Unit) Fundamental Structures eo Ba and Leaic Set: A set is an unordered kmown as collection elements or numbers £ ebjects Ex: An clement ‘atibelengs to leet ‘A’ ie represented Jil os aed €: belongs te not, belongs fe sets 4 ete the form of statement | ex! (ay set of even numbers ov edd numbers (b) Setiof mumbers less than 1c | Elements _ar 2e Restey form, J ex: 2,4,6, 8, 4 Sanat. ites = =} e represented in [3 Bet builder form : Deseribed by a property | member Ext Cay fx: x rust sabiefy r fy | 6 divisible by number 5S _and ( ey: lees than 50} its oy F424 is_odd = || Types of sets s {3 per A= fh3. 974 8 * Cardinality: clumber of + Fepresentation — IAl= 2 \S8l=10 shrikeupa [1s Equal sets; Tf beth the sets have some 1,449 elements elements % Order dees not Ha FEr in the set| 2. Sub- Set tA A= {25} 8s fr By 8041 5 6 TS, 910 A ie a eubeet if evew lemedinoof A is = alse post Bo athe set 5 A cB = B.clutie sett A eet cuhich contains nething, $84 de 30 gia a 4 Power- Seht) All possible -ub-seticef a set. rh A ee Se, 3h 3 then P(MPPSEY Oy 12,8, Cy 2 cs) Car8) 29334 mality of power set nino ef eleme ty Com [iss Botte sett Assi 2 Jee tpnibe sete Beha, 3,4 - ==} IT: hy tena _set = FI} 4a} | Cartesian Product : AxBit Seb of wall ordered pats Cais) ovhere gic Ap bes. {| = iT i TP RE §1,27 B= frig} i | [is Av8 = £Gep) 4 Cig), Cap dy a, gy} [ssei * Cavdinali hy of Carteeialomduct = ax “1. | Shrikcupa “GEM: of elements | Ae. of elements in ®KAXB XExA i BxA = FCP Cqut)CPrA I, C4127 + —- = = || set_Opernters_+ le Union + Set of elementa whieh are in A orin 6 Denoted by ‘U’ I A=), 2,3} 5 {2154.63 AUB = ft, 2134) a r # AUB f{x|x eA oR xeBd - t 2. Inter- section 2 ‘MN’ | set of elements which are in A_and in 8 a - ANS =fxIXEA AND xe BT CB) oP 8. Set -difference : A set _of elements ethich ave in A and. net tn ‘8. ow Wee veh A-B= $13 if AS F213} B= fagi4i8¥ B-A= [4,5} : A-B= Sxlx eA Ap x Bt BAS fel ee B ACD Xe AZ a ‘Shrikrupe@Bomindtom stew is Ate Oe Ang@=6 @Idempotent Law = | Any Aine A . = l ANA = 4 2 | @ Gmpliment Law - e* = AS Acorn A a | © Gommutohve Lees _} aI AUB= 8UA | ie Ang = BNA @fssosiative Law — A UCBuc )= GRR cauBUG b+ AD Conce= @naone ShrikrupaPage No, Date _ = @ Distibutive tow - Am (sue) == Ane) (Ane) AUCBNC) = (AUB YA (AUC) @Be @ fos = ANS Derlergan ss baw Awa SUS a : . @ Absorption Lawt- Bp UC np) =A A NCAUB)S = A @ AVA =U Ana =1¢ Ay oe? Se AuG@pAe) = (C uBINA 5 ANepe) = Les. 777 2 DeMlorgests. bauer tis = AAG UC) ---- Declorgan's baw = Ans > + Cemmutotve Law =@us na =--- _Assosiatve bow “LHe = RH ‘Sheikrupeof Hoes Lan element ap: mul set a={yass zat AG gan 36, he se2dy>) Renciel Exclusion [Ar Oa) = Tarte 1A} [om UAB I= (Al tan) + TAs] = TAin a’ : —\A\ Ast + IAM As 9 Agl a =| Propesitidnal vj hegie : ppe Th isha Bee) dectatitive “Sentence thet is tue _ lor false. =| Connectives * i | aot . AelD, OR, If-4 then Thiand eoly If 2 | aor anol dlegation oe Io & Conjunction Pha F OR wy BDisjuncton pN¢ TE then —> Condi Honal pea Pe editeonal pe+q + lpg) AG 4 P-r@: TF sun is} shining’ today then 8+ = a = = || Rules x 1] Beusle _negaton : s, ap =e 2.|| Comm utehee 4 (PN@) Cavey (exe) = Canp) SheikeupeBi]) Associative : (PAGO AR = UP AICQAR) a] Disha butve = : pw Cank) = Via) ACpYR) . PA CaVR) S(PAG)V CRAR) E eQote: VE A Swe 5 || Dectergan Law ¢ veya) aP Ave 2 ] CP Ala gS eRe Veg) art Pe wii Jit || Ausexp Hon Low pv Cp AQ) pPACPYa) Te || Tdempotent Law? fowPe= © poP =P 8.) Iden peat fy s L BAe Bi pvr =P PAF =F L Sheikrupa= CRPAQV— > RF -| P— COS e i Ge Wet ADP SCOR) DEE, Te = = T eT & Tr T = Po eye Tue x a Tie ¥ ft a eer eye 5 a = le eT pe if t BT Ef € FF ‘a a Eh Pe Gen = Re eer} = Pe rtav re) * SP ERA] ) SE Peo oe PS can) = P— Weaver) UPN C26 VR) WPVeQIVR wv (Paw) vR P Kade | G0) Se PvG AS Hp —~@ —-lomvgy as] op Pre) > PSerns CIP VQ) <5 CT PNG) Kg Vr KS s Ss ShrikrupaGuede: Ram is healthy ‘ || @: He has blue eyes. ahs f | PA® Ram is healthy and he has blue eyes $ | Ps t+ is tetd cold ie ae Wacia 44 U i PAS Tile icold Vandelyy ig rolninegy oP Th sa ot PYG Hats coldvorbit te || Oxiee @ TES iSilcoldsosiit vig Loot walnings Late ve Vv Copa ved Sue& 1 aipvarav plo |~p] ~@ a) were) | PARE) }: Te [Pe F E Tulse. legs ; F F Peles any fee Se f Fe T pi os Tielke se ue _| Shrikrupafie = ‘age No iene: | Feit ote 1869/2 | ue S [ep aGen RN Ce AR) NCP ABD Bee F(R) + (GR) EC Ry) if y Ie per ap He Jan bs [ P-S-e ti KR (P+ e) Ss iS ae (+a) + e+ ail R R (Peeay+ @+0)] a Se Colerma] foes forms) ol) Reduct of vassables’/ literals | and s tele formula is ‘called Aa em! § Elementary In necessary Gnd suffrorent condi glementayy Sycduet | te be Identeally false { doantadie Hen? is that it contains atleast one _ pair of literals fm cuhich? one Heiinegabion: <* | Ihathen 2 ye el GER UR DAE APS) oooh, 3 A nécessayy and sufficient condiHen fer an | elementary surq_#_be dentcally fre Ctoutology, | ys that ih contihe atleast one pair of litevals jis eshich one is megaton «ff other ; (ever Nr, --- — = > T =| Slejunchve “eterna forms : The __fernu\a Shieh is Gawaleck fe a qlven _ | a | fee! —jerraula and gonsists ef sum of alee ers | preducts._ ja called as igjunchve fexm cormal aa Shrikeupaeee Ques Casa F Page No Ss rAd a= Get~ 8) e ee PAGF = @) p I Aap vey bo . | ake wena) Ge gt ig 3 = GPYQ) 49 E(w pang) ¥ tg AVG) Conjuctve elormal Forti + < “The fermula which !s equivalent te 2 aiven . formule!) wid = legneintt ) afl ia productttef elementary | Sums ois called § als Gonjuetver nermals forms Bi po g) AN Korie Ge = (ep Angi (ga ag) Extinecy Cp rig) <7 (PY 4? Tadprg) —- (py gil A Ecpvg)— a cpag?d tis Rel» ‘cpg | A[eGvg7 v ~ feng fepmece vo 1} Ag pyvcprg)4) feevg? ACevg) J ShrikrupaPage No Date | Panel eispunchon coral | forto s = T CA combinations | cpagq) cw pag? pang) BAG possible) Sol" | (wp aeq) => mini term / Bee lean Pr =. Boolean - Aoy foyrula equivalent | forint ler pngisting + 4—$ | gf digsfun¢ Hon £ min terms only fs Known Rimeiple. Digtunchén ‘clormal Forme Such for Tio called as sum of products, Cannonical fern le pve? = teres gvagi? I wt nat p Mop | =hw pagl @PAvg) Vig spe gave) PENG Pag) Gp Avg) VE 87D tL fe oy wer PAS@ ‘ShrikrupaPage No, Dote 16 /oa/2™ S| eng Vip nay cane) ‘Sol"'|) Aa fep re SESH eo aplcenan CRY TRY [Oraria Cave IN [cone Ate 7°) PP CeAGAR) V CPAQATR) VY CIPAR ANG) CQ ARA P) N Ce ARA TP) S| Principle Cnjpunehon dhoymal frem Crear) v ~ pW gi “ Betax term CpNig) (6 gi) | (pv GAS EP Nigh) a rer. Saas Shien are es for @ omen fermula jan equivalent fecroulg # + consisting of wrjuochon of max terms isu thnewn as Panciple Conjuneton clétmal “Form | Peduct of sum catronical frm Zz Bl wpa) A CQ a7 PD CRVR) A[Cp—> @) A Ca—P)] (Pa) A (wPVeQ) Awevry | Sel TGR Cee > RR 84 [PF ff RW CAAT AIA ShrikrupaNalidity = Davermine pilthey | the cenelusi ent fs derived fon |i premise r : |b ses Gi de Pes ge, eae Pe S'S Ee) Howat Capek eS cS ere ee hs a @) Hohe ay Re At CRA GY { we) Heke ep Ee SF ge Spee On ge ei (eng) ApS wae Leper £ T F e oN F F ante E =e ete ar & 7 (@| Rom fath fable. saw ; Shrikrupa =oy Dote ie Sie oli Mabas: BRE oe _predicak. 3} is a Sportman T= SCe ): ae s & 2.x ig is greater than 3 pe YG.) GG x uD. : Coed cole. h Ee Ris a friend of ¥ ==> Fax ye J . s.| 7 inbetween x and = ——> BCx, 4,2) [ Xhis.Politiciams nGums Spoekmao— > PC) A scx) He) SPOK es S620). Ef «ts Politician then x is Sror teen $8.) fave <> scx) x is av pelibelan | iff se is sportsman! i = Qvanti fiers = | | Universal €w.> Vier a! Noe For ail ire sim the umyies universe te ‘ShrikrupoA pocteman glihelan and epertern Qveg- te bodys we [Pow A Sex) | a Pox ms = Existential Quods C3): te Ai there exists. us pievebae xe in Hel’ uniderae so Gecurse. |) th he universe ef discou dx 3,2 Atleast one *< de There exist ain element * a jen NY a a berm Caot There ontat dome ae) a Ssporieman 3s Fx (PUD A Sex) Some _olit'eiang are Sportsman _———-™* eS Sportsman: ane politteians> AY least on politician ais sportsman. Sete ON Nx GO) = Je + Pex) 2s QS (Aw hla) 5. veo fee ie Inference Predicate io? ae Fule Universal ¢tassification! Specification This yule ef Inference is useel fol conclude — that Fa) vis true where 1a. is a arhcular member Of universgbaf discourse que tes a Bere Ce PCC), Meee lace? Cay) fy: AN students are _brilliony A dinad je byilltant. SheikrupaBil Universal Generalize | ah vule ef inference states that fer every Hee jwhen the aiven premise « Pea)! is [Wales Faeballl: dlements ‘q’ belonging te the = ae 7 uelverse of discourse Peay —> Me Pex). for arbitrary a. a = Co. | — J, This vale con obe used iwhen we wart te prove that oe | eventos Rex) is hue. bys tabingean. ar Bitroty [ements ai ferns the universalegiclisceunse and Be lusina Pca) ig Hues “The elected element fa’ must man be an arbitrary element and net _a specific elemedh Ras jn the universe of — cliscgurse S|) Exighential i isped ficakO=\ Generalization * | aie wrule» of inferences permits us te condud fact the-ipremise dePex)) de. tue when @ » with Pad true is aiven pactelar cleanin oa Peay ——> 3xPhtx> , for some element a _ 4: | Sxistential Specification * This vile of: inference, peemits, us toe conclude that there extsts an element ‘ol lab \n the universe of discourse! focinhich fica) is; tue, if | the foe e An Pex) is rue. Shrikrupe| Rule Fs A premise can be derivaton 2|| Rule T: : — Th the fermulal gis toute logically implied any mone!" of more! previous! formula inserted aticanys point || dee clerivation then a2 con th beningerted | derivation, || Rule CPS ‘ ule CP ¢lands- fer conditonal proof Tt is al a Keown 08's éduchdn » Theyre Tt states» that aie can derive a firmula q ‘fom. p certuin premiseS theo’ uw con clerive Botige, fom the sett of > premises alone portant Sguivalences :_ BR BER Clouble negation tour? P (double “negation law > pYg = 9h 4 pCcommufative law ) pA GS 9A B Coommutahve law ) (pg) ¥Y TEp Vicgvr) Casseciatye law) op rg) ATE pa CgAy) Cassociatve law) I shrikeapePage No,___— me @l pv c¢g*? = G& Ve) A Cgwr) Cdistibutive law) mip ACg VY) = (pag) Vv Cpr) Cdistibutve low) el pve = pag = : = a1 Boy eh ee eqans t a ol| pvp = i Mp xe ae Gaempetent law) =a ry yA eV wn (pig) AGS p) pagrV png” apy 4 tf abserphen law pp aoe } eAnee Chaere Taw Sheikrupa‘Im sree p hig Tmplipieation > - | aa — ia . i “ep teaaaHon) _ S| p —> (ps9) — |g = So) = ae) 7. | (p= gq) —> p = s.| GS =F —— S| pp gies BEA gy Ceonpiuchag!) gf iol PS “pig y] => gq Cdisjunctive sillegiam) tL Dp p97 — > gy Cmedus ponensy ey ite woo a $ Gmedus -tollens) | 8 | tpg, gr dG nd Chypethetical ayileaiom) len] Cevg Ss paov, gerry “Cdilemmav a Sa CPW IB Vee Covey: Créselution) =| Examples iB S| Ii] shew that gis a valid inference fiem the p= y pg, pyg ee uh 6 See p S | wy 5 a i | 8 Set Tc ctbau sien.) «> a We 5 5 2 ted 2) | b Stejunctve suitePage No,__= | Date —— = 2 3 = Bi|| Show that paz 6 ie tutologially implied =, a by (pag, pyr Sol rege gy 7 CW) peg p Ge Bye (Be dergan 4 a? py wo, tT, Pog seg) oe Jey pe [ekg Se ww), (pg 5 “pve? (4a 3), (ed), Hy pethetical syll ism oo = 2. Ones 61,6), Hedug tellens Si TE Londensis« al ot then Canada_is q me, untry on 2 || Ganda canada is oof a cbunby == vg | Wandon Tews os ety ~ ye | ce aye ae Sol 7. g Spo p | ero @) oS @) ~~ Oy @s, Modus tollens: Je Clinton dee not live in France, then he does ob speak — Reench, \P Y Clinton does not alrive a_car. S$ TE Clink byes _in wee then he rides 2 Ticucle . + Shrikrupa[_ Clinton’! apeqlgs| French Rtas Tc uidten! so deacon ea ele — Conelus i ae a nq ws) eo? t Sel pobre SEES 1 = | ogee gy = es [ws 7 (a ope e oe! a ___--s— ey @) Bier syllogism _— ei es O), @) oth = [eye Ge a AeP I Sal lp—> aA feos p)] Aap a | Gt), pe Cm sy eer sp) iS 2) p iPoge No. Date Woe), > Ges) the cP P is _additien ** oremise e Tp Oe pons a e T_,@),€2) reedus ponens P Tie) (SIL disjunctive syle Pp T, GI, GY) modus: ponens Rule CP. ‘Shrikeupeile ye Destructive Consheictive ___—__ aeeseen: Ue ea: Cho Co x Te ee Consmuctves GPY2, Cpe QoS ig ry Eos Rives) aoa |S esructive + >| Mathematical Enduetion : | ta aeneal mathemattdal indwetien’ car deds te aprevelios ta tements | Tha awe SP used : ! sect is fue forall pbditiveliseyabs tinbeqeve: — po) is tue and an | Gus ee ee ee ele show that here inductive step, where _é Waive mde Inkeoen by if PCR) ig tee th ¥ PCr +t) is tee. Fen)) be” a propesi Hons! a = Ms nent) = Is the gum of 0 natura! numbe Poye | Cie) whet statement that Be Basige Fee the assume that Pix) avbits' inkeg of Pk Induetive Inductive ste halal kK L€ fc = Cen) = an a Shrikeupafor this assumpten ye we have te show thaalias POSH ale iba: i Melee kee + a) eS Cpe) Cee Acting =k HE on bots sides ie 2 ® Teme ke Cie) = CRE) OF at = SCevk ea Cee) a = Geri) (read ---@ 2 fom Gi ond -S- Thetlost equahod! shows phat POst!) is hue Gnas the @seumation that PCR) is tue Que [2 + 27p--- nh Sn Gi Cen >, '\ € Let Pén) be a prepositonal statement that 18 wn um of squares on of ama natural soumbers i Sioa ea ka hake Us) ae UD NB nH cS Cc Gaetan eee + SP oeo-- bie Cece .. Se je for. tale aSeumpton, exe have te show that Pct) | ag is Hue. Hee (ep g* => BY HRN) = Coa Come tl) 4 Cac ee) Shrikrupa 6 = Chet) Ce21C2 45) &yea kee (oe) + Cet (epee. ee c = ‘ = ReeE CSE? 2 ace!) ie 3 - = Carp CR GEN + 6Ch+1)) a = = “al ue ERE a +e ) = 7 a Sa (ee CER aE Se ¢ j = Gil@mteart dere —— 7 Aes =) )Tecerta? + 2C2k+3)T zz : = - = Wh.chhs) Cares) 6 aie 8 + aaah Say = see vena peal 2 Some Sy a ee _a Trductive - & | fs oe » Shrikeupa Lidgon _Alaorithen 2 meee = “ke Euclidean Algethrs 1s used te Compu a qed. off two numbers defniten is as follows _ (a ajo = ¢ Gem Capel) An drid) ot. Pee! | ees 4 : U q@en te 2) e Ris wemainder ehen Cl is divided by ct Que. 1. Gen G5e)= acn(es)) G@eBC16) E | 24 Guclad) Glchiren cams and Seah ep Gm Para) Lee = Axa Gene, a) eG wun Sn ey) Soe oes a = Geo (9-3) = Ges(26) = 3 [_ bela Caray =) eke7 6a Gentz 27) Let (a ies) * — JL ted(otgle jars = joerg ae GemClok,q) Gen€3,o) Ss ShrikrupaPage No, Date 23/03 faa Clathematcal “Induction! lel! hase the seh Any non-empty set of smallest elesent here wi is well ordered afinition! Ls Sere Seviec. setae Recursive Ext Ribena | fret fey re G recursively ide finited Step) Basis sel step: Specifiy “value for the terre Step 2: Recursive shep Tf the value fer find <3 Subsequent values usiog previcus values those defined in Basis step. ex, FeO) =e fina) =8 fore Find C2.) £99) ead a [ssl™ cid Orie aftera | =(Sx)-1 = 5 + J fea) pete ster 1S = = hd, F=f Cb) = 8h Cer Sa Sw PCISLE Cary = 3 RCealem exile tao J Si] Gine recursive: definition of Ya? thee a |'non-zere meal and ni is _non- negative Sei"! || ae = 1 Vis “e alana Qrz=a-a OP Sa. Cr ShrikrupeBasis a = = | etawilem atera-.a% ie Gm 34 — —|| Duision Algovithro = t Let ‘a’ be’ an inheg ev UNEtE integers 4 & ar wategex. Then _theic = Such that wea be $s e \= §x3 42 a= dxgt® — r. ; : cel gind. a positive: Inbeqer Aqreaber E Pot Is called VE He _pesitive faces are {and P — iston Algoritnns 3 Pame a | Randamenalo TReony of RathmeHe = Bvew, = pesitve Integer Woy bh Can be c Unigudly as @ pune of as Hye preduct £ texto of move prime written in nen decreas size. ie. For eve Sy ever We ae, Ov ten be te Gi te alkeve @ach pi fi $s and each Kyl positive Infea ; ShrikrupaDud ede BX, SS XSi Ren Soo. 240 = ee = 2x2 x20 = 2x LABRIOO aeax2x 2x56 CUE Gs =oxaxax2x 2K ‘Shrikrupato_a_unique + praA—?*8 as tT | ® 8 > | a ui = 3h a 2 | bs Range of F cgy ly 8 6 mig SE a ! HG, ees of function! % Lone? #0 One Ctnpentve )” a : A_funcHon PiA—re is said te be one to be if ne +fuio elements ave mapped to same e in ¢ ay Se S3 > ba 2: || Onte CSucfectve) ae: BS (i fe funeHon PLA ¢ is said te Be suvve | if every Joach elembent of C 1s Mapped te = clement of A. ; oe > — o5 — S Be Oo am, =. 20g “7 a4 3 ee =— Sheikeupa,Bijective function BH footunchion Fi As B is called sBijechve and onto f Toye rsion \C Inverse is one-one bebgenc U0) B. Tt the .Tioverse elation r bet Fi =i \ £: Ba hs ict the furcHon and de noted same ufee Inverse, of om fudehion is B hte,B) lex Fis. bijection — || function Com position Wo ler fi A Anand, qui he | fey) HATA Gesect & | oq) =F cx} - od - lore Hh sels. 4X 9 °h a4 Sorain Co. Bomain Sa x. ~# TT aia Cy BR Ewe © Geen image Tong oo eS Shrikrupa|| which o¢ the reasons ani funehon ‘lafions ave. functions? A [so find v the domaics and ve ¢ payeca sae as) jhe elements = fem TaN nee, Ci “Here, each fot element ude unique tae: co-ordinate feces Pu ee see J ee = P25) nd of Pasig uhie Let FOR — > Ri fea) Set Rind er_f | cle) EGS years 10 RS HS There fore #'ce) & -33% Let R_ be the Rs RIECK) = 2R = Ei cx) ot yo Show thet Cg eof)# flo #6 Gog o Let x be an OUR) Ge» 0g Ge) 4 Shrikrupa vbihary real» number Then ffs gfeese 4 ce Ce Ee ifShow and that o a Co- domain of i Gpsdomain off = co domain Also for each x ©A | -fCx) Hence Finds thecdomain of thelifeal) valued fuse || defined by hex =ycKme For funcHon bs to be real valued the expression 2 positive o* equal Under the square ~vet roush to _O Hence the condi hon x-2%0 ‘ShrikeupaSolve the above inequality fo obte inter~al Jrequality form x % 2 and = C2, +20) Que-G.ll Find the varqet of the< I= et ae + A ui solr: || hex) 3s a | quadyabie in vente far using compleling funeHen 4, soi let us fiest || write square hoe) = Ge'=2)? +5 is either positive or equal 2 rea) valuesy hence ¢-2)" 20 i q " to zevo as x * Add 5 +o beth sides of the above inequality Cera) + 55 bove fneguality aives the vange of bh ast = 3 Capris: = [5) +o) te i Ef QueT. | functors gq: and Ware given by o { hoe) = xFH1 Find Co oh )Oe) Sol%| “The defisitien of the absel { (aso h Jc) = qthew) I = 102240)Lene Pay neon one-© [wBijectve/ oe e conte! correspondance Page No, — Dote =" SS Quetti| vhich funetons ave surjective Gievante) & lef: ZZ defined by fen) = Sn- — * $ a lao ej Ven) Binh} defined by ets Cakes I oe ea) Babi ftp, 3h=* £1,234 clefined as fpllews \ 2 Sem =, bul asl i | 2 3 h SelM. Only tis surjective || arisiss sugectve: Every lement of the co>domain is | also. in the asda Aothidgcinsthe Co-domain is 1 og |_sniesea f hS pot, curreckven here kare, Clements... /nyth@ | to- domain whieh. aves nok in the yange. in fact a = J the vange ef the functions is 5 gubigh 1S Nee equal te 2. Vv Gis not surjective there is no x Sf ugh Cthe domai for cihich, gee ab sub hay vomibbtiehigs 3S amines THe cp- domain ig not in the ‘ange TRere +e 3s _an element fom. Ghe Yo tdoriain at missy ne tegeshtiemmbes Horo eek =< oO of the mahin. Shrikrupa _— aPage No. | Date__/ hee meee | Zz ues Which fineHons are injective L { | Gy previous, quest’ar ) = 7 = scit||_@ £ te injective. Pach | element |Lassigned tb at most one element = from the dons puthfee pthenlenly x! nthe ce -domo Te x is a _‘multple { ; — it | Ray te ee pe oe ples of 2 i them there ie no inpub corres ponding) te the 4 | output x: : [@® ots pol injectivel Goth Inputs 2 and Sa | ssiqned the Gutpult ga. cletce that there js « i cletlomt fom estdemain «tha. apileag¥s ai toore +: once. gn thes bottena pew 6fou the. mairte: i | ©H_ is injective. Lach output Fs _omlys an othe ur 1 E once. fo. 18: || Suppose thak a | [iso function | @)_ Shew that fi then “fod Na Bide. SNOUT one ; | Gl Shiv HOE if both foand 4 eee tortor: |; then foalis alee aatoe - Bodl™ | Tako) Coses, ue can argue directly from the / de Holegrg. “ : @)_ Assume that beth f and _q are one-fo-one necdlt ty HORE -g an fe TONBe ee dpe Se This means that we need show Hat jf x and fois distin elements of A then fcgee)) # £56) Shrikrupa :Page No. dote_L the definition tells us Bret). since 4. 1S) one -tonone 4 that a Gx) ¢ fea 9 Gy) Second bsinee nowt AO and — o UG G) are distinct elements. of B and since fis = that. f Cacxy) A £ cq ey). one-to-one ne conclude by Assume me beth § and gare onto. We need to _shoey that fea 1% onto. “Thte Meane a thal = Ae meed Te chery that if “2 is any element of © wthen there is some Nement * © A euch that Feats) J=2 Pret S sinte f is onts, We can comeluden that sibhere fs ap element ee Basuch that fey) Ze Second, gine 4 js onto ancl y e8 , we can conclude thet there is ent w€% such that gee) <4 Putting these an elem 1 Begeter- welhave Lf wf Cqnetailas elated , ‘ ‘Shrikrupa = -— finyeleted: FO eRe: * Page No. Date | Relations: _ = | EE Aland Ge aves sets’ thenmany subset ay || AxB is called a velation fm A te Be i [caf 2A ie ony seh pthen lang Subset of Ans ET |Seatiea oo Vesth telatitmmi! ope Aue |» If number of elements io AD ist mand in ae Tie wa then murmBer tele pbaciiite relating: bet... ie fom A te Bits 272 i. 2 Ri AXA Ri Rela Hom x : a Reflextve Relation a [sf GR De ee A elation “Ris said te be veflexive relator elete 1 The diagonal relation of A isi reftesive a) J J Bp 5 Ais faye) Cts, Wen Rercaiad, Ce BAe, ¢ 1] vefledive. yveflexive 4 a= F Cad), Ge), Cares Cha enee 14 R3= AXB A Suppose A has 9 90. of See Me dtmbev vef relations possible ins A = era Shen Symmetie Relation: A velaHen R bn a set 4 fs said ts be Symmebic if Gy) then (hic) 3 buy € Ateif Ce 4) ER | then a, Nay € A Si iPage No.. Date 49/02 /2= se. ES Ry ve faa fio, Bi Ss, $12 cso simbilest. sig rmmetric svrelablan y $ nd Ras faa), 6b} R= fCabitea), Ged, 1a nse Ras Ax A ---> Largest Symmetric relation Vv Date Ae ee AS $i ny then erumber off : F mat? Symmetic relaten of A is 2 [Frenstive Relation | A velaton R on a> set A f9 said +e be transitive if (ak b ) and GbR) then Cake), Nawic © A Sguivatence Bead Wa fab <3 Ris $cayb) % —* Reloton wit 1 pairis always ransifve Ra = § Carb) , Cac) Ra= fcayb), (bic), @ic) 4 Ra = AxA ——> Largest transitive velation | oF Bquivalence Relation BK velaten 8 is said te be equivalence } Riis reflexive, symmetvc and -tareitve. Shrikrupa i. aaz= - Guests eels Represontubion Ber A Pepe pele re Ie eB _, A=fa, bie? Mp seog imme t et ; $ ——> = = — R=fcvay Cub), Qie y C316) 4 3 Table Representation! Ui aa. = if = ¢ E 2 Sof" Pee ae 3 2S a x 3 Sel" — clatix Representa Pons f a bok ¢ ea \ ° is oO oO 1 es 3 — ° 1 || > Greph Representation! \ +a 2 yb ZF aS Fer a A ts A veprosentaton’ $y F Wen 2) C13), €202), Qi, Bd Gay ShrikrupaDetermine cvether the following are weflexive | uel | He alist vom etic a transitive. or, nob Suis (a) f. Car), C23) » $214), 0929 03:3), C3 dS Cu), 2), COD, (2129 BI SIVCA AY NS) F ci) G22) 33), C4 GG 3 G) 3,3), Ca) 02,9), cog y Capt) (3,44 S| i) i Gy Beflecl Reflese | Sywumeb te =) |carctet veflexive becouse eve do, oet have Cty), C2, and (414) salet symmette because — Transitve , since fer every Caib) and we have C34) but not 4a) Gied aw have Caic) (HY Reflexive. because for edi 4 we have Ca, a) — Symmetric — Transitive ©) _ Reflexive Symmehdc Trans) Hve Gy, ae, eae nie let symmetric det transite ‘ShrikrupeRecurrence Relation = = [te day be a sequence , an-equetion Anec = Sin) wilh a | nites nembe ope othem Pacm sos “ d @ Ls aAn-! ne 2 te Oe +h. Sequence !> 1, ape ociee “af 41 Ce scecurrence relation: ie Ex: Hbenacei Sequence Ta oe 2 £60 ses ri =: . © | So ee Ons hel + nea is ae ae reedinrence xelaton I. clete: This velahon 16 algo Called Aifjerence equats i — Order of Recurrence Relation: La e The order af recurrence relation is Letween the highest and lowest subseripts ¢ > Degree of Recurrence Relation! d + — —— Highest pooer of fer) ov Oy = Ye . + sr ee 6 has dearee 5 as jy. ; ay b ates power of Yr i: + 2yicpe PAY eet + 24 = Kicey has aearee 1_and ordew is 3) Shrikrupaeiith) Conatent pl near Recurrence Relations CoefRcients Recurrence! erelatiéns silty | degree called arg: linear San- San) + Anea = 6 Receyrence Relation: Ee | ineaw Homogeneous s Th constant coefficients) [ C Gusillary Ceharacter istic? equation : E ee TER Code) Caw ta Cac reas Os Si sceend Orcler then jecl@am? fc Se > 2; Ab. has . a Slep2: Apply Cases 5 j= 5 “a CEeee TONE haa reall and distinct voots — = 7 ; Ve eta Bn Con) O% ore roe ts qheve 1 Aa Case AB. has real and equal ots: 3 ‘Gas CA, PAgie er AOeee- Am! Ja? ‘Shrikrupa:on=nepeated Complex Case - Irs Roots are aris + Jee ro Cn eosnd tAasinne )_enhere = ve farttll Suppose the second ovdler “Hamogenous Linear : F | vecurvence yelation 1's. I Coty + Cp Ayan + Ca Aria =O) “Then the chayacteviste Equation CAurilliary gue ent ‘ cA is nea cin Ue —y Solve the recurrence relahen Gy ~3ay-1 + 3Ay-2 - Ay-g =O given that Goa U £72) and _aa=- Given _vecuvrence relation is Oy = Say.) + 3ayo2~ Gyeg=Q -* and aiven that de=l, =-2, and a2=~-/ hie i third order vewrrence relation she Chavacteriste fquaton is L m2- 8m? + 8m — Cm =0 £0 coy) The Seneval~selution iS CS ee ee ee furtingisinneg™ @ , Arh ke avel and v=o Ges! 2 ie. Oy=~2 ant vol potting in_eg™ @ Ou Hee Waite Canc 1) FS ~ 2 4 Gy > CRS Saye 26 > © and r=2 Fotting in eq” Cp =| ie. Gy a eg Git o> Tess caj7 ss Shrikrupees ee cas || a | solving equal ont | Hone E a i z i | s The required geoeral 138 clutien 1S = opel See — = | + Ow = ae | o T 7 5 Gue | Ar-Ta,., $1042 = 3 =O, GE : sol?” | Charactewstic eguabien is > | j - + [ m*-Im +e10 =O | m=5,2 ay = anne aye a 2 | at Sa RAG = S&S = I — Rssume, ay = Ac3% --- © _ a t fub in eg” © = A3o ee —_— Asa” + vg) Eton geht. eet 77 3 fe Nie eee — | 3 | 2 I wk A aS og ce = s Put neg G) E tex = —e | vex -aeagwee B | a P || shritcrdpa =Glon- Hemogenous ———— aiken fer) =6" and bist net a veot f Chava cteristic: equation Suppose trial sclukens | 4 = ALBY Case-a. Athen “fe wis br wack: tsa vest of Chava cteciste equation Tf oul Hplicity of b is’ “one. te. bis @ toot af multiplicity |, then - Fre. thal gallion Issey = AveaLe Suppose Shrikrupe2. TE roaltplic! | mmoltplicty 2 , then ea “ey i WE Ee ee Supp the trial solution = 7 r = 3. If roultpli ity of Bis three Ve. & Isa rect multplia St, then) — — — Suppose the trial_sotubten is Qe = as ae ee : Gy Way te ae ee ee eS ; = Chavacteristic / Auxilla Cguahon is E mre fmt 4s8 ye. q ¥ 3 ae oe eet i Cee) =O. a med 2 — Gf iran) 2% Caer avticulay soluten is then ay tea Av*. 3" a @ Pub in eqn Jean US WCG ae ee eee AY 22 4 2 ya ee ee 2 ae poz Shrikrupo,Page No. Date 07/10 fas |e es a = — I (apes . 1 = |< Case-5: When f{cr7 is a celynomial in + , - | a If fer is Hiclegmes 6 polynomial ini tren tria\ scluben! is 2 ay st fhe + AY |. If ft) is second degree polynomia im rv then _the taal goluHon ist aP= bot Art Aar® & TH fer) is_third degre ly nomial in _y then the t dal” seluten fe Qe SaAgt Ae + Ay? 4 Aye Be = Sas! i Gave ae Se Sol?! om - Sant 6 wm? - 2m - B+ SG wa (mae) = 3 Gm = 3) Gma2 Cm 8) Some 213 Shrikrupa| a Se eee efron GS Pet Ay ~ ST Aet ead + 6Lhet Ai Crea) = | fet tiv = Saw Sane + SA) + GAoe GAtY = IoAi6 2. BAD oho - Th + 2A Ztr > 2h TA, =2 & 20 2 2 hes Se 2 2Aie a Ae) 2heS 247 be ZI Ave tes WV x a ~ Ae = it | Si Gl eal ha As | 4 2 ape ar nat Se La ee a = €) & CaeCoe es cts Cit+eryes) + 3 7 1 r jé BA@] Gy- 2a.) + Ar-2' 57 . Soi" mr- 2m + lao aa \z i | BOARS 4a AG F ee jet - “Oe § Ao~ i ferIiis Dive e A 2 Aes be tie 7 =7 ay z = eb t b isha double \ chavacteniahe E } i ots of horneqenocus, delehen equation. . ale = = : “5 Oy = fay ‘Sheikrupa RN. lhe meJ au4ye 4)=7 Aye = 2 Agee?" AC = 7 Hee Se roe Cve= ar ei ptihs Ce Nov? = 4 hov +“ s Ft Aoy2- 2hor™ Hider = ho # arep= 7 ean! < Ay v= By =2y Ain = 6y : 1 = Jar =< | fe 24 12 =) iE mG, = 13 + ey er? az Reway = ay" far Mea. Oy = (e+ ay)o +)3asiev ty> : ~2 | ikrupePage No. » Dateo8/i° Giga cen Foye EN Peaeh Ae $s) is aol ioe constant = In y and b rt eh BTS ies e | arate eee Oke | ac | a [oq]! sl ged] =2 iy ai = Eee Av] [aD ab” Cage Are tay*) i _ E L % = bis a wot ue | of ce a eqel Afb) =2 af sb nt) Lar? sb eben) | | afecn|=h + ao] ry a ae EC hot Ay) ay? = BBC Ant A Bn © OF Oy, = 5-v- 2" --O sol™ CBs ig mH =o ros] a ere” 2M CAe% Are) as - ShrikrupaFut_\n eg” ay Chet Ave) + 2! Cet AG 27 fhe + Aw + fe + Ay A L = = 2 An (Sho Ay Vite 3 es 3 and Final soluHon. || Case-5: chen fer) = b+ bow | whe i . polynomial ein and 6 Is ve dev) is a constant | fo abt bev) | — J ACee =) afoe=% logan et And [a= 6 hor Art Aa | Athi =I aft) =bor + bey) Leer =T aN= hy + Got AyD] mae)" ‘Shrikrupe £peg oe= Sava h 64y-2 = eye - © ~ Solht eB ts = m*iism+ ¢= 0) 2 nea mo tam =sim+6 =O p. ne” (H-2) CmM-3) =O m= 23 af = Ga fa ~ epee Aiea E fem ® ar Fa Ot Noe 5 [2 cre) a CR RW), + gfe ra) # hot A Cr=2)] set LGP = Ne —————~™F— ae . = ay Generating Function ' | Seq uence Go A), a Ag ~ an is), 3 eC as eee Onn” a | Fae cdo eee Goede \- ake atx* —atxe = | Clgsed Form Relat. =. AOR, FS) Geox) =\te 49+ 24 -- 7 =e! => ie GPs a ’ Shrikrupa | ib(23, 4,5 z Geox) = thre FRx™ e4ae8 + Sx) +H x GON) = poe” & eB + AR) E Clow) GOO) = [| +x fo alts Oe ay ee Qe) GER) = ! qa) 2 GOU= tl G-x)* O23, 5, os Gee) = Ot Ie + Dn? 4343 4 Ont + - - ~.GCe)= wKEt+tont 8x2 + 4x3, =2 | =e et = G22) See OF Ohh. eee CGS Ger on + ee ee ie EE PS a ' Gee) = Je yor Lio, | — Ce - = Gen) Stee Oe pee 4 Pk. am “= Sark PEC Re ee = Shei =aie Cie. 3 Gow) =) \ 13x } PAS = iis tse}, GOL. Suu SH Faimiis6 + SxCita) dae €j~ x50 By On = n+5. > GC) Epo +23 Ge cen)Autually wextelusive * Page No Dote [ Combinatoxic y = . = : : i. ——_—_ : a "a Oar ae bn are mmuttaall rele ; Stee Sine can happen or oceur in ese Le, ays: respectively 4 T covcle pf exgus Tee edhich ele vent, —_ i, ie ote erent Bee Es 0” = |_can happen! ere ko 1 ee a 2. | Product Rule: Tet Ch eal Ses. Ene ence fedewendent Com baspén) Sime hes , @s_ = Fe Gse. dars = Tacle af ways In eubich eVent £1 and --. &n can happen? ace eee ira =e: Gs Gye ey Ss — || Bomplet VA pair of dice: eiere tossed no. of ways LE _| +he sum of Teand) 8 ise [Bless aco dishact 1 = et ea —_ = 513 r 45 a 3 o Gy <3 216 =a 3 = Tefal = +5 <1) SS — Th ches. areTete! we _manyl integers: between jo" So ae © place Q Cannet ot Fixst BxAXGx aKa KY Wd digits other” than @ i 6258 0,2, 5)8 = 768 2 Enel sh mevie: Buppose we hove 6 different and 3 different PF Hindi ¢ movies and O clarathi movies: How mony ways You cap choose out of 3 Afferent lan Ss as #4 mI Ip seen oy HM or MEE Metee-Gttast S* Oradea lor Gi Sa BB 4) How | many inbegers in thes seth ft) 2--- loco}, must have “distinct Sigil Coll ope in @_pumber | be different) Lag + 2 dignt + Sidigk i wee 3 945 Heck Ph Oe ee BAR Cao = amb 2 eh TS Ss a= = 7388 S +27 op ShrikrupoPage No, Permutation * An arrange msat peemute ton ove ile Ss. called —lb Permutation eitheuh) népegt Hons Pi(m,k) = co.of objects i hi ota Hime permuteHan time diati net of repeaht Np solo. of rae aibhout TP, = Katie vt @-5)! mony ways Bei QHoe a vou 2 Fb7 ie ie Slag G=7)! ci _fins 16 different’ book's Can cs s6 that one beck? 1ext4. 9O8l0 7120 [@tow many ways distiBaled 9 Gm one can toke more Pang: Fy SS 15 5 persons than 3) Hear nary Wayds 5 boys and 8 qtrls oan y + soul so frat “they erie sit alternatives fos: “Shp KSA = 8) x SI Shrikeupa@tiow mary way S_ boys and iE icls. can sit Bae se tha mote boys amet es Kent aii side by side F Ans SHO GOK. O Orel 5 Pies, { cen Suppose we have € different celeured fla Be an y signale can be cenerated if any Member eof flags can be used at a time Ans fps oF Gee + Cp + & SR + er, pGbio ® Ch wae Gh Pied eek “a ty ov SG + CxS + OxGxX4 + GxSX4RS HEXSKA4K Permutation with Repeahtion Un h) — clooof 4. permutation of (n' distinct objects. taken batt a times with unlimited peat tion ec Gn ome 5 letter permutation ace How many nays Prasiblel ontholettews SADC. 5 Stand: ‘SheikrupsPage No Dote - on objects are ¢ alls alike Pal & Malte damien soe cote Wen (ws Sea Hive io — | of n objects talten alt oe eis ae a} | Ty Mat = Be i t aol" A coin ig tessed__10_ Hirves > Clumber of ot cure |_aith 5 beads qe = Penis I | fel = gen jena xaxTxexs! a [| 1: 5l Six 5! E | ; 1 I Gl dow mang Ovletter | permulation are possible “ letters AA), (8,8) » GE Sr) : Be é tol = = 21-309) _ —> || Combinations & & eAn ordered collecHen of objects Is Combination = => Combination without Repeat hon! | 2 Cm) k) - Aes of Combincdton of 9 distinct objects taken kat a Hme witheeh reper’ Clote, 1. Crk) = SC) -peke CCn n-k) Shrikrupa2s wow many binary sequences possible cal FH a zeros and consecuants oe austin alow we have La cin [Gy Slow in “Sy rays y TRExS x41 Sl Kat Ss _eimilar. beets canbe dist buted \O © pecsens 656 that ne person can than, Valbootk 5 andi te Maximus, number ave te has te be dishibuted. = jet Jexen8x Teen St BRU BAERS nat OCS. Hag one can Go +30= x (1ANBI) x= 16 @ 200 stedents , 50 maths , 146 Reonemies 24 both _ || Hoey mnany of these whe have not fatten any lave) a tA) +i1BI - fAnB) 265 =) Sout HO- 24 = 3 166 i 4 = 200-166 = 34 ~ a — Lb Le = @) 109 students ,45 french _, 51 German 4 perth the fad : a Mat lest one ef tHe two languages Gielone of the two languages [G@Only one of the two languaaes | g I Shrikrupe{ I ad @ too - 454 S51 14 3 ie tt =18 5-14) + (BI-14) =] si 37 =e @)34 students received awards. 15 _in biology {7 in Chemisty , 21 in Phissies S_in all three shel subjects Find ort + _ @PkacHy 2 subjects @Only one of three subjects sal” | ie (Avpuc [= laleiBl tel = | = Sel ‘ TADBI~fanc|—lAnel | Zz + lanBncl | Wie 7 345 asian —(Pnc} = lene - IPn Bi + 3 one SIPnel + lenBl +1PN 8) = 20 (+3) + (243) + Cyt+3) = 20 xtytz = Answer of first question H+ Shrikrupe@ solution of € 34 aatbte H xetytZt 3 3405 aehto st tS yatbte = 20 fem diagram f } = SaOcirt 5S: GRapy THeory Shortest Fath Problem Tephiallys Pra, Teib cde 24 kts) = Acab) =5 ce) = “I Caic) = [ bcd) = Alla) = 0 Je) = wica,e) LCE) = wap) =” deql= o Ca ec, cay] Alcaz) = 0 e 5,0 20 2 a A. [Se | 7214 = es ee ie ee CE - ok t a | pat-fcy= {bide fig. 2} | = min dCb) LCe) + Cord )) = min (5, 2+2)=4 Aya minGhcd) Ace) + W Cora )) = min(eo, 2*5)= 7. Sey = winked) fcc) + wice,2@)) = minCo, 2+6 Similarly, LE = HQ) = fft2) = 6 Thevation >: Glow consider P=P', T=T! & Leese ela) romper ae core Vy) Pi=POfbh= jacpd? feet wsT-f{bp= de Fig? } ShrikeupaPage No ) dluaber, ofl Vertes sone, hs 5 hemes both Ee 4 iis i slumber of edges 0 Sune We graphs must = | s> Degrees seqlence: Ole Geum = Gr — | Seren 1 5 e a) TF & chalen Gee samen lenaniee ee Baris = af ¢ Ne [by the VerHecgs Sepewy fers TEER f i 5 other graph as well =a + weqvee Sequence 4 Defined aga sequence wh of all the vertices in ascending order Sufficient Conditione* “She fullowiing conditions ave sufficient co fe prove any tote graphs isomorphic. Tf any < these Condikons satehy then it cam be said avaphsu ave surely" }somerphtc J 7 7 @Twe graphs are Tsomerphie if and only complement graphs are _fsomotphte. @Twe _araphs are isomerphie jf their adjac mofrices “ore same. ; 4 ® THe avephs are isémorphia if thelr corres sub-qve phs_qbkained by Geleing. Semel vertice one avaph and their corresponding images jn | enh axe__\Somorphie, S ‘shrikrupat o Planar | Graphs? = A yeaphCor eoul graph) Gis called -plange | $ |G con be drawn in Fhe plane with js edaes intersecting only at vertices of G such a drawi u of Gis called embedding of G in the plane — Example! Chreuit design Coannet Overlap wives | on boavd) < Tepreséntaten examples! ti, ha, Ka, ka. are planan Ko fer N74 ave not planar ShrikrupaBe placaPeuler's planar amph theeren Eten Se gs ‘age No.___— 4 ~ ney 9, seek nts of Date 7 shikees shths TE wegtens Om s Rulerts —IReorerm fA q den) toler 2 s fox ne? 2 step © induction step sty j TT. | N= J Shep @ Neri fication ishep Csr!) = i ro fe = eased) Caseui) | CaseG 21, Beth. Vertex are inside | araph | Gx Thales PAY irate oes prove’ Very > Cra > Nit 2 L vein Cette Niet > y I Cy sen et = ete ep einia = Vig De: CaBAUID To iposes Sma = oer ine vs Lic Ret Tig SiC et) NRIEDE ~ On tte Ne It? Sure RN ROE Shrikrupe erregienPage No, Date \WAb, + let 'G’= 8) be a graph. A subgraph is c- match ACG), if each wertex of Gis incident wi at mest one edge in oy ive deg Qeiuv Z a = Gibich_ means In matching graph ACa), the v- : should have _a degree of | ar ©, csheve the eda: shed be Sacidente ional, them ler pin. Gl # alotation - 1 CQ). o |. Claximal Matching: A matching M of aeph ‘Go sold te be maximal if ne oWeruedae of ‘G’ co 1 z - Rh | added 46 4 v 1 5 ae ; matching. Maximuny matching is defined as the % Gg 7 e) S { wax ral matching with maximum number of ed sj a The number of diges in raximur matching, | ‘ol te: cathe: 44s matching numbers: | 3. Perfect clafehiingy: A matching cr) of graph Co) | soid te Belg penfect match ,if every tortex | 4Ca). is ingident “to exactly, one edge of them fh [ta) ne deqcy) =! ty ; The degree ef @ach and every vertex in subgeoph should Behave a deqree of 1. Shrikrupafl Representation - Gvaph donoted Bages &, or CQ) Bdge Type: @) Direct Gi) directed Ordered pair of vertices, Represented as ow toe KE) Undirected ~ Unerdered pair vertices. Represented os Bi Guw%. wis regards any sense ef direction and treats beth nd Nertices fnterchangeably. a - ea ay g __ BBR beep — A \cop is an edge cihose endpoints are ual te. , an edge joining a vertex fo Wself ie called | ies ¢ @ \cop Represented AS. ju uh = fut Cy peerrultiple Edacs = Two or more edges qetoing the Bi game pair of \ertices. ShrikrupaPage No, I Dote J grep 5 oe = Consisis of Nt nonempty. sel of verhces | ond ill | Date ad wees a oh distinc clenentm of V wt Mled ed's Cundivected 2 = ath iy a {uty imple CUndirected Ke) atulHavoph = CG | GUE), cqnsists of seh vertees Vv, set at Bdaes and a function ef from 8 fs juntlu very orm dq wultple or parallel [tre edges el_and_e2 aw Call [ledges TH feel = Feo. 1 [> Representation Eee N=$u yw} + —>——] © feeude graph — GOVE) consis of set of of Bdge ¢ Gah GMMR fate & ver tpusy Lay ty 0 = ‘ShrikeupaLoops ave allowed in such araphs Ly Representation! Be Vefuy oy, CH fe) remy Osea ¥ & @) Directed Graph = b GO) , set of vertees Ny andi set of Edges 2, — that are erderec| pair ¢f elements of \Cdirected eciges ‘ — Representation! Ex- Gcwe) uy, wh 85 ffuyy Gyo, ww) iF (€) Directed dul Havaph ~ GOVE) jegtsists of set of vertices Vy sch of Edaes P and ae Hom f fren £ te Jfu] lowev The edges el and e2 are mulHple edges if fCel) = eas ee EG oe | <> Representation! PAS Foy 7 8 fe 122, C5 buf . ‘ | Shrikrupe[eases [oultiple tdqes | Alewed “2 undirected ul undirected Yes os - yi undivested Nes = =z divected elo wes directed Nes Yes — | Terminology * os 1. Un directed Graphs - > uond y are adjacenh if funy isan edae are called endpaints of {uv}. se Degree of Vertex Cdeqty)) 2 The number jnctdent™ on a vertex, A loop contibutes twice the dearee | = Pendant Vertex + dea tv) = => Tsclated Nertex: deq ir) = 0 shrikrupa eis Called ‘incident ith UG and Nou andyFuk} 2 = uw juny deqcu dea (w) eq Cn)= 0, vi and v are ig_iselated Directed graphs - 2 — for the edges (uv), u Is adjacent to vy OR 2 2 is adie z Iie adjacent ifom UUs jnifal verter pv= Terming | wey tex Ts = In- degree Cdeq“Cu))! slumber oft edges fer able, +t a wbich u is terming) vertex > Oube dearéeiCdeq* Cu) ): Clumber ef edges for exbich wis inbal vertes, slote: A lecp contibutes 1 te Beth in-dearee and ug Out~deqree a Bye FeV = fu wi) es ff on) Wj ow), Cunt | deqrcay =O deat Cu)= dea (see | dee SIGS “3 q 4 3 deq Cul) = 2, deq* Cun) o oO Shrikeupa(Undirected (@) Theorem | - “The Handshakin Qe = = deq cw) vey JO Cevery edge connects 2 werteean) (G) Theo rem 2- An undirected : yaph has. even number G_Nertices with odd ceqrec } i BNI ig the set of even degree vertices and ty J Na vefevs to edd dearee vertices a) ] 2e= = dew) = = deqtal + = ideg a) j Wed TO ueyv 1 o vets 0 [Pe ms = deq CN) 3s even for ve Vy [=> “the fivst terra “in the vight hand’ side last thequality 7s even = i ; The auras gf the lash twe terms on the right aide of the last i equality js evens since su Hence second term js also ewen, — Secend term = deqtuy = even Vet f) Freorem S— A deq ow ShrikrupoDirected Graphs Le deat cu) we bet C@Resrer SUS degt sey pls) = Sipeerciliis Gas cee | raph that scontains exactly — inet Nertices the simple between each Pale of dist Raglltca 5 ce eo oe @ ae A n Si consists of 0 vertices Nip, Vass: Vin Fand edges § ue} pfenNs} , {Naat = 3 N nat Vn fn pyvecaye. { [ = * Cae 3.|| Gineels + “An, obtained by adding additonal vertex te Cn Prasd_cennecting all vertices te _thisnnew vertex by Be I new. geo. Ext ls, We ae Shrikrups = NyPage Ne Date shina: Ghd only vertices represented by 20 a. Tae. vertices are adjacent i; that they ‘cepresent lif fer the it shinas fx aS telat wap G jf WP ca be gartito a = F Sets Vi and Ye such that ¢ ini — | s aruph connects a vertex in_G Connects yerteees: fn V2) Relattoas = eu Re —— | |= /z Shrikeupe=| Gonplete Sipavtite Graphs + > Ken is the graph that has its vertex set portioned into te subsets of m and 9 verhees respectively . — TRere_ is an edge between duvo 1 verHees if ane) only if one vertex Nig inthe fist subset gnc the other verte is iq the Second subset, be: _Kaa, Kars ara a © E \ ; WS kas ; — | subgraphs: graphs 5 A_subaraphs of a graph G= Cv)8) 1s _a graph et a -H=Cv' € where, Visi a eulset sef Vi and #) isa subset at B. aS : SEBS 5 ApplicaHon Selina aproblemis calthins a aqraph Uv | Representation fo Bx N= fu} C= ipa}, Iviw 4, poe ye aS yn @ co . K ShrikeupaPage No. Poet wy Miro es ee G, Gh and) G2 are simple gens of Ge fe Nye fut pre {guy fy, Vas fohvy Gn =ffw) VIF HVEZuMWY £ai ios fv 44 a i ® & 5 Gi G2 — || Representation + Tneidence Clatyx) 2 est useful auhen information about edges is. more desirable than infors atten about Hees. Adjacency (atvix/ List )* asf useful qihen information abou the vertices te mere desirable than information about the edges These two vepresentations are alse most popular ance thigformation ghoul fhe vertiess 1s often ordi deatvalsle “than edges tn in mosk applications. \ i j t - Incidence Motyix ' EOS G= (VE) be an undirected that NiNe, Va --~- Nn are the yerticess and em are the edges of G. Then the Incidence ciith vespect te HHS ordering of Vand @ raph Shrikrupoage No. Date btabnc ie Cne Cot; Taipaliend { \ shen! edge | 6 therwise is incident owith Vi Tt can dlse he | Used sito represent = [Multiple edaet = By using \ celumns with) Identical entices ates these edges ‘ore incident with the ms gu : same air of Nerbees @_columm vevith exactly: one entry 2. heopse> By using to the vertex that is J squal fo l., correspond in: - ineldent with the loop RepresentaHen! Beg Soe) | ey ea es = Adjacency clatrix! 7 here is an Anal) matrix , where | Rajacent Aghiz Caixa JA = Cay for undirected) qyxaph Ory =i FCM Yp) 18 an edge of G i i ©. otherwise a Iwi = ot, the for divected aruph , Gye Pi, (Givi) 2 on edge af G O otherwise ShrikrupaPage No, Date “is Thie mates Ih. ened find) sub yaphs and to : o reverse graphs if needed i J — Adjacercy _}s chosen on the ordering, of vertices Hence, Here are as many as. ml such matrices =? The adjacenoy matrix ef simple graphs are® summebie Cotf = ati) S, Zothen there are relatively few edges vin the waph the adjacency) matix 8 a. sparse mahik: Wi eivected mulfigvaphs! canbe represented by T Og ; A uging ON) = number of edges ro Ni to Ni I sei, Oe =U fx: Undiveated Graph G@cve) aivecrede Graph Ge Q v : ly Lo 6—_@ uw lio \ Ww Each node Nertex) has a list of which nodes Wertex it is adjacent. re | Fx: Undiveeted graph GCvie) o node Rdjacenoy List u vi v wu shrikrupe w aNFs It jaca teeil in which. neither vertices nor [edges are repeated ie. tf we fmverse a geek such that ee clo not repeat oa vertex and nor ale repeat _an edge. " s Nertex nok repeated Bdge not repeated v ee gel ae @ i rs Here 6-78-37 | a-+-4 is a Poth =) Cirenit TS Traversing a graph such thet: net an edge ts | o wep eated but vertex can be vepeated s — Nertex can be repeated. Eclge cannot be repeated £ { : — | ae Lar 3 | Here .l>.2 4-35-76 7 8-2 St} is a Creat ShrikrupaShrikrupe Shortest Path * aan 2 + GWet. ae Wyeta item clivect edt fees HE cw ec problen is finding. fhe sshertest path bebwes 2 | te given yevtites = ES | Observation = = A Key observation ia that If the shortest pa contains the nede ‘1, then: me | >It will only contain NV once, asi any c ail) only add tothe Jen gts - me 4 > The path from to v must be the shortest | [Sain IN Rea e — The path fem ste E must be the she ‘path te t fem yi t 4 2. Thus, if we can determine the shertest ath fo_all_other VerHees that are incident *| t [Reh Fas SER Or aon CU cee Ua ke ie shorbest path. = || euler Potts and Civeults : = An Guler fath js a5 path using every of the ao GiexacHy once. aa - = Ay Euler civeit Ys an Baler path || veturns to. its stayt, \ # clecessary and Sufficient Conditions’ G => A tonteeted mulHaraph Shas la Ruler fe each of fs werHees” has an even deqre qDate__/ LS Aeeonnected multigraph sbas'a Ruler path but metion fuer civeuit iff it has acHy foie vertices sof oddi degree Cay ec aye bia) Fa a = . yes z T b — Wwamiltent Pathse and Greuitse! = Kh Hamilten path in a graph 1G is a path | which visits eNevy vertex in Grexadhly ence. Tf —> Kh Hamilton civeuit js a Hamilton path that returns. de its start. tad tt eRe See joved ficient candihon E let G) Bera connected igimele raph eiith _n NerHees with n%3 as Tf the ceqree of each Nertex is. % 9/2, then G has’ a aHamiten Creuit. — A su ShrikrupaPage No. Date —/ “heaven! A. Csnnected simul Haraiph with) atleast vert cag. Waweent) eulegme arrcull if and only if o of its vertees has even deqre Theorem: A tommected multi qraph hasan path but not ah euler eireui if eal only has two vertices of odd deqree — Peper ty Ruler am Repeated visits ty a o¢ven nede Yes 4 allowed © Repeated heversals of o given cto edge allowed & Omitted edes allowed 2 = mitted edges allowed 2 Planar Graphs * (a) Elementany sub-division = Qperatons in w oO araph is obtained by Temeving an edye iu e snd adding. th aban ‘ ‘ a a Og e_yertex wi and edges juju} 5 )Homeomerphie Graphs! Graphs — Gi termed as hermeomovphte if they are Sequence af elementary — sub-divislons, Shrikrupa