,
𝑑 𝑣𝐶 (0)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶2ω𝑑 − α𝐶1

Therefore,
α 𝐶1 (7500)(−1)
𝐶2 = ω𝑑
= 5 = − 0. 062
(1.210 *10 )

Question 2:
Plotting The Voltage V_C(t) Using Matlab
To plot the voltage across the capacitor, we use the following voltage equation,
3
−(7.5*10 )𝑡 8 8
𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = 𝑒 ((− 1) 𝑐𝑜𝑠((1. 210 * 10 )𝑡) + (− 0. 062) 𝑠𝑖𝑛((1. 210 * 10 )𝑡)) + 1

The graph is as shown below and verifies what was viewed on the oscilloscope,

11
The matlab script is as shown below,

Question 3:
Calculating The Resistor Value To Obtain A Critically Damped Case
Previously, the resistance was calculated to obtain a critically damped case.
−3
𝐿 10 * 10
𝑅 = 2 𝐶
= 2 −9 = 2. 425 𝑘Ω
6.8 * 10

Obtaining The Corresponding Equation Describing The Voltage V_C(t) Including

The Values For C1 And C2
For critically damped cases, the solution is as follows,
−α𝑡 −α𝑡
𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = 𝐶1𝑒 + 𝐶2𝑡 𝑒 + 𝑉𝑖𝑛

The constants are as follows,

𝑅 2425 8
α = 2𝐿
= −3 = 1. 2125 * 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
2(10*10 )

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 1 𝑅 2 1 2425 2
𝑤𝑑 = 𝐿𝐶
− ( 2𝐿 ) = −3 −9 − ( −3 )
(10*10 )(6.8*10 ) 2(10*10

10 10
= (1, 47 * 10 ) − (1. 47 * 10 ) = 0

The coefficients are calculated using the same techniques as before,

𝑣𝐶(0) = 𝐶1 + 𝑣𝑖𝑛

𝐶1 = −1

𝑑 𝑣𝐶(𝑡) −α𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= 𝑒 (− α 𝐶1 + 𝐶2 − α 𝐶2𝑡)
𝑑 𝑣𝐶 (0)
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶2 − α𝐶1
8 8
𝐶2 = α𝐶1 = (1. 2125 * 10 )(− 1) = − 1. 2125 * 10

The corresponding voltage equation is as follows,

8 8
−(1.2125 * 10 )𝑡 −(1.2125 * 10 )𝑡
𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = (− 1)𝑒 + (− 1. 2125 * 10)𝑡 𝑒 + 1

Plotting The Voltage V_C(t) Using Matlab

To plot the voltage across the capacitor, we use the following voltage equation,
8 8
−(1.2125 * 10 )𝑡 −(1.2125 * 10 )𝑡
𝑣𝐶(𝑡) = (− 1)𝑒 + (− 1. 2125 * 10)𝑡 𝑒 + 1

The graph is as shown below,

13
The matlab script is as shown below,

Question 4:
Comparing The Experimental Results Obtained In The Lab With The Calculations
Providing A Detailed Explanation If The Experimental Results Deviate
Discussing The Origin Of The Deviation
As can be viewed from the measured value and the observed values of the undamped
frequency and the resistance value for the critically damped case, the outcomes were
as predicted. However, there existed only slight deviations due to existing instrumental

14
errors and surrounding noise. Fortunately, these were limited to minute variations and
were verified by the Matlab plots as well. These can be avoided by proceeding with the
experiment in a comparatively silent environment and handling the oscilloscope with
more care. In conclusion, the values were approximately identical, allowing ease in the
verification of the three cases of second-order differential RLC circuits.

Question 5:

(a) Obtaining The Differential Equation For The Current I_L(t)

We use KVL around the circuit loops,
For the loop (1) containing R_1 and C,
𝑈 = 𝑉𝑅 − 𝑉𝐶
1

For the loop (2) containing R_2 and L,

𝑉𝐶 = 𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉𝐿
2

Since the aim is to obtain the equation of current, the voltages are expressed in terms of
currents,
𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅1
1 1

𝑉𝑅 = 𝐼𝐿 𝑅2
2

𝑑 𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝐿 𝑑𝑡

15
The following relations can be observed,
𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼𝐶 + 𝐼𝐿
1

𝑑 𝑉𝐶(𝑡)
𝐼𝐶 = 𝐶 𝑑𝑡

With this, the KVL equations are as follows,

𝑑𝐼𝐿(𝑡)
𝑈 = 𝐼𝑅 𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅2 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
1

𝑑 𝑉𝐶(𝑡) 𝑑𝐼𝐿(𝑡)
𝑈 = (𝐼𝐿 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
) 𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅2 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐼𝐿(𝑡)
𝑑 (𝐼𝐿 𝑅2 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
) 𝑑𝐼𝐿(𝑡)
𝑈 = (𝐼𝐿 + 𝐶 𝑑𝑡
) 𝑅1 + 𝐼𝐿 𝑅2 + 𝐿 𝑑𝑡
2
𝑑 𝐼𝐿(𝑡) 𝑑 𝐼𝐿(𝑡)
𝑈 = 𝐼𝐿𝑅1 + 𝐶𝑅1 𝐿 2 + (𝐶 𝑅1𝑅2 + 𝐿) 𝑑𝑡
+ 𝐼𝐿𝑅2
𝑑𝑡

After simplifying the current over the inductor,

2
𝑑 𝐼𝐿 𝑑 𝐼𝐿
𝐶 𝑅1𝐿 2 + (𝐶𝑅1𝑅 + 𝐿)( 𝑑𝑡
) + (𝑅1 + 𝑅2)𝐼𝐿 = 𝑈
𝑑𝑡 2

Then, this is the homogeneous part of the second-order differential equation for 𝐼𝐿(𝑡) :
2
𝑑 𝐼𝐿 𝑑 𝐼𝐿
𝐶 𝑅1𝐿 2 + (𝐶𝑅1𝑅 + 𝐿)( 𝑑𝑡
) + (𝑅1 + 𝑅2)𝐼𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡 2

This may also be referred to as the characteristic equation.

2
𝑑 𝐼𝐿 (𝐶𝑅1𝑅 +𝐿) 𝑑 𝐼𝐿 (𝑅1 + 𝑅2)
2
2 + 𝐶 𝑅1𝐿
( 𝑑𝑡
) + 𝐶 𝑅1𝐿
𝐼𝐿 = 0
𝑑𝑡

(b) Identifying The Damping Nature Of The Circuit

16
To identify the damping nature of the circuit, the discriminant of the characteristic
equation is analyzed.
(𝐶𝑅1𝑅 +𝐿) −6
((2*10 )(25)(56) + (20*10 ))
−3
1 2 1
α = 2
( 𝐶 𝑅1𝐿
) = 2
( −6 −3 )
(2*10 )(25)(20*10 )

1 0.02028 4
α = 2 1*10−6
= 1. 014 * 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑 / 𝑠

(𝑅1 + 𝑅2) 81 3
ω0 = 𝐶 𝑅1𝐿
= −6 = 9. 0 * 10 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
1 * 10

Since α > ω0 , the circuit is overdamped.

Determining Values For Coefficients C1 And C2

To determine the values for the coefficients, the solution to the differential equation is
presented.
2 2 2 2
(−α + α − ω )𝑡 (−α − α − ω )𝑡 𝑈
𝐼𝐿 (𝑡) = 𝐶1 𝑒 + 𝐶2 𝑡𝑒 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅
2

The particular solution is as follows,

𝑈 16.2
𝑅1 + 𝑅
= 25 + 56
= 0. 2
2

At t = 0,
𝐼𝐿(0) = 𝐶1 + 0. 2

𝐶1 = − 0. 2

For 𝐶2, the differential current equation is differentiated,

2 2
(−α + α − ω )𝑡 2 2
𝑑 𝐼𝐿 (𝑡) 2 2 2 2 (−α − α − ω )𝑡
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶1 (− α + α − ω )𝑒 + 𝐶2(− α − α − ω )𝑒

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At t = 0,
𝑑 𝐼𝐿 (0) 2 2 2 2
𝑑𝑡
= 𝐶1 (− α + α − ω ) + 𝐶2(− α − α − ω)
2 2
−𝐶1 (−α + α − ω )
𝐶2 = 2 2
= − 𝐶1 = 0. 2
(−α − α − ω )

Showing The Formula For Complete Resonance

The corresponding Complete Response is as follows,
(−5470.7)𝑡 (−14809.3)𝑡
𝐼𝐿 (𝑡) = − 0. 2 𝑒 + 0. 2 𝑡𝑒 + 0. 2

(c) Plotting The Current I_L(t) Using Matlab

To plot the voltage across the capacitor, we use the following current equation,
(−5470.7)𝑡 (−14809.3)𝑡
𝐼𝐿 (𝑡) = − 0. 2 𝑒 + 0. 2 𝑡𝑒 + 0. 2

The graph is as shown below,

18
The matlab script is as shown below,

4. References
● Signals & Systems Lab Manual, Fall Semester
● General Electrical Engineering I Notes, Fall Semester

19
5. Appendix - Experiment 2: RLC-Circuits - Frequency Response
PreLab
Given a series RLC resonant Circuit with R=390Ω , C=270nF , and L=10mH

Question 1:
Naming The Filter Characteristic Measured Over The Different Components,
Component Combinations

In the series RLC resonant circuit, the following filter characteristics can be measured:
a) Resistor:
- doesn’t contribute to the resonant frequency
- Influences bandwidth
- Influences quality factor Q of the circuit
b) Inductor & Capacitor Combination:
- Determines the resonant frequency of the circuit
- At resonance
- Inductive reactance X_L and capacitive reactance X_C compensate for
each other, resulting in a purely resistive impedance
c) Series RLC Combination:
- Acts As A Band-Pass Filter
- Allows signals at the resonant frequency to pass
- Attenuates signals away from resonance
- Impedance:
- At resonance, impedance is at minimum (=R)
- Current is at Maximum
- Components’ Voltages:
- At resonance, significantly higher than source voltage due to high Q factor

20
Question 2:
Showing The Bode Magnitude Plot Across The Resistor, The Capacitor, The
Inductor, And Across The Capacitor And The Inductor Together
Using a 5V Amplitude And Vaying The Frequency Starting At 100Hz Up To
100kHz
Developing A Matlab Script To Plot The Four Characteristics In One Graph.

The Matlab script was developed as shown below.

21
The Graph Generated By Matlab Is As Shown Below.

22
Question 3:
Taking The Magnitude Across The Resistance To Represent Band-Pass Filter
Calculating The Resonance Frequency
1 1 1
𝑤0 = = = −5 = 3. 07 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2π 𝐿𝐶 2π 10 * 10
−3
𝑥 270*10
−9 2π*5.2 * 10

Calculating The Bandwidth

𝑅 390
𝐵 = 2π𝐿
= −3 = 6. 21 𝑘𝐻𝑧
2π*10 *10

Calculating The Q Factor

𝑤0 3.07
𝑄 = 𝐵
= 6.21
= 0. 494

Extracting Bandwidth From Matlab Plot

Since the bandwidth is the difference between the frequencies at which the magnitude
drops by 3dB from the peak value, we mark points at -3dB to extract the bandwidth.

The Matlab Script Is Shown Below.

23
The Matlab Graph Is As Shown Below

24
Comparing
The calculated bandwidth was 6.21 kHz, whereas the extracted bandwidth was 6.16
kHz. These values are approximately identical, as expected. Theoretically, the
bandwidth was calculated and the utilized resistance and inductance. While a -3dB line
was plotted on Matlab, then a variable ‘idx’ was defined for values of V_R above this
line. Consequently, the point of indices ‘1’ and ‘end’, specifies the first and last point on
the V_R curve intersecting the -3dB line. These are the lower and upper cutoff
frequencies. The difference between these frequencies is the displayed Bandwidth BW.

Execution
Problem 1: Characterization of an RLC Resonator
A series RLC resonant circuit based on R = 390Ω, C = 270 nF, and L = 10 mH is
implemented. The function generator is used as the source.

Function generator: Sine, 5 Vpp, and no offset, Sweep mode. Frequency is varied in
500 ms from 100 Hz to 100 kHz using log sweep mode.

The voltage across the resistor is obtained by setting up the following circuit.

This acts as a band-pass filter, which is verified by the oscilloscope hardcopy.

25
Next, the voltage across the capacitor is obtained by setting up the following circuit.

This acts as a low-pass filter, which is verified by the oscilloscope hardcopy.

26
Next, the voltage across the inductor is obtained by setting up the following circuit.

This acts as a high-pass filter, which is verified by the oscilloscope hardcopy.

27
Next, the voltage across the combination of the capacitor and the inductor is obtained
by setting up the following circuit.

28
This acts as a notch filter, which is verified by the oscilloscope hardcopy.

Problem 2: Bandwidth and Quality Factor of RLC Band Pass

To obtain a band-pass filter, we rearrange the circuit to the first setup.
The phase shift at resonance is 0, while the shape of the Lissajou figure is linear.
This in Xt mode s is displayed below.

29
The lower and upper cutoff frequencies are determined as follows.

−𝑅𝑠 𝑅 2 1
𝑤1 = 2𝐿
+ ( 2𝐿𝑆 ) + 𝐿𝐶
= 1279 𝐻𝑧
𝑅𝑠 𝑅 2 1
𝑤2 = 2𝐿
+ ( 2𝐿𝑆 ) + 𝐿𝐶
= 7700 𝐻𝑧

This was viewed by the oscilloscope readings as well.

30