Lecture 1: Research Methodology (Revision of Concepts)

1-Introduction
a- Meaning of Research
Commonly, research refers to a search for knowledge. It can also be defined as a scientific
and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. In fact, research is an art
of scientific investigation. The Advanced Learner's Dictionary of Current English, Oxford
(1952:1069) lays down the meaning of research as a «< careful investigation or inquiry
specially through search for new facts in any branch of knowledge ». Research is an
academic activity and as such the term should be used in a technical sense. It comprises
defining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting, organizing and evaluating data.
making deduction and reaching conclusions; and at last carefully testing the conclusions to
determine whether they fit the formulating hypotheses.
b- Objectives of Research
The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of
scientific procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and
which has not been discovered yet. Tough each research study has its own specific purpose,
we may think of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
1- To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it. (in exploratory
research studies).
2- To accurately portray the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group. (in
descriptive research studies).
3- To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated
with something else. (in diagnostic research studies).
4- To test a hypothesis of a casual relationship between variables (in hypothesis-testing
research studies).
c- Motivation in Research
What makes people undertake research? This is a question of fundamental importance. The
possible motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:
1- The desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits.
2- The desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems.
3- The desire to get intellectual joy from doing some creative work.
4- The desire to be of service to society.
5- The desire to get respectability.
Lecture 2: Research Approach
Introduction
Generally, research approaches can be divided into two: inductive and deductive categories.
While the former contributes to the emergence of new theories and generalizations, the latter
tests the validity of assumptions (theories or hypotheses).
Saunders et al (2007) distinguish the major differences between deductive and inductive
research approaches in the following manner:!

Deductive Methods Inductive Methods

- Principles based on science. - The meaning of human attachment to

- Movement is done from theory to data. events are aimed to be explored.
- Casual relationships between variables - Research context is understood in a
need to be explained. deeper manner.
- Quantitative type of data is mainly - Qualitative type of data is collected.
collected. - More flexible approach to research
- Measures of control are applied in order to structure to ensure provisions for changes
ensure the validity of data during the research.
- Researcher is independent from the - Researcher is perceived to be a part of the
research process (objectivity) research process.
- Samples need to be selected of sufficient - Research findings do not have to be
size in order to be able to generalize generalized.
research conclusions.

The Main Differences between Inductive and Deductive Approaches

Consequently, if the researcher decides to find an answer to specific research question(s)
which were already formulated in the research process, he/she would be following an
inductive approach. On the other hand, if he/she chooses to achieve a research objective
through testing hypotheses, his/her research approach can be specified as deductive.

Deductive versus Inductive Approach

In the deductive approach, the researcher needs to confirm or reject a set of hypotheses, as
a result the dissertation with deductive approach will follow the following path:

Theory Hypothesis Observation / Test Confirmation / Rejection

Deductive Process
When conducting research via an inductive approach, the researcher starts with establishing
research questions, aims and objectives that need to be achieved during the research
process.
Inductive studies follow the following process:

Observations / Tests Pattern Theory

The Inductive Process

The most common classification of research methods includes the qualitative as well as the
quantitative ones. It has been confirmed that neither of these two methods is better than the
other one. According to Burgess and Brysman (1999:45): "Some researchers prefer to use a
mixed methods approach by taking advantage of the differences in quantitative and
qualitative methods, and combine these two methods for use in a single research project
depending on the kind of study and its methodological foundation". This means that the
mixed approach is considered as being the most suitable one in conducting research since it
encompasses both qualitative and quantitative data.
Lecture 3: Mixed Research Approach
Mixed Research Approach
When conducting any research, the researcher needs to mix methods of investigation since
relying on only one technique is not of high reliability. So, in order to answer questions from
a number of perspectives, a Mixed Research Approach also called Mixed Methods' or 'Mixed
Methodology' (or 'Multiple Methodology') is needed; Such approach emerged during the
1980's as it is stated by Tashakkori and Teddli (2003:697): "The emergence of mixed
methods as a third methodological movement in the social and behavioural sciences began
during the 1980's". This approach is used to combine qualitative and quantitative research
strategies so as to tackle a research challenge from more than one angle. Creswell, and
Clark. (2011) state that: "Mixed methods research combines methods, a philosophy, and a
research design orientation"."
As a result, in order to acquire more reliability and objectivity when conducting a scientific
investigation, the researcher has to follow a research methodology paradigm which most of
the time is the combination of qualitative and quantitative approaches. Mixed research, also
called 'triangulation', encompasses features of both quantitative as well as quantitative
paradigms. In this vein, Cohen and Manion (2000: 254) say that "[triangulation is an] attempt
to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and complexity of human behaviour by
studying it from more than one standpoint". Thus, combining qualitative and quantitative
techniques of data collection is a necessity for having access to rich, reliable and authentic
data. Similarly, and according to O'Donoghue and Punch, K. (2003:78), triangulation is a
"method of cross-checking data from multiple sources to search for regularities in the
research data" which means that triangulation is a technique used to capture different
dimensions of the same phenomenon, in other words, it is using more than one method to
collect data on the same topic.
The triangulation design can be made more explicit in the following diagram:

Triangular design
Triangulation is considered as being the cross checking of data using various
sources or using more than two methods of data collection Different types of triangulation
may be distinguished:
1- Time triangulation: it refers to longitudinal studies. (through time)
2- Methodological triangulation: it deals with the same method used at different times or
different methods concerned with the same object or phenomenon of study.
3- Investigator triangulation: it uses more than one researcher when conducting a
research.
 To conclude, we may say that the aim of triangulation is to study and analyse the
results obtained from both qualitative and quantitative paradigms.

Quantitative and Qualitative Framework of Study

In any research, it is of great necessity for the researcher to vary the methods of data
collection, among these techniques are the quantitative and the qualitative methods. In fact,
quantitative approach deals with data collection via structured techniques such as
questionnaires, surveys, etc. In addition, it relies on the fact of calculating the amount of
responses given by the informants i.c. it deals with statistics Thomas (2003:1) explains it as
follows: "Quantitative methods, on the other hand, focus attention on measurements and
amounts (more and less, larger and smaller, often and seldom, similar and different) of the
characteristics displayed by the people and events that the researcher studies".
It is necessary to say that both of the two methods are necessary for conducting research
and acquiring reliable data as it is stated by Cobin (1990:18) in Thomas (2003:7) that [Both
Qualitative and quantitative methods] can be used effectively in the same research project.
However, most projects and researchers place their emphasis on one form or another, partly
out of conviction, but also because of training and the nature of the problems studied.

Research Design
In any research work, a typical research design encompasses the following steps:
1- Selecting a research area: the researcher has to select a field of study in order to achieve
his goal.
2- Formulating research aim, objectives and research questions and (or) developing
hypotheses: to set a number of objectives, research questions and hypotheses is very
important in conducting a research.
3- Conducting the literature review: this step is necessary to define concepts which are
related to the topic which is dealt with.
4- Selecting methods of data collections: they are different such as questionnaires,
interviews, note-taking... and are useful for acquiring quantitative as well as qualitative data.
5- Collecting data: in this step, a sample population is generally needed.
6- Data analysis: it can be achieved through the calculation of results and can be formulated
by means of tables, charts, diagrams…
7- Reaching conclusions / Recommendations: results are used to draw conclusions and later
on to formulate recommendations which will help in further research.
According to Terre Blanche, Durrheim, and Painter (2006:34), research may be viewed as a
process consisting of five stages;
Stage 1 defining the research question,
Stage 2: designing the research,
Stage 3: data collection,
Stage 4: data analysis, and interpretation,
Stage 5: writing a research report.
The following figure shows the important role that research design plays as a bridge
between the research questions and the execution of the research.
The research process
Lecture 4: Measurement
Definition: Measurement is the process of observing and recording the observations that
are collected as part of a research effort.
Measurement Instrument:
It refers to various methods through which a researcher obtains data from respondents
for his research work. The term data refers to all forms of information that researchers obtain
from the participant of the study. There are different types of measurement instruments that
can be used by researchers for their studies; it depends on the nature of research that is to
be carried out. In this write up, we shall discuss various measurement instruments that can
be used alongside with studies that are suitable for them.
However, the collection of data is an important part of any research activity. This is because:
the conclusions of the study are based on what the data reveals. Hence, no researcher is
greater than his data. Basically, data can be obtained from two major sources: primary and
secondary sources. Primary data represents the information gathered by the researcher
through the use of questionnaire or personal interview or observation method; while in
secondary data, the researcher collects information that has already been obtained and
processed by government departments or various agencies before it is made available for
other interested users. These are published and unpublished sources e.g. journals,
textbooks, newspapers, magazines, fliers, annual reports, bulletins, periodicals, etc.As a
result, the kind of data to be collected, the method of collection to be used, and the scoring
of the data must be considered when undertaken any research activity.

Data Collection Instruments

These are instruments that are used to collect data from participants of the study. They
are important for collecting data in all types of research methods. They are mainly used by
researchers to collect reliable data which will later be analyzed. They include questionnaires,
interviews, and observations. focus group discussion and experiment. Each of the
instruments shall be discussed in turn and also point out their merits and demerits.

1- The Questionnaire
The questionnaire is the commonly used instrument for collecting research data from
the participants of a study. It consists of a set of structured and unstructured questions
designed by researchers to obtain data from the respondents. No research is better than its
questionnaire and a faulty questionnaire means faulty research. Hence, a questionnaire
designed must be valid, reliable and must not be bogus so that the data collected can
validate the research. Questionnaire has many advantages which include anonymity of the
respondents, is guaranteed; it facilitates the collection of large amounts of data in a relatively
short period and it is cheap to administer. The major demerit of the method is that some
confusing and misleading questions cannot be clarified as the researcher may not be there
to explain the questions, and also, sometimes, the questions may not be easily
comprehensible to individuals who are illiterate, thus, the method is restricted only to
educated respondents.
Moreover, the characteristics of a good questionnaire:
● Questions should not be ambiguous. This implies that it must be capable of only one
interpretation.
● Questions must be easily understood.
● Questions should be capable of having a precise answer.
● Questions should not require rigorous calculations.
● Questions must not contain words of vague meaning.
● Questions must not be in such a form that the answers will be biased.
● The questionnaire should not be too long.
● It should not be too wordy.
● The questionnaire should cover the exact object of the inquiry.

2- The Interview Record

Interview is a measurement instrument otherwise known as an oral questionnaire. It
involves a process where a researcher solicits information from respondents through verbal
interaction. A researcher would have previously prepared a schedule list of structured
questions pertinent to the study before meeting respondents for their opinions on a subject
matter. The researcher poses questions to the respondents and the answers are recorded
by the researcher. Materials that could be used during the interview period include tape
recorder, paper and biro. The major advantage of this method is that it produces a high
response rate. Besides, it tends to be representative of the entire population of the study,
and personal contact between the researcher and respondents enables the researcher to
explain confusing and ambiguous questions in detail. However, its disadvantages include
interviewer's bias: inaccessibility to wealthy respondents due to fear of insecurity and the
amount of data that can be collected through this method is usually limited compared to
questionnaire methods. Interviews can be conducted personally or through telephone or
electronic mailing systems.

3- The Observation
This is an instrument that is employed by a researcher in which an individual behavior
or situation is observed and recorded. There are two types of observation: participant
observation and non-participant observation. In participant observation, the researcher is a
member of the group to be observed. Here, accurate and timely results would be obtained
by the researcher free from being biased but it has the problem of inaccuracy and delayed
results. Both researchers are not members of the group to be observed. Here, the result will
be viable as it is less active cooperation of the observed and their results are reliable for
research activity. Researchers may observe the following guidelines when developing
observation methods; observation methods enhance first hand information, are flexible and
cheaper to carry out, demand less active cooperation of the observed and their results are
reliable for research activity. Researchers may observe the following guidelines when
developing observation method;
● "Clearly define the goal of the instrument”
● Carry out preliminary observations of your subjects under the conditions that will prevail in
the course of the study with the aim of identifying behaviours exhibited by the subjects; and
● Construct a complete list of the identified behavior. Also, behavioural categories can also
be developed through literature search.

4- Focus Group Discussion

This data collection instrument refers to a process whereby researchers obtain data
from a large group of people at the same time. This method is different from the interview
method; in an interview method, the researcher focuses on one person at a time but in a
focus group discussion method, the researcher obtains data from a large number (group) of
people for his research activity. Focus group discussion method is very popular when
carrying out research in the field of behavioural science, library and information science,
archival science, records and information technology. It could be noted here that a need may
arise for a researcher to use more than 2 or 3 approaches to obtain data for his research
activity. This depends on the supervisor, nature of the research or problem to be
investigated. However, in focus group discussion; a researcher identifies key informants that
may be contacted to elicit the deserved information on the variable(s) of interest in a study. It
is very important to note that in evaluator study or when accessing the performance of a
system or a project or when working at a policy and its impact on a particular operation in a
society or organization; focus group discussion method could be employed. The approach is
used to generate qualitative data in explaining a phenomenon under study or investigation.
Membership of the focus group discussion should not exceed 10 members at a time. It is like
a mini conference where members of a group could be assembled in a conducive location.
Before now, it is necessary for the researcher to have obtained their consent to take part in
the study.
Besides, the researcher must design a focus group discussion guide. The guide must
contain outlines that capture variables of interest in the study. For example, in a study like:
"Customers' satisfaction with information services or products of Babcock university library"
The following guidelines may be prepared by the researcher:
● Nature of the library services;
● Nature of the products;
● Level of satisfaction of the users;
● Quality of the users, etc.

5- Experiment
This type of data collection instrument takes place in pure and applied science
research. Here the researchers carry out some experiments in the laboratory setting in order
to test some reactions that may take place in the object of research. The advantages of this
method is that it produces immediate results, its results are viable and error free if it is well
carried out under normal conditions/circumstances. While, its problems include: it is too
costly to undertake and those chemicals used may cause permanent damage to the
researcher if they are carelessly handled.
Table1: Classification of Research Based on Data Collection Instruments
Types of Research Data Collection Instruments
S/N
1. Applied. Questionnaire, Interview and
observation.
2. Survey. Questionnaire, focus group discussion,
interview and observation.
3. Case Study. Questionnaire, interview, focus group
discussion and observation
4. Ethnographic e.g. Observation, questionnaire, focus group.
correlational research discussion and interview.
5. Historical. Observation, focus group discussion and
interview.
6. Evaluation. Focus group discussion, interview and
observation.
7. Pure science. Experiment and observation.
8. Action. Questionnaire and interview.
9. Longitudinal. Questionnaire, observation, focus group
discussion, interview and experiment in
case of pure science research.
10. Exploratory. Questionnaire, observation and interview.

Conclusion
It could be re-emphasized here that researchers are not restricted only to different
methods of data collection instruments and their classification as presented in this paper but
the choice of which method to apply depends on the researcher, nature or problem to be
investigated and prevailing circumstances at the time of carrying out the study. Thus,
researchers are free to use any method they deem fit for their research.
Lecture 5: Data Classification / Describing Data
Methods of Data Collection
While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study, the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data: primary and secondary. The primary data
are those which are collected afresh and for the first time, and thus happen to be original in
character. The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed through the statistical
process. The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would be using (thus
collecting) for his study and accordingly he will have to select one or the other method of
data collection. The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since primary
data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data
collection work is merely that of compilation. We describe the different methods of data
collection, with the pros and cons of each method.

COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA

We collect primary data during the course of doing experiments in an experimental
research but in case we do research of the descriptive type and perform surveys, whether
sample surveys or census surveys, then we can obtain primary data either through
observation or through direct communication with respondents in one form or another or
through personal interviews. This, in other words, means that there are several methods of
collecting primary data, particularly in surveys and descriptive research. Important ones are:
(i) observation method, (ii) interview method, (iii) through questionnaires.
1- Observation Method
The observation method is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating
to behavioural sciences. In a way we all observe things around us, but this sort of
observation is not scientific observation. Observation becomes a scientific tool and the
method of data collection for the researcher, when it serves a formulated research purpose,
is systematically planned and recorded and is subjected to checks and controls on validity
and reliability. Under the observation method, the information is sought by way of the
investigator's own direct observation without asking from the respondent.. The main
advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observation is done
accurately. Secondly, the information obtained under this method relates to what is currently
happening; it is not complicated by either the past behaviour or future intentions or attitudes.
Thirdly, this method is independent of respondents' willingness to respond and as such is
relatively less demanding of active cooperation on the part of respondents as happens to be
the case in the interview or the questionnaire method. This method is particularly suitable in
studies which deal with subjects (ie., respondents) who are not capable of giving verbal
reports of their feelings for one reason or the other. However, the observation method has
various limitations. Firstly, it is an expensive method. Secondly, the information provided by
this method is very limited. Thirdly, sometimes unforeseen factors may interfere with the
observational task. At times, the fact that some people are rarely accessible to direct
observation creates obstacles for this method to collect data effectively.
2- Interview Method
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and
reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be used through personal
interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
Personal interviews. Personal interview method requires a person known as the interviewer
asking questions generally in face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. (At times
the interviewee may also ask certain questions and the interviewer responds to these, but
usually the interviewer initiates the interview and collects the information.) This sort of
interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation. In the case of direct personal investigation the interviewer has to collect the
information personally from the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to
meet people from whom data have to be collected. This method is particularly suitable for
intensive investigations. But in certain cases it may not be possible or worthwhile to contact
the persons concerned directly or on account of the extensive scope of enquiry, the direct
personal investigation technique may not be used. In such cases an indirect oral
examination can be conducted under which the interviewer has to cross-examine other
persons who are supposed to have knowledge about the problem under investigation and
the information obtained is recorded. Most of the commissions and committees appointed by
the government to carry on investigations make use of this method.
The method of collecting information through personal interviews is usually carried out in a
structured way. As such we call the interviews structured interviews. Such interviews involve
the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly standardised techniques of
recording. Thus, the interviewer in a structured interview follows a rigid procedure laid down,
asking questions in a form and order prescribed. As against it, the unstructured interviews
are characterised by a flexibility of approach to questioning. Unstructured interviews do not
follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardised techniques of recording
information. In a non-structured interview, the interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to
ask, in case of need, supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if
the situation so requires. He may even change the sequence of questions. He has relatively
greater freedom while recording the responses to include some aspects and exclude others..
Unstructured interviews also demand deep knowledge and greater skill on the part of the
interviewer. Despite the variations in interview-techniques, the major advantages and
weaknesses of personal interviews can be enumerated in a general way. The chief merits of
the interview method are as follows:
(i) More information and that too in greater depth can be obtained.
(ii) Interviewer by his own skill can overcome the resistance, if any, of the respondents; the
interview method can be made to yield an almost perfect sample of the general population.
(iii) There is greater flexibility under this method as the opportunity to restructure questions is
always there, specially in case of unstructured interviews.
(iv) Observation method can as well be applied to recording verbal answers to various
questions.
(v) Personal information can as well be obtained easily under this method.
(vi) Samples can be controlled more effectively as there arises no difficulty of the missing
returns; non-response generally remains very low.
(vii) The interviewer can usually control which person(s) will answer the questions. This is
not possible in a mailed questionnaire approach. If so desired, group discussions may also
be held.

But there are also certain weaknesses of the interview method. Among the important
weaknesses, mention may be made of the following:
(i)It is a very expensive method, especially when a large and widely spread geographical
sample is taken.
(ii) There remains the possibility of the bias of the interviewer as well as that of the
respondent; there also remains the headache of supervision and control of interviewers.
(iii) Certain types of respondents such as important officials or executives or people in high
income groups may not be easily approachable under this method and to that extent the
data may prove inadequate.
(iv) This method is relatively more-time-consuming, especially when the sample is large and
recalls upon the respondents are necessary.
(v) The presence of the interviewer on the spot may over-stimulate the respondent,
sometimes even to the extent that he may give imaginary information just to make the
interview interesting.

COLLECTION OF DATA THROUGH QUESTIONNAIRES

This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big enquiries. It
is being adopted by private individuals, research workers, private and public organisations
and even by governments. In this method a questionnaire is sent (usually by post) to the
persons concerned with a request to answer the questions and return the questionnaire. A
questionnaire consists of a number of questions printed or typed in a definite order on a form
or set of forms. The questionnaire is mailed to respondents who are expected to read and
understand the questions and write down the reply in the space meant for the purpose in the
questionnaire itself. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The
method of collecting data by mailing the questionnaires to respondents is most extensively
employed in various economic and business surveys. The merits claimed on behalf of this
method are as follows:
1. There is low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically
2. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents' own words.
3. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
4. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can also be reached conveniently.
5 Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable
and reliable.

The main demerits of this system can also be listed here:

1. Low rate of return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is often
indeterminate.
2. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
3. The control over the questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
4. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach once
questionnaires have been despatched.
5. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether to
certain questions: interpretation of omissions is difficult.
6. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
7. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.