C programming Unit 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO C
1. PSEUDOCODE

 Pseudocode is an informal list of steps in English like statements which is intended for human reading.
 It is used in planning of computer program development, for sketching out the structure of the program
before the actual coding takes place.
Advantages:
1. It can be written easily
2. It can be read and understood easily
3. Modification is easy

Disadvantages:
1. There is no standard form.
2. One Pseudocode may vary from other for same problem statement.
Examples:

Pseudocode: Addition of two numbers Pseudocode: Area of rectangle

1. Begin 1. Begin
2. Read two numbers a, b 2. Read the values of length, breadth
3. Calculate sum = a+b 3. Calculate area = l x b
4. Display sum 4. Display area
5. End 5. End

2. HISTORY OF C

 C is a general purpose, procedural, structured computer programming language developed by Dennis

Ritchie in the year 1972 at AT&T Bell Labs.
 C language was developed on UNIX and was invented to write UNIX system software.
 C is a successor of B language.
 There are different C standards: K&R C std, ANSI C, ISO C.

Characteristics of C:
 C is easy to learn.
 C is a general purpose language.
 C is a structured and procedural language.
 It is portable.
 It can extend itself.

Examples of C:
 Operating system
 Language compilers
 Assemblers

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 Text editors
 Databases

3. THE BASIC ‘C’ CHARACTERS

 A C character set defines the valid characters that can be used in a source program. The basic C character
set are:
1. Letters: Uppercase: A,B,C,….,Z
Lowercase: a,b,c,…..,z
2. Digits: 0,1,2,…..,9
3. Special characters: ! , . # $ ( ) } { etc
4. White spaces: Blank space, Horizontal tab space (\t), carriage return, new line character (\n), form feed
character.

4. C – TOKENS

 It is also called as lexical unit.

 The smallest individual unit in ‘C’ program is called as C-Token.
 These are the building blocks of ‘C’ program.
 There are 6 types of ‘C’ tokens:
i. Keywords
ii. Identifiers
iii. Constants
iv. Strings
v. Operators
vi. Special symbols

i. Keywords

 Keywords are also called as reserved words.

 They already have pre-defined meaning.
 Keywords should always be written in lowercase.
 The keywords meaning can’t be changed.
 Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
 There are 32 keywords in ‘C’ program.

auto double int struct break do

else long switch goto sizeof if
case enum register typedef default
char extern return union volatile
const float short unsigned while
continue for signed void static

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ii. Identifiers

 It refers to the name of the objects.

 These are the names given to variables, functions, macros etc.
 The rules to write an identifier are as follows:
1. It must contain only alphabets (A to Z, a to z), numbers (0 to 9) and underscore ( _ ).
2. It must start with alphabet or underscore but not numeric character.
3. It should not contain any special symbols apart from underscore.
4. It should not have any space.
5. Keywords cannot be used as identifiers.
6. Identifiers are case sensitive.
7. Maximum length of an identifier is 31 characters.
 Examples:
Valid Identifiers: integer, minimum, sum_total, row1, _cpps
Invalid Identifiers: float  It is a keyword.
I am  It has space
123_Abc  It is starting with number
N1 + n2  It contains special symbol (+)

iii. Constants
Constants are the values that doesn’t changes during the execution of a program.

Integer Constant
Numeric
Constant
Real Constant

Constant
Single Character
Constant
Character
Constant
String Constant

Figure 3: Types of Constants

 Numerical Constant

 Integer Constant: These are the numbers without decimal part.

1. Decimal: It is an integer constant consisting of numbers from 0-9. It can be preceded by + or –
2. Octal: It is an integer constant consisting of numbers from 0-7. It is preceded by o

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3. Hexadecimal: It is an integer constant consisting of numbers from 0-9, A-F (A=10, B=11, C=12,
D=13, E=14, F=15). It is preceded by 0x

 Real Constant:

 These are the numbers with decimal part.

 These are also called as floating point constant.
 The floating values can be identified by the suffix ‘F’ or ‘f’
 It can be expressed in exponential form.
 Ex: 21.5, 2.15 x 102  2.15e2

 Character Constant

 Single Character Constant:

 These are the values enclosed within single quotes.
 Each character have an integer value called as ASCII (American Standard Code for Information
Interchange)  A: 65, a: 97
 Printable Character: All characters are printable except backslash(\) character or escape
sequence.
 Non-Printable Character: The characters with backslash (\) are non printable. Ex: \n, \t

 String Constant:
 A group of characters together form string.
 Strings are enclosed within double quotes.
 They end with NULL character (\0).
 Ex: “NIMS” 

N I M S \0

NOTE:
 Qualified Constant/ Memory Constant: These are created by using “const” qualifier. Const means that
something can only be read but not modified.
Syntax: const datatype variable_name = value;
Ex: const int a = 10;
const float pi = 3.14;

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 Symbolic Constants/ Defined Constant: These are created with the help of define preprocessor
directive.
Ex: #define PT 3.142
 During processing the PI in the program will be replaced with 3.142.
 The name of constant is written in uppercase just to differentiate from the variables.

 Enumeration Constant: An enumeration is a list of constant integer values. Names in enumeration

must be distinct. The keyword used is “enum”.
Ex: enum days = {Sun, Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat}
Sun  1, Mon  2, ……., Sat  7

iv. Strings

 A group of characters together form string.

 Strings are enclosed within double quotes.
 They end with NULL character (\0).
 Ex: “NIMS” 

N I M S \0

V. Operators
An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical and logical functions.
The different operators supported in ‘C’ are:
1. Arithmetic Operators
2. Relational Operators
3. Logical Operators
4. Assignment Operators
5. Bitwise Operators
6. Unary Operators  Increment and Decrement
7. Ternary/ Conditional Operator
8. Special Operators

1. Arithmetic Operators: The different arithmetic operators are:

Operator Name Result Syntax Example (b=5, c=2)

+ Addition Sum a=b+c a=7
- Subtraction Difference a=b-c a=3
* Multiplication Product a=b*c a = 10
/ Division Quotient a=b/c a=2
% Modulus Remainder a=b%c a=1

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2. Relational Operators: These are used to compare two quantities. The output will be either 0 (False)
or 1 (True). The different relational operators are:

Operator Name Syntax Example (b=5, c=2)

< Lesser than a=b<c a = 0 (False)
> Greater than a=b>c a = 1 (True)
<= Lesser than or Equal to a = b <= c a = 0 (False)
>= Greater than or Equal to a = b >= c a = 1 (True)
== Equal to a = b == c a = 0 (False)
!= Not equal to a = b != c a = 1 (True)

3. Logical Operators: These are used to test more than one condition and make decision. The different
logical operators are: NOT, AND, OR

 Logical NOT (!) The output is true when input is false and vice versa. It accepts only one
input.

Input Output
X !X
0 1
1 0

 Logical AND (&&) The output is true only if both inputs are true. It accepts two or more
inputs.
Input Output
X Y X && Y
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

 Logical OR (||) The output is true only if any of its input is true. It accepts two or more inputs.

Input Output
X Y X || Y
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1

4. Assignment Operators: These are used to assign the result or values to a variable. The different types
of assignment operators are:

Simple Assignment a = 10
Shorthand Assignment a += 10  a = a + 10
Multiple Assignment a = b = c = 10

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5. Bitwise Operators: These works on bits and performs bit by bit operations. The different types of
bitwise operators are:
i. Bitwise NOT (~)
ii. Bitwise AND (&)
iii. Bitwise OR (|)
iv. Bitwise XOR (^)  Output is True when odd number of 1’s are present.
v. Bitwise left shift (<<)
vi. Bitwise right shift (>>)

 Bitwise NOT (~)

X ~X
0 1
1 0

 Bitwise AND (&), Bitwise OR (|),Bitwise XOR (^)

X Y X&Y X|Y X^Y

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 1 1
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 0

 Bitwise Left Shift (<<)  Shift specified number of bits to left side.

X 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
X<<2 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0

 Bitwise Right Shift (>>)  Shift specified number of bits to right side.

X 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0
X>>2 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

6. Unary Operators: There are 4 types:

 Unary Plus Operator

Determines Sign
 Unary Minus Operator
 Increment (++)
 Decrement (--)

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 Increment (++): It adds one to the operand.

Pre-increment Post-increment
First value of the operand is incremented First value of the operand is used for evaluation
(added) by 1 then, it is used for evaluation. then, it is incremented (added) by 1.
Ex: ++a Ex: a++

 Decrement (--): It subtracts one from the operand.

Pre-decrement Post- decrement

First value of the operand is decremented First value of the operand is used for evaluation
(subtracted) by 1 then, it is used for then, it is decremented (subtracted) by 1.
evaluation.
Ex: - -a Ex: a- -

7. Conditional Operator/ Ternary Operator (?:)

 It takes three arguments.

Expression1 ? Expression2 : Expresseion3
Where,
Expression1  Condition
Expression2  Statement followed if condition is true
Expression3  Statement followed if condition is false
 Ex: large = (4 > 2) ? 4: 2  large = 4
8. Special Operator/ Special Symbols

 Comma Operator: It can be used as operator in expression and as separator in declaring

variables.
 Sizeof Operator: It is used to determine the size of variable or value in bytes.
 Address Operator: It is used to find the address of the operators.

5. EXPRESSIONS

 It is combination of operands (variables, constants) and operators.

 Precedence: The order in which operators are evaluated is based on the priority value.
 Associativity: It is the parsing direction used to evaluate an expression. It can be left to right or right
to left.
 Evaluation of expressions: Expressions are evaluated using an assignment statement.
 Ex: variable = expression
sum = a + b
 Following table provides the Precedence and Associativity of operators:

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Operator Description Associativity Precedence(Rank)

() Function call
Left to right 1
[] Array element reference
+ Unary plus
- Unary minus
++ Increment
-- Decrement
! Logical negation
Right to left 2
~ Ones complement
* Pointer to reference
& Address
Sizeof Size of an object
(type) Type cast (conversion)

* Multiplication
/ Division Left to right 3
% Modulus
+ Addition
Left to right 4
- Subtraction
<< Left shift
Left to right 5
>> Right Shift
< Less than
<= Less than or equal to
Left to right 6
> Greater than
>= Greater than or equal to
== Equality
Left to right 7
|= Inequality
& Bitwise AND Left to right 8
^ Bitwise XOR Left to right 9
| Bitwise OR Left to right 10
&& Logical AND Left to right 11
|| Logical OR Left to right 12
?: Conditional expression Right to left 13

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=
*= /= %=
+= -= &= Assignment operators Right to left 14
^= |=
<<= >>=
, Comma operator Left to right 15

6. DATA TYPES

 Data type defines the types of data that is stored in a variable.

 There are 3 types:
i. Primary/ Built-in/ Fundamental data type  int, float, double, char, void
ii. Derived data type  array, structure
iii. User defines data type  enum, typedef

 Primary/ Built-in/ Fundamental data type: These are the built in data types available in C. There are
5 types. Namely:
1. Integer (int)
2. Floating point (float)
3. Character (char)
4. Double precision floating point (double)
5. Void (void)
1. Integer type:
 It is used to store whole numbers.
 The keyword int is used to declare variable of integer type.
 Int type takes 2B or 4B of storage depending on machine size.
 The classes of integer are:

Unsigned Signed
Data type Keyword Size Data type Keyword Size
Short Integer short int 1B Signed short integer signed short int 1B
Integer int 2B Signed integer signed int 2B
Long Integer long int 4B Long integer long int 4B

2. Floating point data type:

 It is used to store decimal numbers.
 The keyword float is used to declare variable of floating point data type.

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 Float type takes 4B or 8B of storage depending on machine size.

 It can be expressed in fractional or exponential form.

Data type Keyword Size

Floating point float 4B
Double double 8B
Long double long double 10B

3. Double:
 It is used to store double precision floating point numbers.
 The keyword double is used to declare variable of floating point data type.
 Double type takes 8B of storage.
 Double precision is related to accuracy of data.

4. Char:
 It is used to store character type of data.
 The keyword char is used to declare variable of character type.
 Char type takes 1B of storage.

5. Void:
 It is a special data type that has no value.
 It doesn’t have size.
 It is used for returning the result of function that returns nothing.

7. VARIABLES

 A variable is a name given to memory location whose value changes during execution.

 Declaration:

Syntax: datatype variable_list;

Where,
datatype  Any built in data type
variable_list  Identifiers that specifies variable name.
Example: int a;
Where,
int is the built in data type
a is variable of type int.

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 Initialization:

Syntax: datatype variable_name = value;

Where,
datatype  Any built in data type
variable_name  Identifier that specifies variable name.
value  The data which will be stored in variable name.
Example: int a = 10;
Where,
int  data type
a  variable name
10  value

8. TYPE CONVERSION
 Converting the value of one data type to another type is called as Type Conversion.
 It occurs when mixed data occurs.
 There are two types:

i. Automatic Type Conversion (Implicit)

 Here, the operand/ variables of smaller data type is automatically converted to data type of larger
size.
 char  int  long int  float  double  long double
 Ex: int a = 5;
float b = 25, c; a b c
c = a / b; 5 25.0 0.25
printf(“%f” , c);

ii. Manual Type Conversion (Explicit)

 It is a forced conversion used to convert operand/ variables of larger data type to smaller size or
vice versa.
 Ex: int a = 7, c; a b c
float b = 4.0; 7 4.0 3
b = a % (int) b; b  Converted into int & evaluated
printf(“%d” , c);

9. STRUCTURE OF ‘C’ PROGRAM

 C program consists of different sections. The structure of C program is as shown below.

 Documentation Section: It consists of a set of comment line giving the name of the program, the
author and other details. Compiler ignores these comments. There are two formats:
a) Line comments //Single line comment
b) Block comments /*Multi line comment*/

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 Link Section: It provides instruction to the compiler to link functions from system library.
 Definition Section: It defines all symbolic constants.
 Global Declaration Section: The variables which are used in more than one function are called global
variables and are declared in this section.
 main( ) Section: Every ‘C’ program has one main( ) function and it contains two parts:
i. Declaration Part: Here, all the variables used are declared.
ii. Executable Part: Here, it contains at least one executable statement.

The main( ) function is enclosed within flower brackets and the statements ends with semicolon.

 Sub-program Section: It contains all the user defined functions that are called by main( ) function.

Documentation section
Link section
Definition section
Global declaration section
main( ) Section
{
Declaration part
Executable part
}
Sub program section
Function 1
Function 2
-
-
Function n

 Example:

//Addition of two numbers

#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a, b, sum;
printf(“Enter two numbers\n”);
scanf(“%d%d”, &a, &b);
sum = a + b;
printf(“The sum is %d”, sum);
}

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Example Programs:

Program 1: To find area and perimeter of rectangle

Algorithm Flowchart

Step 1. [Initialize] Start

Step 2. [Input the length and breadth] Read l, b

Step 3. [Calculate area] area = l * b

Step 4. [Calculate perimeter] peri= 2(l+b)

Step 5. [Display area and perimeter] Print area, peri

Step 6. [Finished] Stop.

Program Output
#include<stdio.h> Enter length and breadth
{
2
int l, b, area, peri;
printf(“Enter length and breadth\n”); 4
scanf(“%d%d”, &l, &b);
The area is 8
area = l * b;
peri = 2 * (l + b); The perimeter is 12
printf(“The area is %d\n”, area);
printf(“The perimeter is %d\n”, peri);
}

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Program 2: To find Simple Interest

Algorithm Flowchart

Step 1. [Initialize] Start

Step 2. [Input the principle, time and rate] Read p, t, r

Step 3. [Calculate si] si = p * t * r / 100

Step 4. [Display si] Print si

Step 5. [Finished] Stop.

Program Output
#include<stdio.h> Enter principle, rate and time
{
1000
float p, t, r, si;
printf(“Enter principle, time and rate\n”); 2
scanf(“%f%f%f”, &p,&t,&r);
4
si = p * t * r / 100;
printf(“The Simple Interest is %f”, si); The Simple Interest is 80
}

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MANAGING INPUT AND OUTPUT OPERATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
 Reading, processing and writing of data are three essential functions of a computer program.
 There are two methods. The first method is to assign the values and the second method is to use input
function scanf to read data and output function printf to write data.
 Ex: #include<stdio.h> Includes function calls such as printf() and scanf() into the source code when
compiled.

2. READING A CHARACTER
 The simplest way of all input/output operations is reading a character from the ‘standard input’ unit
(usually keyboard) and writing it to the ‘standard output’ (usually the screen).
 Reading a single character can be done by using the function getchar and it does not have any parameter.

Syntax: variable_name = getchar( );

Where, variable_name is valid and has been declared in char type.

Example: char name;

name = getchar( );

 The getchar function can also be used to read the characters successively until the return key is pressed.
 The character function are contained in the file type ctype.h and therefore the preprocessor directive
#include<ctype.h> is included.
 And the functions of ctype.h returns 1 if (TRUE) and 0 if (FALSE).

Function Test
isalnum(c) Is c alphanumeric character?
isalpha(c) Is c alphabetic character?
isdigit(c) Is c a digit?
islower(c) Is c a lower case letter?
isupper(c) Is c a upper case letter?
isspace(c) Is c a white case character?
ispunct(c) Is c a punctuation mark?
isprint(c) Is c a printable character?

Example Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
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void main( )
{
char key;
printf(“Enter any key\n”);
key=getchar( );
if(isalpha(key))
printf(“The entered key is a letter\n”);
else if(isdigit(key))
printf(“The entered key is a digit\n”);
else
printf(“The entered key is not alphanumeric\n”);
}
OUTPUT:
Enter any key Enter any key Enter any key
A 7 $
The entered key is a letter The entered key is a digit The entered key is not alphanumeric

3. WRITING A CHARACTER
 Writing a single character can be done by using the function putchar.

Syntax: putchar(variable_name);

Where, variable_name is valid and has been declared in char type.

Example: name=’y’;
putchar(name);

Will display the character y on the screen

 The characters entered can be converted into reverse i.e., from upper to lower case and vice versa.
 The functions used to convert are toupper, tolower.

Example Program:
#include<stdio.h>
#include<ctype.h>
void main( )
{
char alphabet;
printf(“Enter any alphabet\n”);
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alphabet=getchar( );
if(islower(alphabet))
putchar(toupper(alphabet));
else
putchar(tolower(alphabet));
}
OUTPUT:
Enter any alphabet Enter any alphabet
A a
A A

4. FORMATTED INPUT
 Formatted input refers to an input data that has been arranged in particular format.
 Ex: 152 Rajesh
 In the above example the first part contains integer and the second part contains characters. This is
possible with the help of scanf function.
Syntax: scanf(“control string”, arg1, arg2,…..,argn);

 The control string specifies the field form in which data should be entered and the arguments arg1,
arg2,…..,argn specifies the address of the location where the data is stored.
 The width of the integer number can be specified using %wd.

Example-2:
– scanf(“%2d %2d”, &a, &b);
%2d two digit integer
%2d  two digit integer
4567 25
a=45 b=67
Note: 25 is not at all stored

 The input field may be skipped using * in the place of field width.

Example-3:
– scanf(“%2d %*d %2d”, &a, &b);
%2d two digit integer
%*d  skip this integer
45 25 63
a=45
25 is skipped
b=63

 The scanf function can read single character or more than one character using %c or %s.

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Rules for scanf:
 Each variable to be read must have a specification
 For each field specification, there must be a address of proper type.
 Never end the format string with whitespace. It is a fatal error.
 The scanf will read until:
 A whitespace character is found in numeric specification.
 The maximum number of characters have been read
 An error is detected
 The end of file is reached
 Any non-whitespace character used in the format string must have a matching character in the user input.

 The below table shows the scanf format codes commonly used.
Code Meaning
%c Read a single character
%d Read a decimal integer
%e, %f, %g Read a floating point value
%h Read a short integer
%i Read a decimal integer
%o Read a octal integer
%s Read a string
%u Read an unsigned decimal integer
%x Read a hexadecimal integer
%[ ] Read a string of word

The l can be used as a prefix for long integer. Ex: %ld

5. FORMATTED OUTPUT
 The printf function is used for printing the captions and results.

Syntax: printf(“control string”, arg1, arg2, ….., argn);

 Control string contains three types of items:

1. Characters that will be printed on the screen as they appear.
2. Format specifications that define the output format for display of each item.
3. Escape sequence characters such as \n, \t and \b.

 The printf can contain flags (0 + - )

0  fill in extra positions with 0’s instead of spaces
a=7777
printf(“a = %07d”, a);
%07d Width of 7 memory space is allocated and
padded with leading zeroes
0 0 0 7 7 7 7

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-  Left justify text instead of right justify text
a=7777;
printf(“a = % -7d”, a);
% -7d
Width of 7 memory space is allocated and
7 7 7 7 printed from left side (left justify)

+Print sign of number (whether positive or negative)

 Example with format specifier %d:
a=10, b=77;
printf(“%d %d”, a , b);

Output:
10 77

 Example with format specifier %f:

x=10.776;
printf(“%6.3f %”, x );

%6.3f 6.3f means totally 6 locations are allocated out of

1 0 . 7 7 6 which 3 is for number of decimal places.

 Example with \n and \t:

a=10, b=77, c=88;
printf(“a=%d\n b=%d\tc=%d”, a , b, c);

Output:
a=10
b=77
c=88
 Example with size value:
a=10, b=7777, c=88;
printf(“a=%4d\n b=%7d”, a , b);

%4d
Width of 4 memory space is allocated and
1 0
printed from right side

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%7d
Width of 7 memory space is allocated and
7 7 7 7 printed from right side (right justify)

 The below table shows the scanf format codes commonly used.
Code Meaning
%c Print a single character
%d Print a decimal integer
%e Print a floating point value in exponent form
%f Print a floating point value without exponent
%g Print a floating point value with or without exponent
%h Print a short integer
%i Print a decimal integer
%o Print a octal integer
%s Print a string
%u Print an unsigned decimal integer
%x Print a hexadecimal integer
%[ ] Print a string of word

The l can be used as a prefix for long integer. Ex: %ld

 General syntax of field-width/size for different data types:

• %wd  Example: %6d

• %w.pf  Example %6.2f
• %w.ps  Example %10.4s
– w means total field size/width
– P means precision (tells how many decimal places to be printed in case of float) and
– How many characters to be printed in case of strings

Examples: 9 8 7 6
a=9876; 9 8 7 6
printf(“%d”, a);
printf(“%6d”,a); 9 8 7 6

printf(“%-6d”,a); 9 8 7 6

printf(“%3d”,a);

NOTE: String input/output function: gets() and puts( )

 gets and puts are line oriented input output functions available in the <stdio.h> header file.
 gets():Alternative method to read strings is gets() (read it as get string) function which is an
unformatted string input function. Advantage of gets()is it can read multi-word strings.
 Example:char name[10];
gets(name);

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Say input is:

N E W Y O R K

The complete string “NEW YORK” is read by gets( ).

 puts():This function can be used to display entire string on monitor screen without the help of %s
specifier.
 Example: char name[ ] = “Bengaluru”
puts(name);
puts( ) will display the string value stored in parameter passed to it on monitor. In this case it is—Bengaluru.

Decision Making and Branching

1. INTRODUCTION

 C language possesses such decision making capabilities by supporting the following statements:
1. If statement
2. Switchstatement
3. Conditional operator statement
4. goto statement
 These statements are popularly known as decision making statements. Also known as control statements.

2. DECISION MAKING (Two-Way Selection Statements)

 The basic decision statement in the computer is the two way selection.
 The decision is described to the computer as conditional statement that can be answered TRUE or
FALSE.
 If the answer is TRUE, one or more action statements are executed.
 If answer is FALSE, the different action or set of actions are executed.
 Regardless of which set of actions is executed, the program continues with next statement.
 C language provides following two-way selection statements:
1. if statement
2. if – else statement
3. Nested if else statement
4. Cascaded if else (also called else-if ladder)

1. if statement: The general form of simple if statements is shown below.

if (Expression)
{
Statement1;
}
Statement2;

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 The Expression is evaluated first, if the value of Expression is true (or non zero) then Statement1 will be
executed; otherwise if it is false (or zero), then Statement1 will be skipped and the execution will jump
to the Statement2.
 Remember when condition is true, both the Statement1 and Statement2 are executed in sequence. This is
illustrated in Figure1.
Note: Statement1 can be single statement or group of statements.

Expressi True
on

False Statement1

Statement2

Figure 1: Flow chart of if statement

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a=20, b=11;
if (a >b)
{
printf(“A is greater\n”);
}
}

Output: A is greater

2. if..else statement: The if..else statement is an extension of simple if statement.

if (Expression)
{
Statement1;  true-block
}
else
{
Statement2; true-block
}
Statement3;

 If the Expression is true (or non-zero) then Statement1 will be executed; otherwise if it is false (or zero),
then Statement2 will be executed.

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 In this case either true block or false block will be executed, but not both.
 This is illustrated in Figure 2. In both the cases, the control is transferred subsequently to the Statement3.

False True
Expressi
on

Statement Statement1
2

Statement3

Figure 2: Flow chart of if-else statement

Example:
void main( )
{
int a=10, b=11;
if (a >b)
{
printf(“A is greater\n”);
}
else
{
printf(“B is greater\n”);
}
}

Output: B is greater

3. Nested if .. else statement: When a series of decisions are involved, we have to use more than one
if..else statement in nested form as shown below in the general syntax.

if (Expression1)
{
if(Expression2)
{
Statement1;
}
else
{
Statement2;
}
}
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else if(Expression3)
{
Statement3;
}
else
{
Statement4;
}

 If Expression1 is true, check for Expression2, if it is also true then Statement1 is executed.
 If Expression1 is true, check for Expression2, if it is false then Statement2 is executed.
 If Expression1 is false, then Statement3 is executed.
 Once we start nesting if .. else statements, we may encounter a classic problem known as dangling else.
 This problem is created when no matching else for every if.
 C solution to this problem is a simple rule “always pair an else to most recent unpaired if in the current
block”.
 Solution to the dangling else problem, a compound statement.
 In compound statement, we simply enclose true actions in braces to make the second if a compound
statement.

Figure 3: Flow chart of Nested if-else statement

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a = 20, b=15, c=3;
if(a>b)
{
if(a>c)
{
printf(“A is greater\n”);
}
else

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{
printf(“C is greater\n”);
}
}
else
{
if(b>c)
{
printf(“B is greater\n”);
}
else
{
printf(“C is greater\n”);
}
}

Output: A is greater

4. else-if ladder or cascaded if else: There is another way of putting ifs together when multipath
decisions are involved. A multi path decision is a chain of ifs in which the statement associated with each
else is an if. It takes the following form.

if (Expression1)
{
Statement1;
}
else if(Expression2)
{
Statement2;
}
else if(Expression3)
{
Statement3;
}
else
{
Statement4;
}
Next Statement;

 This construct is known as the else if ladder.

 The conditions are evaluated from the top (of the ladder), downwards. As soon as true condition is
found, the statement associated with it is executed and control transferred to the Next statement skipping
the rest of the ladder.
 When all conditions are false then the final else containing the default Statement4 will be executed.

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Figure 4: Flow chart of else if ladder statement

Example:
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int a=20, b=5, c=3;
if((a>b) && (a>c))
printf(“A is greater\n”);
else if((b>a) && (b>c))
printf(“B is greater\n”);
else if((c>a) && (c>b))
printf(“C is greater\n”);
else
printf(“All are equal\n”);
}

Output: A is greater

3. SWITCH STATEMENT

 C language provides a multi-way decision statement so that complex else-if statements can be easily
replaced by it. C language’s multi-way decision statement is called switch.
General syntax of switch statement is as follows:

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switch(choice)
{
case label1: block1;
break;
case label2: block2;
break;
case label3: block-3;
break;
default: default-block;
break;
}

 Here switch, case, break and default are built-in C language words.
 If the choice matches to label1 then block1 will be executed else if it evaluates to label2 then block2
will be executed and so on.
 If choice does not matches with any case labels, then default block will be executed.

Figure 5: Flow chart of switch case statement

 The choice is an integer expression or characters.
 The label1, label2, label3,…. are constants or constant expression evaluate to integer constants.
 Each of these case labels should be unique within the switch statement. block1, block2, block3, …
are statement lists and may contain zero or more statements.
 There is no need to put braces around these blocks. Note that case labels end with colon(:).
 Break statement at the end of each block signals end of a particular case and causes an exit from
switch statement.
 The default is an optional case when present, it will execute if the value of the choice does not match
with any of the case labels.

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Example:

Label  Number Label  Character

#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
#include<stdlib.h> #include<stdlib.h>
void main( ) void main( )
{ {
int ch,a,b,res; int a,b,res;
float div; char ch;
printf(“Enter two numbers:\n”); float div;
scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b); printf(“Enter two numbers:\n”);
printf(“1.Addition\n 2.Subtraction\n scanf(“%d%d”,&a,&b);
3.Multiplication\n 4.Division\n 5.Remainder\n”); printf(“a.Addition\n b.Subtraction\n
printf(“Enter your choice:\n”); c.Multiplication\n d.Division\n e.Remainder\n”);
scanf(“%d”,&ch); printf(“Enter your choice:\n”);
switch(ch) scanf(“%c”,&ch);
{ switch(ch)
case 1: res=a+b; {
break; case ‘a’: res=a+b;
case 2: res=a-b; break;
break; case ‘b’: res=a-b;
case 3: res=a*b; break;
break; case ‘c’: res=a*b;
case 4: div=(float)a/b; break;
break; case ‘d’: div=(float)a/b;
case 5: res=a%b; break;
break; case ‘e’ : res=a%b;
default: printf(“Wrong choice!!\n”); break;
} default: printf(“Wrong choice!!\n”);
printf(“Result=%d\n”,res); }
} printf(“Result=%d\n”,res);
}

In this program if ch=1 case ‘1’ gets executed and if ch=2, case ‘2’ gets executed and so on.

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4. TERNARY OPERATOR OR CONDITIONAL OPERATOR (?:)

 C Language has an unusual operator, useful for making two way decisions.
 This operator is combination of two tokens ? and : and takes three operands.
 This operator is known as ternary operator or conditional operator.
Syntax:
Expression1 ? Expression2 : Expression3

Where,
Expression1 is Condition
Expression2 is Statement Followed if Condition is True
Expression3 is Statement Followed if Condition is False

Meaning of Syntax:
1. Expression1 is nothing but Boolean Condition i.e. it results into either TRUE or FALSE
2. If result of expression1 is TRUE then expression2 is executed
3. Expression1 is said to be TRUE if its result is NON-ZERO
4. If result of expression1 is FALSE then expression3 is executed
5. Expression1 is said to be FALSE if its result is ZERO

Example: Check whether Number is Odd or Even

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int num;
printf("Enter the Number : ");
scanf("%d",&num);
flag = ((num%2==0)?1:0);
if(flag==0)
printf("\nEven");
else
printf("\nOdd");
}

5. GOTO STATEMENT

 goto is an unconditional branching statement. The syntax of goto is as follows:

Syntax Example
goto label; void main( )
{
statement1; int a=5, b=7;
goto end;
statement2; a=a+1;
b=b+1;
label: end: printf(“a=%d b=%d”, a,b);
}

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 A label is a valid variable name.

 Label need not be declared and must be followed by colon.
 Label should be used along with a statement to which control is transferred.
 Label can be anywhere in the program either before or after the goto label.
 Here control jumps to label skipping statement1 and statement2 without verifying any condition that
is the reason we call it unconditional jumping statement.

Decision Making and Looping

1. INTRODUCTION

Definition of Loop: It is a programming structure used to repeatedly carry out a particular

instruction/statement until a condition is true. Each single repetition of the loop is known as an iteration of
the loop.

Three important components of any loop are:

1. Initialization (example: ctr=1, i=0 etc)
2. Test Condition (example: ctr<=500, i != 0 etc)
3. Updating loop control values (example: ctr=ctr+1, i =i-1)

Pre-test and Post-test loops

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 Loops can be classified into two types based on the placement of test-condition.
 If the test-condition is given in the beginning such loops are called pre-test loops (also known as entry-
controlled loops).
 Otherwise if test condition is given at the end of the loop such loops are termed as post-test loops (or exit
controlled loops).
Note Figure 1:
1. Here condition is at the beginning of loop. That is why it is called pre-test loop
2. It is also called as entry controlled loop because condition is tested before entering into the loop.
3. while is a keyword which can be used here.

Note Figure 2:
1. Here condition is at the end of the loop. That is why it is called post-test loop.
2. It is also called as exit controlled loop because condition is tested after body of the loop is
executed at least once.
3. do and while are keywords which can be used here.

2. LOOPS IN C
C language provides 3 looping structures namely:
1. while loop
2. do….while loop
3. for loop

The loops may be classified into two general types. Namely:

1. Counter-controlled loop
2. Sentinel-controlled loop

 When we know in advance exactly how many times the loop will be executed, we use a counter-
controlled loop. A counter controlled loop is sometimes called definite repetition loop.
 In a sentinel-controlled loop, a special value called a sentinel value is used to change the loop control
expression from true to false. A sentinel-controlled loop is often called indefinite repetition loop.

i. while loop:
 It is a pre-test loop (also known as entry controlled loop). This loop has following syntax:
while (condition)
{
statement-block;
}
 In the syntax given above ‘while’ is a key word and condition is at beginning of the loop.
 If the test condition is true the body of while loop will be executed.
 After execution of the body, the test condition is once again evaluated and if it is true, the body is
executed once again.
 This process is repeated until condition finally becomes false and control comes out of the body of the
loop.

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Flowchart:

 Here is an example program using while loop for finding sum of 1 to 10.
Example: WAP to find sum of 1 to 5 using while.
#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1, sum=0;
while (i<=5)
{
sum=sum+i;
i=i++;
}
printf(“%d”, sum);
}

ii. do…. while loop: It is a post-test loop (also called exit controlled loop) it has two keywords do and
while. The General syntax:

do
{
statement-block;
} while (condition);

 In this loop the body of the loop is executed first and then test condition is evaluated.
 If the condition is true, then the body of loop will be executed once again. This process continues as
long as condition is true.
 When condition becomes false, the loop will be terminated and control comes out of the loop.

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Flowchart:

Example: WAP to find sum of 1 to 5 using do… while

#include<stdio.h>
void main()
{
int i=1, sum=0;
do
{
sum=sum+i;
i=i++;
} while (i<=5)
printf(“%d”, sum);
}

iii. for loop:

 It is a pre test loop and also known as entry controlled loop.

 “for” keyword is used here.
 Here, the head of the for loop contains all the three components that is initialization, condition and
Updation.
General syntax:
for( initialization; test-condition; updation)
{
Statements;
}

The execution of for statement is as follows.

1. First the control variable will be initialized. (Example i=1)
2. Next the value of control variable is tested using test condition. (i<=n)
3. If the condition is true the body of the loop is executed else terminated.
4. If loop is executed then control variable will be updated (i++) then, the condition is checked again.

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Flowchart:

Example: WAP to find the sum of 10 numbers using for loop.

#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
int i, sum=0;
for (i=1; i<=10; i++)
{
sum=sum+i;
}
printf(“%d”, sum);
}

Note: In for loops whether both i++ or ++i operations will be treated as pre-increment only.

Nested for loops:

 A for loop inside a for loop is called Nested for loop.

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Example:
for(i=0; i<2; i++)
{
for(j=0; j<2; j++)
{
scanf(“%d”, &a[i][j])
}
}

Note: If updation is not present in loops then, it will execute infinite times.
If initialization is not given then, program prints nothing.

while do… while

It is a pre test loop. It is a post test loop.
It is an entry controlled loop. It is an exit controlled loop.
The condition is at top. The condition is at bottom.
There is no semi colon at the end of while. The semi colon is compulsory at the end of while.
It is used when condition is important. It is used when process is important.
Here, the body of loop gets executed if and only if Here, the body of loop gets executed atleast once
condition is true. even if condition is false.
SYNTAX, FLOWCHART, EXAMPLE (Same as in SYNTAX, FLOWCHART, EXAMPLE (Same as in
explanation) explanation)

3. JUMPS IN LOOPS

 Break and continue: break and continue are unconditional control construct.

1. Break

 It terminates the execution of remaining iteration of loop.

 A break can appear in both switch and looping statements.
Syntax Flowchart
#include<stdio.h>
while(condition) void main( )
{ {
Statements; int i;
if(condition) for(i=1; i<=5; i++)
break; {
Statements; if(i==3)
} break;
printf(“%d”, i)
}
}

OUTPUT 1 2

Prof. Suvika K V, Dept. of CSE, CBIT, Kolar 2020-21

21
2. Continue

 It terminates only the current iteration of the loop.

 Continue can appear in looping statements.

Syntax Flowchart
#include<stdio.h>
while(condition) void main( )
{ {
Statements; int i;
if(condition) for(i=1; i<=5; i++)
continue; {
Statements; if(i==3)
} continue;
printf(“%d”, i)
}
}

OUTPUT 124 5
 C-programming
ARRAYS
1. WHY DO WE NEED ARRAYS?
Arrays are used to represent multiple data items of the same type using single name.

2. DEFINITION OF ARRAYS

 The array is a collection of homogeneous elements of same data type.

 The array index starts with 0.
 Arrays are called as subscripted variables because; it is accessed using subscripts/indexes.
 Ex: 1. List of employees in an organization.
2. List of products and their cost sold by a store.
3. Test scores of a class of students.

 Here marks[0]=10, marks[1]=20, marks[2]=30 and marks[3]=40. This subscript/index notation is

borrowed from Mathematics where we have the practice of writing: marks4, marks3, marks2 and so on.

3. TYPES OF ARRAYS

I. One dimensional array/ Single-Subscripted Variable

II. Two dimensional array/ Double-Subscripted Variable
III. Multidimensional array

I. One-Dimensional Array: A list of items can be given one variable name using only one subscript
and such a variable is called as one dimensional array.

Ex: int marks[4];

 Here marks is the name of the array which is capable of storing 4 integer values. The first value will
be stored in marks[0], the second value will be stored in marks[1] and so on and the last value will be in
marks[3].

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Declaration of One-Dimensional Array: Here is general syntax for array declaration along with examples.

Syntax: data_type array_name[array_size];

Examples: int marks[4];
float temperature[5];
Note: Declaration specifies the data type of array, its name and size.

Initialization of One-Dimensional Array: After array is declared, next is storing values in to an array is
called initialization. There are two types of array initialization:
1. Compile-time initialization
2. Run-time initialization

1. Compile time initialization: If we assign values to the array during declaration it is called compile
time initialization. There are 4 different methods:
a) Initialization with size
b) Initialization without size
c) Partial initialization
d) Initializing all values zero

a) Initialization with size: we can initialize values to all the elements of the array.
Syntax: data_type array_name[array_size]={list of values};
Examples: int marks[4]={ 95,35, 67, 87};
float temperature[3]={29.5, 30.7, 35.6};

b) Initialization without size: We needn’t have to specify the size of array provided we are initializing
the values in beginning itself.
Syntax: data_type array_name[ ]={list of values};
Examples: int marks[ ]={ 95,35, 67, 87};
float temperature[ ]={29.5, 30.7, 35.6, 45.7, 19.5};
c) Partial initialization: If we not specify the all the elements in the array, the unspecified elements
will be initialized to zero.
Example: int marks[5]={10,12,20};
Here, marks[3] and marks[4] will be initialized to zero.

d) Initializing all the elements zero: If we want to store zero to all the elements in the array we can do.
Examples: int marks[4]={0};

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2. Run time initialization: Run time initialization is storing values in an array when program is
running or executing.
Example:
printf(“Enter 4 marks”);
for(i=0; i<4; i++)
{
scanf(“ %d”, &marks[i]);
}

II. Two-Dimensional Array: A list of items can be given one variable name using two subscripts and
such a variable is called a single subscripted variable or one dimensional array.
 It consists of both rows and columns. Ex: Matrix.

Declaration of Two-Dimensional Array: Here is general syntax for array declaration along with examples.

Syntax: data_type array_name[row_size][column_size];

Examples: int marks[4][4];
float city_temper[3][3];
Note: Declaration and definition specify the data type of array, its name and size.

Initialization of Two-Dimensional Array: After array is declared, next is storing values in to an array is
called initialization. There are two types of array initialization:
1. Compile-time initialization
2. Run-time initialization

1. Compile time initialization: If we assign values to the array during declaration it is called compile
time initialization. Following are the different methods of compile time initialization.

Syntax: data_type array_name[row_size][column_size]={list of values};

Examples: int marks[3][4]={ 1,2,3, 4, 5, 6, 7,8,9,10,11,12};
float city_temper[2][2]={29.5, 30.7, 35.6, 45.7};
Note: In the above examples we are storing values in marks array and temperature array respectively.
The pictorial representation is also given below

 After initialization the arrays appear as follows:

1 2 3 4 29.5 30.5
marks 35.6 45.7
5 6 7 8 city_tem
p

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2. Run time initialization: Run time initialization is storing values in an array when program is
running or executing.
Following example illustrates run time storing of values using scanf and for loop:
Example: printf(“Enter the marks”);
for(i=0; i<3; i++)
for(j=0;j<3;j++)
{
scanf(“ %d”, &marks[i][j]);
}
More Examples: Other way of initialization:
int a[ ][3]= { 0, 1, 2, 3,4,5,6,7,8};
int b[ ][4] ={1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12};

012 1234
a b
345 5678
678 9 10 11 12

Example for Invalid initialization

int A[3][ ]={1,2,3};
Note: Never have column size undeclared in two dimension array.

III. Multi-Dimensional Array: It can have 3, 4 or more dimensions. A three dimensional array is an
array of 2D arrays. It has row, columns, depth associated with it.

NOTE:
USING ARRAYS WITH FUNCTIONS:
In large programs that use functions we can pass Arrays as parameters. Two ways of passing arrays to
functions are:
1. Pass individual elements of array as parameter
2. Pass complete array as parameter

Pass individual elements of array as parameter Pass complete array as parameter

Here, each individual element of array is passed to Here, the complete array is passed to the function.
function separately.
Example: Example:

#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
int square(int); int sum(int [ ]);

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int main( ) int main( )
{ {
int num[5], i; int marks[5], i;
num[5] ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; marks[5] ={10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
for(i=0; i<5; i++) sum(marks);
{ }
square(num[i]); int sum(int n[ ])
} {
} int i, sum=0;
int square(int n) for(i=0; i<5; i++)
{ {
int sq; sum = sum+n[i];
sq= n * n; }
printf(“%d ”, sq); printf(“Sum = %d ”, sum);
} }

STRINGS

1. INTRODUCTION

 A group of characters together is called String.

 String is always enclosed within double quotes (“ “)
 String always ends with delimiter (NULL – ‘\0’ )
 Ex: a = “NIMS”

Operations on string:

 Reading and writing a string

 Combining string together
 Copying one string to another
 Comparing string for equality
 Extracting a portion of string

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2. DECLARATION OF A STRING
A String is declared like an array of character.
Syntax: data_type string_name[size];
Example: char name[20];
String size 20 means it can store upto 19 characters plus the NULL character.

3. INITIALIZATION OF A STRING
Syntax: data_type string_name[size] = value;
Example: The String can be initialized in two ways:
i. char name[30] = “SUVIKA”;
ii. char name[30] = {‘S’, ‘U’, ‘V’, ‘I’, ‘K’, ‘A’, ‘\0’};

NOTE:
i. char a[2] = “CPPS”;
The above initialization is invalid because, the size is less.
ii. char a[5];
a = “CPPS”;
The above initialization is invalid because, in string the declaration and initialization should
be done together.

4. LIMITATION OF STRINGS
One string variable cannot be directly assigned to another variable as shown below:
char name1[10] = “Hello”;
char name2[10];
name2 = name1; //Invalid
But, this initialization can be done using a loop and assigning a individual character as shown below:
#include<stdio.h>
void main( )
{
char name1[10] = “Hello”;
char name2[10];
int i;
for(i=0; i<5; i++)
{
name2[i] = name1[i];
}
name2[i] = ‘\0’;
}

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5. READING AND WRITING A STRING

i. Reading a String: To read a string we use %s specifier.

Ex: char name[10];

printf(“Enter the name\n”);
scanf(“%s”, name);

While reading strings we need not specify address operator because, character array itself is an
address.

NOTE:

Edit set conversion code %[ ]

It is used to specify the type of character that can be accepted by scanf function.

Ex 1: char name[20];
scanf(“%[0123456789]”, name);

Example 1 specifies that it accepts only numbers.

Ex 2: char name[20];
scanf(“%[^0123456789]”, name);

Example 2 specifies that it accepts only alphabets, special symbols, space but it does not accept any
number.

Ex 3: char name[20];
scanf(“%[A-Z]”, name);

Example 3 specifies that it accepts only upper case alphabets.

ii. Writing/Printing a String: We can use print function with %s format specifier to print a string. It
prints the character until NULL character.

Ex 1: char name[10] = “SUVIKA”;

printf(“The name is %s”, name);

Output: The name is SUVIKA

Ex 2: char name[10] = “SUVIKA”;

printf(“%s”, name);
printf(“%9.3s”, name);
printf(“%-10.3s”, name);

Output:

S U V I K A

S U V

S U V

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6. STRING MANIPULATION FUNCTIONS

 C library supports a large number of string handling functions that can be used to carry out many of
string manipulation and are stored in header file <string.h>
 There are mainly 6 string handling functions:

Function Name Description

strcpy( ) String Copy Copies one string to another
strlen( ) String Length Finds the length of a string
strcmp( ) String Compare Compares two strings
strcat( ) String Concatenation It concatenates (combines) two strings.
strncpy( ) String ‘n’ Copy Copies left most ‘n’ characters from source to destination.
strncmp( ) String ‘n’ Compare Compares left most ‘n’ characters from source to destination.

I. strcpy( ) – String Copy

It is possible to assign the value to a string variable using strcpy( ). It allows us to copy one string
from one location to another.

Syntax: strcpy(destination, source);

This function has two parameters:

i. destination: A string variable whose value is going to be changed.
ii. source: A string variable which is going to be copied to destination.

Ex: char a[10], b[10];

strcpy(a,“NIMS”);
strcpy(b, a);

After two calls to strcpy( ) a, b contains NIMS.

II. strlen( ) – String Length

The string length function can be used to find the length of the string in bytes.

Syntax: length = strlen(str);

String length function has one parameter str which is a string. It returns an integer value.

Ex: char str[10] =“NIMS”;

int length;
length = strlen(str); //4

Note: str = ‘\0’

length = strlen(str); //0

III. strcmp( ) – String Compare

It is used to compare two strings. It takes the two strings as a parameter and returns an integer
value.

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Syntax: result = strcmp(first, second);

result = 0  first = second

result > 0  first > second
result < 0  first < second

Example: int res;

res = strcmp(“cat”, “car”); //res > 0
res = strcmp(“pot”, “pot”); //res = 0
res = strcmp(“big”, “small”); //res < 0

IV. strcat( ) – String Concatenate

It is used to concatenate or join two strings together. It has two parameters where the combined
string will be stored in the (destination) first parameter.

Syntax: strcat(destination, source);

Example: char first[30] = “Computer”;

char last[30] = “Programming”;
strcat(first, last);

Note: strcat( ) stops copying when it finds a NULL character in the second string.

V. strncmp( ) – String ‘n’ Compare

It compares upto specify number of characters from the two strings and returns integer value.

Syntax: result = strncmp(first, second, numchars);

result = 0  first = second

result > 0  first > second  w.r.t number of characters
result < 0  first < second

Example: int res;

res = strncmp(“string”, “stopper”, 4); //res > 0
res = strncmp(“string”, “stopper”, 2); //res = 0
res = strncmp(“stopper”, “string”, 4); //res < 0

VI. strncpy( ) – String ‘n’ Copy

This function allows us to extract a substring from one string and copy it to another location.

Syntax: strncpy(dest, source, numchars);

The strncpy( ) takes three parameters. It copies the number of characters (numchars) from source
string to destination string.
Since, numchars doesn’t include NULL character we have to specify explicitly.

Ex: char a[10] =“NIMS”;

char b[10];
strncpy(b, a, 2);
b[2] = ‘\0’

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7. ARRAY OF STRINGS
It is an array of 1D character array which consists of strings as its individual elements.

Syntax: char name[size1][size2];

Ex: char days[7][10] = {“Sunday”, “Monday”, “Tuesday”, “Wednesday”, “Thursday”, “Friday”,
“Saturday”}

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USER DEFINED FUNCTIONS

1. INTRODUCTION
Every C program should consist of one or more functions. Among these functions main( ) function is
compulsory. All programs start execution from main( ) function.
Functions: Functions are independent program modules that are designed to carry out a particular task.
There are two types:
1. Built-in (Library) functions
2. User defined functions

1. Built-in functions: These are C language functions already available with C compliers and can be
used by any programmers.
Ex: printf( ),scanf( )
2. User-defined functions: These are written by programmers for their own purpose and are not readily
available.
Advantages of using Functions:
Functions based modular programming is advantageous in many ways:
1. Managing huge programs and software packages is easier by dividing them into
functions/modules—Maintenance is easier
2. Error detection is easier—Debugging is easier
3. Functions once written can be re-used in any other applications – Reusability is enhanced
4. We can protect our data from illegal users—Data protection becomes easier

Figure 1: Top-down modular programming using functions

The below block diagram represents how functions are useful: Instead of writing entire program within
main( ) function we can write independent modules as shown:

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main( Subtract ( )
) completes the
main( ) calls
add( ) work and returns
back to main( )

add( ) completes main( )

the calls
add( ) work and subtract( ) subtract( )
returns back to
main( )

A function can accept any number of inputs but, returns only one value as output as shown below:

Function
output
inputs Black- box

2. MODULAR PROGRAMMING

 Modular programming is defined as organizing a large program into small, independent program
segments called modules that are separately named and individually callable program units.
 It is basically a “divide-and-conquer” approach to problem solving.
 The characteristics of modular programming are:
1. Each module should do only one thing.
2. Communication between modules is allowed only by calling module.
3. No communication can take place directly between modules that do not have calling-called
relationship.
4. All modules are designed as single-entry, single-exit systems using control structures.
5. A module can be called by one and only higher module.

3. ELEMENTS OF USER-DEFINED FUNCTIONS

There are three elements that are related to functions:
i. Function definition
ii. Function call
iii. Function declaration/Function prototype

i. Function definition: It is an independent program module that is specially written to implement the
requirements of the function.
ii. Function call: The function should be invoked at a required place in the program which is called as
Function call.
 The program/function that calls the function is referred as calling program or calling function.
 The program/function that is called by program/function is referred as called program or called
function.
iii. Function declaration: The calling program should declare any function that is to be used later in the
program which is called as function declaration.

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FUNCTION DEFINITION/ DEFINITION OF FUNCTIONS

A function definition, also known as function implementation will include:

i. Function type/ Return type
ii. Function name
iii. List of parameters/ Arguments
iv. Local variable declaration
v. Function statements/ Executable statements
vi. A return statement

All the above six elements are grouped into two parts. Namely:
 Function header (First three elements)
 Function body (Second three elements)

Syntax:
function_type function_name(list of parameters)
{
local variable declaration;
executable statement1;
executable statement2;
......
......
return statement;
}

Note: The first line function_type function_name(parameter list) is known as the function header and the
statements within opening and closing braces is known as the function body.

i. Function Header: It consists of three parts: Function type, function name and list of paraemeters.
The semicolon is not present at the end of header.

Function type:
 The function type specifies the type of value that the function is expected to return to the calling
function.
 If the return type or function type is not specified, then it is assumed as int.
 If function is not returning anything, then it is void.

Function name: The function name is any valid C identifier and must follow same rules as of other
variable.
List of Parameters: The parameter list declares the variables that will receive the data sent by the calling
program which serves as input and known as Formal Parameter List.

ii. Function Body: The function body contains the declarations and statements necessary for
performing the required task. The body is enclosed in braces, contains three parts:

1. Local declarations that specify the variables needed by the function.

2. Function statements that perform the task of the function.
3. A return statement that returns the value evaluated by the function.

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FUNCTION DECLARATION

A function declaration consists of four parts:

 Function type/ return type
 Function name
 Parameter List
 Terminating semicolon

Syntax: function_type function_name(list of parameters);

Ex: int sum(int, int);

int isprime(int);

4. CATEGORIES OF FUNCTIONS

User
defined
functions

Functions return
nothing (void) Functions with return
value

Functions with
void functions parameters
without and return
parameters values

void functions Functions without

with parameters and
with return values
parameters

1. Void Functions without parameters – No arguments and no return values

 When a function has no arguments, it does not receive any data from the calling function.
 Similarly, when it does not return a value, the calling function does not receive any data from the called
function.

Figure: No data communication between functions

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Example:

#include<stdio.h>
void add( );
main( )
{
add( );
}
void add( )
{
int a=5, b=5, sum=0;
sum = a+b;
printf(“Result = %d”, sum);
return;
}

2. Void Functions with parameters – Arguments but no return values

 The calling function accepts the input, checks its validity and pass it on to the called function.
 The called function does not return any values back to calling function.
 The actual and formal arguments should match in number, type and order.

Figure: One-way data communication between functions

Figure: Arguments matching between the function call and the called function

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Example:

#include<stdio.h>
void add(int, int);
main( )
{
int a=5, b=5;
add(a, b);
}
void add(int a, int b )
{
int sum=0;
sum = a+b;
printf(“Result = %d”, sum);
return;
}

3. Functions with parameters and return values – Arguments with return values

 The calling function sends the data to called function and also accepts the return values from called
function.

Figure: Two-way data communication between functions

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int add(int, int);
main( )
{
int a=5, b=5,sum=0 ;
sum = add(a, b);
printf(“Result = %d”, sum);
}
int add(int a, int b)
{
int x;
x = a+b;
return x;
}

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4. Functions without parameters and with return values – No arguments but return values

 The calling function does not send any data to called function and but, accepts the return values from
called function.
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int add( );
main( )
{
int sum=0 ;
sum = add( );
printf(“Result = %d”, sum);
}
int add( )
{
int a=5, b=5, x=0;
x = a+b;
return x;
}

 Actual Parameters: When a function is called, the values that are passed in the call are called actual
parameters.
 Formal Parameters: The values which are received by the function, and are assigned to formal
parameters.
 Global Variables: These are declared outside any function, and they can be accessed on any function in
the program.
 Local Variables: These are declared inside a function, and can be used only inside that function.

5. INTER-FUNCTION COMMUNICATION
Two functions can communicate with each other by two methods:
1. Pass by value (By Passing parameters as values)
2. Pass by address (By passing parameters as address)

1. Pass by value:

In pass-by-value the calling function sends the copy of parameters (Actual Parameters) to the called
function (Formal Parameters). The changes does not affect the actual value.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int swap(int, int);
int main( )
{
int a=5, b=10 ;
swap(a, b);
printf(“%d%d:, a, b);

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}
int swap(int x, int y)
{
int temp;;
temp = x;
x = y;
y = temp;
}

In the above example even though x and y values get swapped, the a and b values remains unchanged.
So swapping of two values in this method fails.

2. By Passing parameters as address (Pass by address)

In pass by reference the calling function sends the address of parameters (Actual Parameters) to the
called function (Formal Parameters). The changes affects the actual value.
Example:

#include<stdio.h>
int swap(int *, int *);
int main( )
{
int a=5, b=10 ;
swap(&a, &b);
printf(“%d%d:, a, b);
}
int swap(int *x, int *y)
{
int temp;;
temp = *x;
*x = *y;
*y = temp;
}

In this method the values a and b have been changed or swapped.

6. NESTING OF FUNCTIONS

A function within a function is called as nesting of functions.

Example:

#include<stdio.h>
float checkno(float );
float div(float, float);
main( )
{
float a, b, res;
printf(“Enter two numbers”);
scanf(“%f%f”,&a,&b);
div(a,b);
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}
float div(float a, float b)
{
if(checkno(b))
printf(“Result = %f”, a/b);
else
printf(“Division not possible”);
}
float checkno(float b)
{
if(b!=0)
return 1;
else
return 0;
}

7. PASSING ARRAYS TO FUNCTIONS

Two ways of passing arrays to functions are:

1. Pass individual elements of array as parameter
2. Pass complete array as parameter

Pass individual elements of array as parameter Pass complete array as parameter

Here, each individual element of array is passed to Here, the complete array is passed to the function.
function separately.
Example: Example:

#include<stdio.h> #include<stdio.h>
int square(int); int sum(int [ ]);
int main( ) int main( )
{ {
int num[5], i; int marks[5], i;
num[5] ={1, 2, 3, 4, 5}; marks[5] ={10, 20, 30, 40, 50};
for(i=0; i<5; i++) sum(marks);
{ }
square(num[i]); int sum(int n[ ])
} {
} int i, sum=0;
int square(int n) for(i=0; i<5; i++)
{ {
int sq; sum = sum+n[i];
sq= n * n; }
printf(“%d ”, sq); printf(“Sum = %d ”, sum);
} }

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8. PASSING STRINGS TO FUNCTIONS
The strings are treated as character arrays in C and therefore the rules for passing strings to functions are
very similar to those for passing arrays to functions.
Basic rules are:
1. The string to be passed must be declared as a formal argument of the function when it is defined.
Ex: void display(char item_name[])
{
......
......
}
2. The function prototype must show that the argument is a string.
Ex: void display(char str[])
3. A call to the function must have a string array name without subscripts as its actual argument.
Ex: display(names);
Where names is a properly declared string in the calling function.

RECURSION
Programmers use two approaches to write repetitive algorithms:
 One approach is to use loops
 The other uses recursion

 A function calling itself repeatedly is called Recursion.

 All recursive functions have two elements each call either solves one part of the problem or it reduces
the size of the problem.
 The statement that solves the problem is known as base case.
 The rest of the function is known as general case.

Ex: Recursive definition of factorial is

Fact(n)= 1 if n=0 base case
n*fact(n-1) if n>0 general case

Limitations of Recursion
 Recursive solutions may involve extensive overhead because they use function calls.
 Each time you make a call, you use up some of your memory allocation. If recursion is deep, then
you may run out of memory.

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PROGRAMS
1. WACP to find a factorial of number using recursion.
#include<stdio.h>
int fact(int);
void main( )
{
int n,res;
printf(“Enter a number”);
scanf(“%d”,&n);
res=fact(n);
printf(“Factorial = %d”,res);
}
int fact(int n)
{
if(n==0)
return 1;
else
return (n*fact(n-1));
}

2. Program to generate Fibonacci series using recursion

#include<stdio.h>
int Fibonacci(int);
void main()
{
int n, i = 0, c;
printf(" Enter the number of terms");
scanf("%d",&n);
printf("Fibonacci series\n");
for ( c = 1 ; c <= n ; c++ )
{
printf("%d\n", Fibonacci(i));
i++;
}
}
int Fibonacci(int n)
{
if ( n == 0 )
return 0;
else if ( n == 1 )
return 1;
else
return (Fibonacci(n-1) + Fibonacci(n-2));
}

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1 WAP to find GCD and LCM of two numbers using concept of functions.

#include<stdio.h>
int hcf(int, int);
int main( )
{
int x, y, gcd, lcm;
printf(“Enter two numbers”);
scanf(“%d%d”, &x, &y);
gcd = hcf(x, y);
lcm = (x * y)/ gcd;
printf(“GCD = %d”, gcd);
printf(“LCM = %d”, lcm);
}
int hcf( int x, int y)
{
if(x == 0)
return y;
while(y!=0)
{
if(x > y)
x = x-y;
else
y = y-x;
}
return x;
}

2 List the storage class specifiers. Explain any one of them.

OR
Give the scope and lifetime of following:
i. External variable
ii. Static variable
iii. Automatic variable
iv. Register variable

Variable Definition Scope Lifetime

External Variable/ The variables declared Runtime of program
Global
Global Variable outside of all functions.
Static Variable The variables declared Local Runtime of program
using static keyword.
Automatic Variable/ The variables declared Local Remains within the function
Local Variable inside the function. in which it is declared.
Register Variable The variables declared Local Remains within the block in
using register keyword. which it is declared.

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STRUCTURES
1. INTRODUCTION
Structure: It is a collection of heterogeneous elements of different data type.
Arrays Structures
Array is a collection of homogeneous elements of Structures is a collection of heterogeneous elements
same data type. of different data type.
Array is a derived data type. Structure is a programmed defined type.
Arrays must be declared. Structures must be designed and declared.

2. DEFINING A STUCTURE
The general format of structure is given below:
Synatx
struct tagname
{
datatype member 1;
datatype member 2;
- ----- -
- ----- -
datatype member n;
};

 The keyword struct defines a structure.

 tagname/ structure tag indicates name of structure.
 The structure is enclosed within a pair of flower brackets and terminated with a semicolon.
 The entire definition is considered as statements.
 Each member is declared independently for its name and type.
Example 1 Example 2
struct bookbank struct student
{ {
char author[50]; char name[50];
char title[50]; int age;
int year; float marks;
float price; };
};

 In the above example 1 bookbank is structure  In the above example 2 student is structure
name. name.
 The title, author, price, year are structure  The name, age, marks are structure members
members.

3. DECLARING A STUCTURE VARIABLE

 After defining a structure format we can declare variable for that type.
 It includes the following elements:

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i. Keyword struct
ii. A structure or tagname
iii. List of variables separated by comma
iv. Terminating semicolon
Syntax: struct tagname list_of_variables;
Example: struct bookbank book1, book2;
struct student s1, s2;

NOTE:
The complete declaration looks like either of below:

Example Syntax
1 struct bookbank struct tagname
{ {
char author[50]; datatype member 1;
char title[50]; datatype member 2;
int year; - ----- -
float price; - ----- -
}; datatype member n;
struct bookbank book1, book2; };
struct tagname list_of_variables;

2 struct bookbank struct tagname

{ {
char author[50]; datatype member 1;
char title[50]; datatype member 2;
int year; - ----- -
float price; - ----- -
} book1, book2; datatype member n;
}list_of_variables;

4. TYPE DEFINED STRUCTURES

We can use the keyword typedef to define the structures as shown below:

Syntax Example
typedef struct typedef struct
{ {
datatype member 1; char title[50];
datatype member 2; char author[50];
- - - - - - - - int year;
- - - - - - - - float price;
datatype member n; }bookbank;
}tagname; bookbank book1, book2;
tagname list_of_variables;

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5. ACCESSING STRUCTURE MEMBERS

 The structure members should be linked to the structure variables to make it meaningful.
 It is done with the help of dot ( . ) operator.
Ex: i) book1.price  Indicates the price of book1.
ii) book2.author  Indicates the author of book2.
In Programs,
Ex: i) printf(“Enter bokk1 price”);
scanf(“%f”, &book1.price);
ii) strcpy(book1.author, “Balaguruswamy”);

6. STRUCTURE INITIALIZATION

 The compile time initialization of a structure variable must have the following elements:
 The keyword struct
 The structure name or tagname
 Name of the variable
 Assignment operator ( = )
 The set of values for the members of the structure variables separated by comma and enclosed in
flower brackets
 Terminating semicolon
Example
struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
int year;
float price;
};
struct bookbank book1 = {“Balaguruswamy”, “CPPS”, 2021, 200.0}; //Complete
struct bookbank book2 = {“Kulshreshta”, “BE”, 2020}; //Partial

The structure can be initialized inside a function or outside a function:

Inside the Function

main( )
{
struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
int year;
float price;
};
struct bookbank book1 = {“Balaguruswamy”, “CPPS”, 2021, 200.0}; //Complete
struct bookbank book2 = {“Kulshreshta”, “BE”, 2020}; //Partial
}
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Outside the Function

struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
int year;
float price;
};
main( )
{
struct bookbank book1 = {“Balaguruswamy”, “CPPS”, 2021, 200.0}; //Complete
struct bookbank book2 = {“Kulshreshta”, “BE”, 2020}; //Partial
}

Rules for initializing structure

1. We cannot initialize individual member inside the structure template.
2. The order of values must match order of members.
3. It is permitted to have partial initialization.
4. The uninitialized members will be assigned to default values asfollows:
0  int 0.0  float ‘\0’  char

7. COPYING AND COMPARING STRUCTURE VARIABLES

 The variables of the same structure type can be copied the same way as ordinary variable.
 If book1 and book2 belong to same structure then,
book2 = book1 or book1 = book2  valid.
 However, C does not permit any logical operation on structure variables like,
book2 == book1 or book1 = = book2  Invalid.
 In case we need to compare them we may do so by comparing members individual.
book1.price = = book2.price  Valid

8. OPERATIONS ON INDIVIDUAL MEMBERS

The individual members are identified using the member operator (dot . ).
A member with the dot operator along with its structure variable can be treated like any other variable name.
Ex:
i) if(book2.year = = 2020)
book2.price = 500;
ii) if(book1.price = = 200.0)
book1.price + = 100;
iii) sum = book1.price + book2.price;

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Note:
There are 3 ways to access members. They are:
1. Using dot notation [book1.price]
2. Indirect notation -- Using pointers [*ptr.price]
3. Selection notation – This operator [ptr  price]

9. ARRAY OF STRUCTURES

 We can declare an array of structures, each element of the array representing a structure variable.

Example
struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
int year;
float price;
};
struct bookbank book[100];

 In the above example an array called book is defined, that consist of 100 elements. Each element is
defined to be that of type struct bookbank.
 It can be initialized as follows:

struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
int year;
float price;
};
struct bookbank book[2] = { {“Balaguruswamy”, “CPPS”, 2021, 200.0}
{“Kulshreshta”, “BE”, 2020, 500.0} };

 In the above example it declares the book as an array of 2 elements that is book[0] andbook[1].
 Each element of book array is a structure variable with 4 members.
 An array of structures is stored inside the memory in the same way as a multi-dimensional array as
shown in the figure below:

book[0].author Balaguruswamy
book[0].title CPPS
book[0].year 2021
book[0].price 200.0
book[1].author Kulshreshta
book[1].title BE
book[1].year 2020
book[1].price 500.0

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10. ARRAYS WITHIN STRUCTURE

 Here, the array is present within structure.

Example:

struct marks
{
int rollno;
float subject[2];
};
struct marks student[3];

 In the above example the member subject contains two elements subject[0], subject[1].
 The elements can be accessed using appropriate subscript like:
student[0].rollno;
student[0].subject[0];
student[0].subject[1];  Refers to marks obtained in the 2nd Subject by the 1st Student.

11. STRUCTURES WITHIN STRUCTURE

 A structure within a structure is called Nested Structure.

Example
struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
struct bookbank1
{
int year;
float price;
}details;
}book;

 It can be accessed as:

book.author
book.title
book.details.year
book.details.price

12. STRUCTURES AND FUNCTIONS

 There are three methods by which the values of a structure can be transferred from one function to another:
i) The first method is to pass each member of structure as an actual argument of the function.
ii) The second method involves passing of a copy of entire structure to called function.
iii) The third method employs a concept called pointers to pass the structure as an argument.

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Function Call Syntax:

function_name(structure_variable_name);

Function Definition Syntax:

data_type function_name(struct_type struct_name)

{
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
- - - - - -
return(expression);
};

POINTERS
1. INTRODUCTION

 A pointer is a variable which stores the address of another variable.

 A pointer is a derive data type in ‘C’.
 Pointers can be used to access and manipulate data stored in memory.

2. ADVANTAGES OF POINTERS

 Pointers are more efficient in handling arrays and data tables.

 Pointers can be used to return multiple values from a function.
 Pointers allow ‘C’ to support dynamic memory management.
 Pointers provide when efficient tool for manipulating dynamic data structures such as stack, queue etc.
 Pointers reduce length and complexity of programs.
 They increase execution speed and this reduces program execution time.

3. UNDERSTANDING POINTERS

Memory Cell Address

0
1
2
-
-
-
-
65535

 The computer memory is a sequential collection of storage cells as shown in the figure above.
 The address is associated with a number starting of ‘0’.
 The last address depends on memory size.
 If computer system as has 64KB memory then, its last address is 655635.

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4. REPRESENATTION OF A VARIABLE

Ex: int quantity = 179;

 In the above example quantity is integer variable and puts the value 179 in a specific location during the
execution of a program.
 The system always associate the name “quantity” within the address chosen by system. (Ex: 5000)

Pointer Variables

Variable Value Address

quantity 179 5000
P 5000 5048

 Here, the variable P contains the address of the variable quantity. Hence, we can say that variable ‘P’
points to the variable quantity. Thus ‘P’ gets the name Pointer.

NOTE 1:

Pointer Constant: Memory addresses within a computer are referred to as pointer constants. We can’t change
them but, we can store values in it.

Pointer Values: Pointer values is the value obtained using address operator.

Pointer Variables: The variable that contains pointer value.

NOTE 2:

 Pointer uses two operators:

1. The address operator (&)
It gives the address of an object.
2. The indirection operator (*)
It is used to access object the pointer points to.

5. ACCESSING THE ADDRESS OF A VARIABLE

 The actual location of a variable in the memory is system dependent and therefore the address of a variable
is not known to us immediately.
 Therefore the operator (&) and immediately preceding variable returns the address of the variable
associated with it.
 Example: int *quantity;
p = &quantity;

6. DECLARING POINTER VARIABLE

Example:
int *p //Declares a pointer variable p of integer type.
float *sum

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Syntax: data_type *ptrname;

Where,
data_type  It specifies the type of pointer variable that you want to declare int, float, char and double
etc.
*(Asterisk)  Tells the compiler that you are creating a pointer variable.
ptrname  Specifies the name of the pointer variable.

7. INITIALIZATION OF POINTER VARIABLE

 The process of assigning address of a variable to a pointer variable is known as Initialization.

Syntax: data_type *ptrname &expression

Where,
data_type  It can be any basic datatype.
ptrname  It is pointer variable
expression  It can be constant value or any variable containing value.

Ex: int a;
int *p = &a; // &a is stored in p variable

NOTE:

 We can initialize pointer variable to NULL or Zero.

int *p = NULL;
int *p = 0;

8. POINTER FLEXIBILITY

 We can make the same pointer to point to different data variables in different statements.
Ex: int x, y, z, *p;
p = &x;
p = &y;
p = &z;

 We can also use different pointers to point to the same data variable.
Ex: p1 = &x;
P2 = &x;
P3 = &x

9. ACCESSING A VARIABLE THROUGH ITS POINTER

 After defining a pointer and assigning the address, it is accessed with the help of unary operator asterisk
(*) which is called as indirection or dereferencing operator.

Ex: int quantity, n, *p;

quantity = 10;
p = &quantity;
n = *p;

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10. POINTERS AND STRUCTURES

struct bookbank
{
char author[50];
char title[50];
int year;
float price;
};
struct bookbank book[2], *ptr;

 The above statement declares book as an array of two elements each of the type bookbank and ptr as a
pointer to data objects of the type struct bookbank.
 Therefore, the assignment ptr = &book; would assign address of 0th element of bookbank to ptr that is ptr
will point to book[0].
 Its members can be accessed using “  “ (This or arrow operator or member selection operator)
 Ex: ptr  author;
ptr  title;
ptr  year;
ptr  price;

 To access all the elements of the book below statement is used:

for(ptr = book; ptr<book+2; ptr++)

printf(“%s%s%d%f”, ptr  author, ptr  title, ptr  year, ptr  price);

4 WACP to read details of 10 students and to print the marks of the student if his name is given
as input.

#include<stdio.h>
#include<string.h>
struct student
{
int rollno;
float marks,
char name[100], grade[10];
};
void main()
{
struct student s[20];
int i;

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char checkname[100];
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf("Enter the detail of %d students",i+1);
printf("Enter rollno=");
scanf("%d",&s[i].rollno);
printf("Enter marks=");
scanf("%f",&s[i].marks);
printf("Enter Name=");
scanf("%s",s[i].name);
printf("Enter Grade=");
scanf("%s",s[i].grade);
}
printf(“Enter the student name to check the marks”);
scanf(“%s”, checkname);
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
if((strcmp(checkname, s[i].name)) == 0)
printf(“The marks of the student is %f”, s[i].marks);
}
}

5 Differentiate between Structures and Unions.

Structures Unions

struct keyword is used to define a structure. union keyword is used to define a union.

Every member within structure is assigned a In union, a memory location is shared by all the
unique memory location. data members.

It enables you to initialize several members at It enables you to initialize only the first member
once. of union.

The total size of the structure is the sum of the The total size of the union is the size of the largest
size of every data member. data member.

We can retrieve any member at a time. We can access one member at a time in the union.

It supports flexible array. It does not support a flexible array.

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6 WACP to maintain record of n students using structures with 4 fields (Rollno, marks, name and
grade). Print the names of students with marks >= 70.

#include<stdio.h>
struct student
{
int rollno;
float marks,
char name[100], grade[10];
};
void main()
{
struct student s[20];
int n,i;
printf("Enter the number of students");
scanf("%d",&n);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
printf("Enter the detail of %d students",i+1);
printf("Enter rollno=");
scanf("%d",&s[i].rollno);
printf("Enter marks=");
scanf("%f",&s[i].marks);
printf("Enter Name=");
scanf("%s",s[i].name);
printf("Enter Grade=");
scanf("%s",s[i].grade);
}
printf(“The students who scored above 70 marks are:”);
for(i=0;i<n;i++)
{
if(s[i].marks>=70)
printf(“%s \t %f”, s[i].name, s[i].marks);
}
}

7 Explain the array of pointers with examples.

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We can declare array of pointers same as of any other data type. The syntax is:

Syntax: data_type *array_name[size];

Ex: int *x[2];

Here, x is an array of 2 integer pointers. It means that this array can hold the address of 2 integer
variables.

Ex: int *x[2];

int a=10, b=20;
x[0] = &a;
x[1] = &b;

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