KTU B.

Arch AS408 Research Methodology Semester 8

MODULE 4

DATA COLLECTION

In any study, an investigator may have a choice of collecting the relevant data himself or of
relying entirely on existing data already collected by someone else. The former is called the
Primary Sources while the latter is called Secondary Sources of data.

For example, in a study of weights of first year students, an investigator may choose to observe some
first-year students in certain schools in the area of interest, he therefore uses a primary data. However, if
schools keep records of weights of all entering students, the investigator can use such data if he likes, he
is thus using secondary data.

Whether primary or secondary, data may be published or unpublished.

Unpublished Sources:
Data in their original form such as number of births, and deaths in a locality, names of taxable adults in an
area, ages of school children in a country etc may exist in the files, log books, registers, etc of
government or non-governmental departments. These departments include ministries, schools, churches,
hospitals etc. To obtain data from these sources require a lot of effort, time and money.

Published Data:
The following are the main sources of published data:
• Statistical abstracts, bulletin, and reports issued by government department. A data here may be
primary or secondary.
• Reports of government and non-government agencies.
• Research reports and journals.
• Daily newspapers, magazine, and periodicals.
The data here may or may be reliable; hence caution is required in using them.

PRIMARY DATA

Collection of Primary Data

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental research but in
case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether sample surveys or census
surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through observation or through direct communication
with respondents in one form or another or through personal interviews.

There are two types of investigations – the survey and the experimental types.
A survey is the observation of either the entire population (this is known as census), or the
observation of the part of population (we call this sample survey).
We can recognize the following three major differences between survey and experiment.
• Experiments are mainly used to obtain data in the natural sciences, while surveys are used for
the same purpose in social sciences and education.
• In the experimental type, the investigator (experimenter) is very often able to control some factors
which are not relevant to the problem under study in order to minimize bias in his conclusion. In
surveys, the investigator cannot control any of the irrelevant factors.
• The population of interest in experimental type is always infinite while that of surveys is usually
finite.

Stages in the collection of data

The data is collected in the following stages
• Formulation of the problem

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• Planning the study

• Design of the study

1. Formulation of the Problem

Before starting to collect data, the investigator must first of all determine the problem to be
solved and specify its objectives.

2. Planning the study

The investigator’s next stage is to plan the study. He has to plan how best to solve his problem.
In fact, his plan will include
a) The coverage
b) Search for available information
c) Recording of the data and
d) Pilot survey

• Coverage: Areas to be covered and types of object to be observed are determined. If the
population of interest is infinite, then a sample may be used. If it is finite, the investigator will
decide whether to use sample still or the whole population. Of course, there are obvious
advantages for using a sample instead. For instance, cost of collecting data is reduced, time
spent will also be reduced. Greater accuracy in the data is ensured. Since a few observations are
involved, results from well-planned samples are as useful and informative as those from the
whole population.

• Search for Available Information: This information may exist in the form of written reports which
may be published or unpublished. It enables the investigator to know what is available and
what remains to be done. It also helps him to learn from mistakes or constraints of the previous
investigator in similar studies.

• Recording of the Data: The investigator at this stage will have to decide how the data are to be
recorded, i.e. whether to use the questionnaires type or direct observation type.

A questionnaire consists of questions and answers. It is usually used when studying human
being and their social activities. The questions and answers may be written or oral. When
oral answers are given, such answers which constitute the data must necessarily be recorded
by the interviewer who is sometimes called the enumerator. Written questions can be sent
by mail or accompanied by the interviewer. Both methods have their merits and demerits. The
merits of mailed questionnaire include the following:
• The respondent can take time to fill the questionnaires without the undue pestering by the
interviewer.
• He is more likely to co-operate in questions of confidential nature.
• It is less expensive.
On the other hand, mailed questionnaire has got its disadvantage. Some of which are:
• The percentage of non-response can be very high
• The questions can get lost.

On the other hand, direct observation is very expensive and requires more time to carry out. In
the direct observation the investigator observes directly either the whole population or
part of it. This is commonly used for experiments in the areas of sciences, agriculture, medicine
etc. It is worthwhile top mention here that there are obvious disadvantages in observing the whole
population:
• More time is required
• More money is also needed.
• A large number of interviewers and respondents are involved resulting in an increase in
the problem of definition, interpretation of the concept.

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• Incompleteness may arise as a result of lack of interest shown by some members of the
population.
• Some remote areas may not be accessible

• Pilot Survey: In some cases, the investigator may discover that the available information is so
scanty that embarking on the study might result in a waste of money and efforts without
necessarily achieving the objectives. It becomes desirable then to carry out the preliminary
study before the main study. Such a study is called Pilot Survey or Study and it is normally
done on a much smaller scale than the one in view.

A pilot study has the following objectives.

• It helps to estimate the cost of the main survey.
• It helps to taste and establish procedures to be used in the main study.
• It helps to discover the difficulties and short-comings of the questionnaires.
• It may lead to new ideas not originally included in the formulation of the problem.
• It may help to discover the type of variation existing among the units of the population of
interest.

3. Designing the Study

After the planning and possibly a pilot survey, the following final touches are then carried out:
• The size of the experiment or sample is obtained, if sampling is to be used, this is the
number of observations to be made.
• The sampling and experimental procedures to be used are determined.
• The questionnaire if needed is constructed.
• Recorders or interviewers are trained.

Methods of Primary Data Collection

1. Observation Method:
The observation method is the most commonly used method specially in studies relating to
behavioural sciences. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the method of data collection for
the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose, is systematically planned and
recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity and reliability. Under the
observation method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct
observation without asking from the respondent.

Advantages:
• The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation
is done accurately.
• Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or
attitudes.
• Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents’ willingness to respond and as
such is relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as
happens to be the case in the interview or the questionnaire method.
This method is particularly suitable in studies which deal with subjects (i.e., respondents) who are
not capable of giving verbal reports of their feelings for one reason or the other.

Limitations:
• Firstly, it is an expensive method.
• Secondly, the information provided by this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes
unforeseen factors may interfere with the observational task. At times, the fact that some
people are rarely accessible to direct observation creates obstacle for this method to
collect data effectively.

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Types:
• In case the observation is characterised by a careful definition of the units to be
observed, the style of recording the observed information, standardised conditions of
observation and the selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is
called as structured observation.
But when observation is to take place without these characteristics to be thought of in
advance, the same is termed as unstructured observation.
Structured observation is considered appropriate in descriptive studies,whereas in an
exploratory study the observational procedure is most likely to be relatively unstructured.
• If the observer observes by making himself, more or less, a member of the group he is
observing so that he can experience what the members of the group experience, the
observation is called as the participant observation.
But when the observer observes as a detached emissary without any attempt on his part
to experience through participation what others feel, the observation of this type is often
termed as non-participant observation. (When the observer is observing in such a
manner that his presence may be unknown to the people he is observing, such an
observation is described as disguised observation).
This distinction depends upon the observer’s sharing or not sharing the life of the group
he is observing
• If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed controlled observation.
The major aim of non-controlled observation type of observation is to get a spontaneous
picture of life and persons. But controlled observation, has a tendency to supply
formalised data upon which generalisations can be built with some degree of assurance.

Commonly used in behavioral sciences. It is the gathering of primary data by investigator’s own
direct observation of relevant people, actions and situations without asking from the respondent.
e.g.
• A hotel chain sends observers posing as guests into its coffee shop to check on
cleanliness and customer service.
• A food service operator sends researchers into competing restaurants to learn menu
items prices, check portion sizes and consistency and observe point-of-purchase
merchandising.
• A restaurant evaluates possible new locations by checking out locations of competing
restaurants, traffic patterns and neighborhood conditions.

Observation can yield information which people are normally unwilling or unable to provide.
e.g. Observing numerous plates containing uneaten portions the same menu items indicates that
food is not satisfactory.

2. Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in
terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal interviews and, if
possible, through telephone interviews.

• Personal interviews:
Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer asking questions
generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons.

Types:
• This sort of interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it
may be indirect oral investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation,
the interviewer has to collect the information personally from the sources
concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet people from whom data

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have to be collected. But in certain cases, it may not be possible or worthwhile to

contact directly the persons concerned or on account of the extensive scope of
enquiry, the direct personal investigation technique may not be used. In such
cases an indirect oral examination can be conducted under which the interviewer
has to cross-examine other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about
the problem under investigation and the information, obtained is recorded. Most
of the commissions and committees appointed by government to carry on
investigations make use of this method.
• The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually
carried out in a structured way. As such we call the interviews as structured
interviews. Such interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions
and of highly standardised techniques of recording.
As against it, the unstructured interviews are characterised by a flexibility of
approach to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not follow a system of pre-
determined questions and standardised techniques of recording information. In a
non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask,
in case of need, supplementary questions.
Unstructured interview, however, happens to be the central technique of
collecting information in case of exploratory or formulative research studies. But
in case of descriptive studies, we quite often use the technique of structured
interview because of its being more economical, providing a safe basis for
generalization and requiring relatively lesser skill on the part of the interviewer.
• Focused interview is meant to focus attention on the given experience of the
respondent and its effects. Under it the interviewer has the freedom to decide the
manner and sequence in which the questions would be asked and has also the
freedom to explore reasons and motives.
• Clinical interview is concerned with broad underlying feelings or motivations or
with the course of individual’s life experience. The method of eliciting information
under it is generally left to the interviewer’s discretion.
• Non-directive interview, the interviewer’s function, in this case is simply to
encourage the respondent to talk about the given topic with a bare minimum of
direct questioning. The interviewer often acts as a catalyst to a comprehensive
expression of the respondents’ feelings and beliefs and of the frame of reference
within which such feelings and beliefs take on personal significance.

Advantages:
• More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
• Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the
respondents; the interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect
sample of the general population.
• There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure
questions is always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
• Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to
various questions.
• Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
• Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the
missing returns; non-response generally remains very low.
• The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions.
• The interviewer may catch the informant off-guard and thus may secure the most
spontaneous reactions than would be the case if mailed questionnaire is used.
• The language of the interview can be adopted to the ability or educational level of
the person interviewed and as such misinterpretations concerning questions can
be avoided.

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• The interviewer can collect supplementary information about the respondent’s

personal characteristics and environment which is often of great value in
interpreting results.

Limitations:
• It is a very expensive method, specially when large and widely spread
geographical sample is taken.
• There remains the possibility of the bias of interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of
interviewers.
• Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people
in high income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to
that extent the data may prove inadequate.
• This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is
large and re-calls upon the respondents are necessary.
• The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent,
sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to
make the interview interesting.
• Under the interview method the organisation required for selecting, training and
supervising the field-staff is more complex with formidable problems.
• Interviewing at times may also introduce systematic errors.
• Effective interview presupposes proper rapport with respondents that would
facilitate free and frank responses. This is often a very difficult requirement.

• Telephone interviews:
This method of collecting information consists in contacting respondents on telephone
itself. It is not a very widely used method, but plays important part in industrial surveys,

Advantages:
• It is more flexible in comparison to mailing method.
• It is faster than other methods i.e., a quick way of obtaining information.
• It is cheaper than personal interviewing method; here the cost per response is
relatively low.
• Recall is easy; callbacks are simple and economical.
• There is a higher rate of response than what we have in mailing method; the non-
response is generally very low.
• Replies can be recorded without causing embarrassment to respondents
• Interviewer can explain requirements more easily.
• At times, access can be gained to respondents who otherwise cannot be
contacted for one reason or the other.
• No field staff is required.
• Representative and wider distribution of sample is possible.

Limitations:
• Little time is given to respondents for considered answers; interview period is not
likely to exceed five minutes in most cases.
• Surveys are restricted to respondents who have telephone facilities.
• Extensive geographical coverage may get restricted by cost considerations.
• It is not suitable for intensive surveys where comprehensive answers are
required to various questions.
• Possibility of the bias of the interviewer is relatively more.
• Questions have to be short and to the point; probes are difficult to handle

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3. Questionnares
A questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form or
set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own.

The method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business surveys.

Advantages:
• There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically
• It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents’ own words.
• Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
• Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
• Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable
and reliable.

Limitations
• Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
• it can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
• The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
• There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been dispatched.
• There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
• It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
• This method is likely to be the slowest of all.

Before using this method, it is always advisable to conduct ‘pilot study’ (Pilot Survey) for testing
the questionnaires. Pilot survey is infact the replica and rehearsal of the main survey. Such
a survey, being conducted by experts, brings to the light the weaknesses (if any) of the
questionnaires and also of the survey techniques. From the experience gained in this way,
improvement can be effected.

4. Schedules
This method of data collection is very much like the collection of data through questionnaire, with
little difference which lies in the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are
being filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose. These numerators
along with schedules, go to respondents, put to them the questions from the proforma in the order
the questions are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the proforma. In
certain situations, schedules may be handed over to respondents and enumerators may help
them in recording their answers to various questions in the said schedules. Enumerators explain
the aims and objects of the investigation and also remove the difficulties which any respondent
may feel in understanding the implications of a particular question or the definition or concept of
difficult terms.
This method of data collection is very useful in extensive enquiries and can lead to fairly reliable
results. It is, however, very expensive and is usually adopted in investigations conducted by
governmental agencies or by some big organizations. Population census all over the world is
conducted through this method.

5. Warranty cards:
Warranty cards are usually postal sized cards which are used by dealers of consumer durables to
collect information regarding their products. The information sought is printed in the form of

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questions on the ‘warranty cards’ which is placed inside the package along with the product with
a request to the consumer to fill in the card and post it back to the dealer.

6. Distributor or store audits:

Distributor or store audits are performed by distributors as well as manufactures through their
salesmen at regular intervals. Distributors get the retail stores audited through salesmen and use
such information to estimate market size, market share, seasonal purchasing pattern and so on.
The data are obtained in such audits not by questioning but by observation.
For instance, in case of a grocery store audit, a sample of stores is visited periodically and data
are recorded on inventories on hand either by observation or copying from store records. Store
audits are invariably panel operations, for the derivation of sales estimates and compilation of
sales trends by stores are their principal ‘raison detre’. The principal advantage of this method is
that it offers the most efficient way of evaluating the effect on sales of variations of different
techniques of in-store promotion.

7. Survey Method
Approach most suited for gathering descriptive information.
Survey research may be Direct or Indirect.

• Direct Approach: The researcher asks direct questions about behaviours and thoughts.
e.g. Why don’t you eat at McDonalds?

• Indirect Approach: The researcher might ask: “What kind of people eat at McDonald’s?”

From the response, the researcher may be able to discover why the consumer avoids
McDonald’s. It may suggest factors of which the consumer is not consciously aware.

Advantages:
• Can be used to collect many different kinds of information
• Quick and low cost as compared to observation and experimental method.

Limitations:
• Respondent’s reluctance to answer questions asked by unknown interviewers about
things they consider private.
• Busy people may not want to take the time
• may try to help by giving pleasant answers
• unable to answer because they cannot remember or never gave a thought to what they
do and why
• may answer in order to look smart or well informed.

8. Experimental Method
Also called Empirical Research or Cause and Effect Method, it is a data-based research, coming
up with conclusions which are capable of being verified with observation or experiment.

Experimental research is appropriate when proof is sought that certain variables affect other
variables in some way. e.g.
• Tenderizers (independent variable) affect cooking time and texture of meat
(dependent variable).
• The effect of substituting one ingredient in whole or in part for another such
as soya flour to flour for making high protein bread.
• Develop recipes to use products.

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Such research is characterized by the experimenter’s control over the variables under study and
the deliberate manipulation of one of them to study its effects. In such a research, it is necessary
to get at facts first hand, at their source, and actively go about doing certain things to stimulate
the production of desired information.

• Researcher must provide self with a working hypothesis or guess as to the probable
results.
• Then work to get enough facts (data) to prove or disprove the hypothesis.
• He then sets up experimental designs which he thinks will manipulate the persons or the
materials concerned so as to bring forth the desired information.

Evidence gathered through experimental or empirical studies today is considered to be the most
powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

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Determining Sample Design

Researchers usually draw conclusions about large groups by taking a sample.

A Sample is a segment of the population selected to represent the population as a whole.

Ideally, the sample should be representative and allow the researcher to make accurate estimates of
the thoughts and behaviour of the larger population. Designing the sample calls for three decisions:
1. Who will be surveyed? (The Sample)
The researcher must determine what type of information is needed and who is most likely to
have it.
2. How many people will be surveyed? (Sample Size)
Large samples give more reliable results than small samples. However, it is not necessary to
sample the entire target population.
3. How should the sample be chosen? (Sampling)
Sample members may be chosen at random from the entire population (probability sample).
The researcher might select people who are easier to obtain information from
(nonprobability sample)

The needs of the research project will determine which method is most effective

Types of Samples
1. Probability samples
a. Simple random sample: Every member of the population has a known and equal
chance of being selected.
b. Stratified random sample: Population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such
as age groups and random samples are drawn from each group.
c. Cluster(area)sample: The population is divided into mutually exclusive groups such
as blocks, and the researcher draws a sample of the group to interview.
2. Nonprobability samples
a. Convenience sample: The researcher selects the easiest population members from
which to obtain information.
b. Judgment sample: The researcher uses his/her judgement to select population
members who are good prospects for accurate information.
c. Quota sample: The researcher finds and interviews a prescribed number of people in
each of several categories.

SECONDARY DATA

Secondary data means data that are already available i.e., they refer to the data which have already
been collected and analysed by someone else. When the researcher utilises secondary data, then he has
to look into various sources from where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted
with the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data. Secondary data may
either be published data or unpublished data.

Usually published data are available in:

• various publications of the central, state are local governments;
• various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies and their subsidiary
organisations;
• technical and trade journals;
• books, magazines and newspapers;

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• reports and publications of various associations connected with business and industry, banks,
stock exchanges, etc.;
• reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in different fields; and
• public records and statistics, historical documents, and other sources of published information.

The sources of unpublished data are many; they may be found in diaries, letters, unpublished biographies
and autobiographies and also may be available with scholars and research workers, trade associations,
labour bureaus and other public/private individuals and organisations.

By way of caution, the researcher, before using secondary data, must see that they possess following
characteristics:
• Reliability of data
• Suitability of data
• Adequacy of data

Selection Of Appropriate Method For Data Collection

As such the researcher must judiciously select the method/methods for his own study, keeping in view the
following factors:
1. Nature, scope and object of enquiry: The method selected should be such that it suits the type of
enquiry that is to be conducted by the researcher. This factor is also important in deciding
whether the data already available (secondary data) are to be used or the data not yet available
(primary data) are to be collected.
2. Availability of funds: When funds at the disposal of the researcher are very limited, he will have to
select a comparatively cheaper method which may not be as efficient and effective as some other
costly method
3. Time factor: Some methods take relatively more time, whereas with others the data can be
collected in a comparatively shorter duration. The time at the disposal of the researcher, thus,
affects the selection of the method by which the data are to be collected.
4. Precision required: One must always remember that each method of data collection has its uses
and none is superior in all situations.

Thus, the most desirable approach with regard to the selection of the method depends on the nature of
the particular problem and on the time and resources (money and personnel) available along with the
desired degree of accuracy.

Case Study Method

The case study method is a very popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and complete
observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural group or even the
entire community. It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth. The case study places more
emphasis on the full analysis of a limited number of events or conditions and their interrelations. The case
study deals with the processes that take place and their interrelationship. Thus, case study is
essentially an intensive investigation of the particular unit under consideration.

Pauline V. Young describes case study as “a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a
person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community.”

Characteristics:
1. Under this method the researcher can take one single social unit or more of such
units for his study purpose; he may even take a situation to study the same
comprehensively.
2. Here the selected unit is studied intensively i.e., it is studied in minute details.
Generally, the study extends over a long period of time to ascertain the natural
history of the unit so as to obtain enough information for drawing correct inferences.
3. In the context of this method we make complete study of the social unit covering all
facets. Through this method we try to understand the complex of factors that are
operative within a social unit as an integrated totality

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4. Under this method the approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative. Mere
quantitative information is not collected. Every possible effort is made to collect
information concerning all aspects of life.
5. In respect of the case study method an effort is made to know the mutual inter-
relationship of causal factors.
6. Under case study method the behaviour pattern of the concerning unit is studied
directly and not by an indirect and abstract approach.
7. Case study method results in fruitful hypotheses along with the data which may be
helpful in testing them, and thus it enables the generalised knowledge to get richer
and richer.

Advantages:
1. Being an exhaustive study of a social unit, the case study method enables us to
understand fully the behaviour pattern of the concerned unit.
2. This method enables the researcher to trace out the natural history of the social unit
and its relationship with the social factors and the forces involved in its surrounding
environment.
3. It helps in formulating relevant hypotheses along with the data which may be helpful
in testing them.
4. The method facilitates intensive study of social units which is generally not possible if
we use either the observation method or the method of collecting information through
schedules.
5. Information collected under the case study method helps a lot to the researcher in the
task of constructing the appropriate questionnaire or schedule for the said task
requires thorough knowledge of the concerning universe.
6. The researcher can use one or more of the several research methods under the case
study method depending upon the prevalent circumstances. In other words, the use
of different methods such as depth interviews, questionnaires, documents, study
reports of individuals, letters, and the like is possible under case study method.
7. Case study method has proved beneficial in determining the nature of units to be
studied along with the nature of the universe. This is the reason why at times the
case study method is alternatively known as “mode of organising data”.
8. Case study method enhances the experience of the researcher and this in turn
increases his analysing ability and skill.
9. This also facilitates the drawing of inferences and helps in maintaining the continuity
of the research process.

Limitations:
1. Case situations are seldom comparable and as such the information gathered in case
studies is often not comparable. Since the subject under case study tells history in his
own words, logical concepts and units of scientific classification have to be read into
it or out of it by the investigator.
2. Real information is often not collected because the subjectivity of the researcher
does enter in the collection of information in a case study.
3. The danger of false generalisation is always there in view of the fact that no set rules
are followed in collection of the information and only few units are studied.
4. It consumes more time and requires lot of expenditure. More time is needed under
case study method since one studies the natural history cycles of social units and
that too minutely.
5. Case study method is based on several assumptions which may not be very realistic
at times, and as such the usefulness of case data is always subject to doubt.
6. Case study method can be used only in a limited sphere., it is not possible to use it in
case of a big society. Sampling is also not possible under a case study method.
7. Response of the investigator is an important limitation of the case study method. He
often thinks that he has full knowledge of the unit and can himself answer about it.

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SAMPLING

Sampling may be defined as the selection of some part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of
which a judgement or inference about the aggregate or totality is made. In other words, it is the
process of obtaining information about an entire population by examining only a part of it.
In most of the research work and surveys, the usual approach happens to be to make generalisations or
to draw inferences based on samples about the parameters of population from which the samples are
taken. The researcher quite often selects only a few items from the universe for his study purposes. All
this is done on the assumption that the sample data will enable him to estimate the population
parameters.

The items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample, their selection process or technique
is called sample design and the survey conducted on the basis of sample is described as sample
survey. Sample should be truly representative of population characteristics without any bias so that it
may result in valid and reliable conclusions.

Need for Sampling

• Sampling can save time and money. A sample study is usually less expensive than a census
study and produces results at a relatively faster speed.
• Sampling may enable more accurate measurements for a sample study is generally conducted by
trained and experienced investigators.
• Sampling remains the only way when population contains infinitely many members.
• Sampling remains the only choice when a test involves the destruction of the item under study.
• Sampling usually enables to estimate the sampling errors and, thus, assists in obtaining
information concerning some characteristic of the population.

Some Fundamental Definitions

1. Universe/Population:
From a statistical point of view, the term ‘Universe’ refers to the total of the items or units in
any field of inquiry, whereas the term ‘population’ refers to the total of items about which
information is desired.
The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as characteristics and the units
possessing them are called as elementary units. The aggregate of such units is generally
described as population.
Thus, all units in any field of inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of one
characteristic or more) constitute population.

The population or universe can be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it consists of
a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality. For instance, the
population of a city, the number of workers in a factory are examples of finite populations. An infinite
population is that population in which it is theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. Thus,
in an infinite population the number of items is infinite i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total
number of items. The number of stars in a sky, possible rolls of a pair of dice are examples of infinite
population.

2. Sampling frame:
The elementary units or the group or cluster of such units may form the basis of sampling
process in which case they are called as sampling units.
A list containing all such sampling units is known as sampling frame.
Thus, sampling frame consists of a list of items from which the sample is to be drawn.

3. Sampling design:
A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from the sampling frame. It refers to the
technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt in selecting some sampling units from which
inferences about the population is drawn.

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4. Statisitc(s) and parameter(s):

A statistic is a characteristic of a sample, whereas a parameter is a characteristic of a population.
Thus, when we work out certain measures such as mean, median, mode or the like ones from
samples, then they are called statistic(s) for they describe the characteristics of a sample. But when
such measures describe the characteristics of a population, they are known as parameter(s).

5. Sampling error:
Sample surveys do imply the study of a small portion of the population and as such there would
naturally be a certain amount of inaccuracy in the information collected. This inaccuracy may be
termed as sampling error or error variance.

6. Precision:
Precision is the range within which the population average (or other parameter) will lie in accordance
with the reliability specified in the confidence level as a percentage of the estimate ± or as a
numerical quantity. For instance, if the estimate is Rs 4000 and the precision desired is ± 4%, then
the true value will be no less than Rs 3840 and no more than Rs 4160. This is the range (Rs 3840 to
Rs 4160) within which the true answer should lie.

7. Confidence level and significance level:

The confidence level or reliability is the expected percentage of times that the actual value will fall
within the stated precision limits. Thus, if we take a confidence level of 95%, then we mean that there
are 95 chances in 100 (or .95 in 1) that the sample results represent the true condition of the
population within a specified precision range against 5 chances in 100 (or .05 in 1) that it does not.

Precision is the range within which the answer may vary and still be acceptable; confidence level
indicates the likelihood that the answer will fall within that range, and the significance level indicates
the likelihood that the answer will fall outside that range.

8. Sampling distribution:
We are often concerned with sampling distribution in sampling analysis. If we take certain number of
samples and for each sample compute various statistical measures such as mean, standard
deviation, etc., then we can find that each sample may give its own value for the statistic under
consideration.
Accordingly, we can have sampling distribution of mean, or the sampling distribution of standard
deviation or the sampling distribution of any other statistical measure.
Thus, the mean of the sampling distribution can be taken as the mean of the universe.

Sample Size and Its Determination

As a general rule, one can say that the sample must be of an optimum size i.e., it should neither be
excessively large nor too small. Technically, the sample size should be large enough to give a confidence
interval of desired width and as such the size of the sample must be chosen by some logical process
before sample is taken from the universe.

Size of the sample should be determined by a researcher keeping in view the following points:
• Nature of universe: Universe may be either homogenous or heterogenous in nature. If the items
of the universe are homogenous, a small sample can serve the purpose. But if the items are
heteogenous, a large sample would be required. Technically, this can be termed as the
dispersion factor.
• Number of classes proposed: If many class-groups (groups and sub-groups) are to be formed,
a large sample would be required because a small sample might not be able to give a reasonable
number of items in each class-group.
• Nature of study: If items are to be intensively and continuously studied, the sample should be
small. For a general survey the size of the sample should be large, but a small sample is
considered appropriate in technical surveys.
• Type of sampling: Sampling technique plays an important part in determining the size of the
sample. A small random sample is apt to be much superior to a larger but badly selected sample.

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Types of Sampling
There are two types of sampling:
I. non-probability and
II. probability sampling.

Non-probability sampling uses a subjective method of selecting units from a universe, and is generally
easy, quick, and economical. Therefore, it is useful to perform preliminary studies, focus groups or follow-
up studies.

Probability samples are based on simple random sampling, stratified sampling, systematic sampling,
cluster/area sampling whereas non-probability samples are those based on straightforward sampling,
judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.

Some important sample designs is as follows:

1. Deliberate sampling:
Deliberate sampling is also called as non-probability or purposive sampling. This sampling
method consists of purposive selection of particular items of the universe to represent a sample.
When samples are selected from a population on the basis of ease of access, it can be called
convenience sampling.
If a researcher wants to collect the data from students, he may select a fixed number of
universities and colleges to conduct the interviews. This is a simple example of convenience
sample.
Sometimes this type of sampling may give biased results particularly when the universe is not
homogeneous.
On the other hand, in judgement sampling which is based on the judgement of researcher and
used for selecting items from a given population.
For example, a judgement sample of office staff might be taken to secure reactions to a new rule
of office. Judgement sampling is used regularly in qualitative research.

2. Simple random sampling:

This type of sampling is also called as probability sampling or chance sampling where each item
in the population has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample and each sample having the
probability of being selected in the sampling procedure.
For example, names of 20 employees being selected out of 250 employees in a company. In this
case, the population is all 250 employees, and the sample is random because each employee
has an equal chance of being chosen.
There are basically three methods to conduct a random sampling.
• If we select a sample of 300 items from a population of 2,000 items, then we can write up
the names of all the 2,000 items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery. This is called
Lottery method.
• The second method of random sampling is using a random number table and
• third method is by using the computer in which the computer is used for selecting a
sample of prize- winners, a sample of Hajj applicants, and a sample of applicants for
residential plots and for various other purposes.

3. Systematic sampling:
Whenever a researcher chooses some specific name or number from the population then this
type of sampling is known as systematic sampling
In some example the most practical way of sampling is to select every 10th name in an index,
every 15th shop on single side of a street etc.
An component of unpredictability is generally commenced into this type of sampling by using
random numbers to pick and choose up the item with which to start. This method is helpful when
sampling frame is available in the form of a list. In such type of sample design the practice of
selection process begins by picking some random point in the list and then every nth item is
selected until the desired number is secured.

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4. Stratified sampling:
In stratified sampling the researcher divides the population into separate groups, called strata
or we can say that Stratification is the process of dividing members of the population into
homogeneous subgroups before sampling.
In this technique, the population is divided into a number of non-overlapping subpopulations or
strata and sample elements are selected from each stratum. If the item selected from each
stratum is based on simple random sampling technique in complete process of sampling
means first stratification and then simple random sampling, this type of sampling is known as
stratified random sampling.

5. Quota sampling:
Here one attempts to represent different classes that may exist in a given population. It is
commonly used in public opinion and market research surveys. In such surveys, the interviewers
is required to ensure that specified number of units in various classes like age, sex, income
group, geographical location are included in the sample. The big difference between this and
stratified is the lack of well-defined rule of selection in quota sampling. In stratified sampling, apart
from random selection from each stratum, the units to be included in the sample are known
before sampling. With quota sampling these units are not known in advance.

6. Cluster Sampling:
In many situations the population units belong to some natural group.
For instance, the school constitutes a natural grouping of school children if the population of
school children is of interest while markets constitute a natural grouping in a study where interest
is to know the prices of foodstuff.
These natural groups consisting of the units of interest are called Clusters. A sample of clusters
may be selected from all available clusters of interest and all the units in the selected clusters are
then studied – this is known as cluster sampling.

7. Haphazard Sampling:
Here the selector thinks that he is making a random selection.
A good example is the sort of selection in public places often made by: 1.Press agents
2.Business promoters
Who interview people anyhow, seeking their views about something that is of interest to them?
No chance device is however used in this type of selection. You can think of many possible
biases that can come into such haphazard selection.

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PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS OF DATA

The term analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among data-groups. Thus, “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences
supporting or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected to statistical tests of
significance to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate any conclusions.

As with qualitative methods for data analysis, the purpose of conducting a quantitative study, is to
produce findings, but whereas qualitative methods use words (concepts, terms, symbols, etc.) to
construct a framework for communicating the essence of what the data reveal, procedures and
techniques are used to analyze data numerically, called quantitative methods. On the whole, regardless
of the method (qualitative or quantitative), the purpose of conducting a study, is to produce findings, and
in order to do so, data should be analyzed to transform data into findings.

Both forms of qualitative and quantitative data analysis involve:

• Inference - the use of reasoning to reach a conclusion based on evidence;
• A public method or process - revealing their study design in some way;
• Comparison as a central process – identification of patterns or aspects that are similar or
different; and
• Striving to avoid errors, false conclusions and misleading inferences.

The core differences between qualitative and quantitative data analysis are as follows
• Qualitative data analysis is less standardised with the wide variety in approaches to qualitative
research matched by the many approaches to data analysis, while quantitative researchers
choose from a specialised, standard set of data analysis techniques;
• The results of qualitative data analysis guide subsequent data collection, and analysis is thus a
less-distinct final stage of the research process than quantitative analysis, where data analysis
does not begin until all data have been collected and condensed into numbers;
• Qualitative researchers create new concepts and theory by blending together empirical and
abstract concepts, while quantitative researchers manipulate numbers in order to test a
hypothesis with variable constructs; and
• Qualitative data analysis is in the form of words, which are relatively imprecise, diffuse and
context based, but quantitative researchers use the language of statistical relationships in
analysis.

Processing Operations

1. Editing:
Editing of data is a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors
and omissions and to correct these when possible. Editing is done to assure that the data are
accurate, consistent with other facts gathered, uniformly entered, as completed as possible and have
been well arranged to facilitate coding and tabulation.

2. Coding:
Coding refers to the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses
can be put into a limited number of categories or classes. Such classes should be appropriate to the
research problem under consideration. Another rule to be observed is that of unidimensionality by
which is meant that every class is defined in terms of only one concept. Coding is necessary for
efficient analysis and through it the several replies may be reduced to a small number of classes
which contain the critical information required for analysis.

3. Classification:
Most research studies result in a large volume of raw data which must be reduced into homogeneous
groups if we are to get meaningful relationships. This fact necessitates classification of data which
happens to be the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common
characteristics. Data having a common characteristic are placed in one class and in this

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4. Tabulation:
When a mass of data has been assembled, it becomes necessary for the researcher to arrange the
same in some kind of concise and logical order. This procedure is referred to as tabulation. Thus,
tabulation is the process of summarising raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in
the form of statistical tables) for further analysis. In a broader sense, tabulation is an orderly
arrangement of data in columns and rows.

Elements/Types of Analysis

As stated earlier, by analysis we mean the computation of certain indices or measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among the data groups. Analysis, particularly in
case of survey or experimental data, involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the
population and testing of hypotheses for drawing inferences.

1. Analysis may, therefore, be categorised as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis

Inferential analysis is often known as statistical analysis.
“Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study provides us with
profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any of a multiple of characteristics
such as size.
2. We may as well talk of correlation analysis and causal analysis.
Correlation analysis studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the amount of
correlation between two or more variables.
Causal analysis is concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes in another
variable. It is thus a study of functional relationships existing between two or more variables.

Analysis of Quantitative Data

Data Preparation
The first stage of analyzing data is data preparation, where the aim is to convert raw data into something
meaningful and readable. It includes four steps:

Step 1: Data Validation

The purpose of data validation is to find out, as far as possible, whether the data collection was done as
per the pre-set standards and without any bias. It is a four-step process, which includes…
• Fraud, to infer whether each respondent was actually interviewed or not.
• Screening, to make sure that respondents were chosen as per the research criteria.
• Procedure, to check whether the data collection procedure was duly followed.
• Completeness, to ensure that the interviewer asked the respondent all the questions, rather than
just a few required ones.

To do this, researchers would need to pick a random sample of completed surveys and validate the
collected data. (Note that this can be time-consuming for surveys with lots of responses.)
For example, imagine a survey with 200 respondents split into 2 cities. The researcher can pick a sample
of 20 random respondents from each city. After this, the researcher can reach out to them through email
or phone and check their responses to a certain set of questions.

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Step 2: Data Editing

Typically, large data sets include errors. For example, respondents may fill fields incorrectly or skip them
accidentally. To make sure that there are no such errors, the researcher should conduct basic data
checks, check for outliers, and edit the raw research data to identify and clear out any data points that
may hamper the accuracy of the results.
For example, an error could be fields that were left empty by respondents. While editing the data, it is
important to make sure to remove or fill all the empty fields.

Step 3: Data Coding

This is one of the most important steps in data preparation. It refers to grouping and assigning values to
responses from the survey.
For example, if a researcher has interviewed 1,000 people and now wants to find the average age of the
respondents, the researcher will create age buckets and categorize the age of each of the respondent as
per these codes. (For example, respondents between 13-15 years old would have their age coded as 0,
16-18 as 1, 18-20 as 2, etc.)
Then during analysis, the researcher can deal with simplified age brackets, rather than a massive range
of individual ages.

Quantitative Data Analysis Methods

After these steps, the data is ready for analysis. The two most commonly used quantitative data analysis
methods are descriptive statistics and inferential statistics.

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Analysis of Qualitative Data

Qualitative data analysis works a little differently from quantitative data, primarily because qualitative data
is made up of words, observations, images, and even symbols. Deriving absolute meaning from such
data is nearly impossible; hence, it is mostly used for exploratory research. While in quantitative
research there is a clear distinction between the data preparation and data analysis stage, analysis for
qualitative research often begins as soon as the data is available.

Data Preparation and Basic Data Analysis

Analysis and preparation happen in parallel and include the following steps:
1. Getting familiar with the data: Since most qualitative data is just words, the researcher should
start by reading the data several times to get familiar with it and start looking for basic observations
or patterns. This also includes transcribing the data.
2. Revisiting research objectives: Here, the researcher revisits the research objective and identifies
the questions that can be answered through the collected data.
3. Developing a framework: Also known as coding or indexing, here the researcher identifies broad
ideas, concepts, behaviors, or phrases and assigns codes to them. For example, coding age,
gender, socio-economic status, and even concepts such as the positive or negative response to a
question. Coding is helpful in structuring and labeling the data.
4. Identifying patterns and connections: Once the data is coded, the research can start identifying
themes, looking for the most common responses to questions, identifying data or patterns that can
answer research questions, and finding areas that can be explored further.

Qualitative Data Analysis Methods

Several methods are available to analyze qualitative data. The most commonly used data analysis
methods are:

• Content analysis: This is one of the most common methods to analyze qualitative data. It is used
to analyze documented information in the form of texts, media, or even physical items. When to use
this method depends on the research questions. Content analysis is usually used to analyze
responses from interviewees.

• Narrative analysis: This method is used to analyze content from various sources, such as
interviews of respondents, observations from the field, or surveys. It focuses on using the stories
and experiences shared by people to answer the research questions.

• Discourse analysis: Like narrative analysis, discourse analysis is used to analyze interactions with
people. However, it focuses on analyzing the social context in which the communication between

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the researcher and the respondent occurred. Discourse analysis also looks at the respondent’s day-
to-day environment and uses that information during analysis.

• Grounded theory: This refers to using qualitative data to explain why a certain phenomenon
happened. It does this by studying a variety of similar cases in different settings and using the data
to derive causal explanations. Researchers may alter the explanations or create new ones as they
study more cases until they arrive at an explanation that fits all cases.

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