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INTRODUCTION TO PROGRAMMING-R23
UNIT I
UNIT I Introduction to Programming and Problem Solving
History of Computers, Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output units, memory, program
counter, Introduction to Programming Languages, Basics of a Computer Program- Algorithms, flowcharts
(Using Dia Tool), pseudo code. Introduction to Compilation and Execution, Primitive Data Types,
Variables, and Constants, Basic Input and Output, Operations, Type Conversion, and Casting.

Problem solving techniques: Algorithmic approach, characteristics of algorithm, Problem solving strategies:
Top-down approach, Bottom-up approach, Time and space complexities of algorithms.

Introduction to Computers
Computer:
• Computer is an electronic device which takes input data, process that data and gives desired output to the user.
• Charles Babbage is called as father of computer.
• We use computers to get accurate results and fast results.
Computer Systems:
• A computer system is made up of two components. They are software and hardware.
• The computer hardware is physical components.
• The computer software is collection of programs(instructions) that allow the hardware to do its job.
Computer hardware:
• The hardware components of the computer system consist of 5 parts.
• They are input devices, Central Processing Unit (CPU), primary storage, auxiliary storage and output devices.

• The input device is usually a keyboard where programs and data are entered into the computer. Examples of
other input devices are mouse, a pen or stylus, a touchscreen or an audio input unit.
• The Central Processing Unit (CPU) is responsible for executing instructions such as arithmetic calculations,
comparisons among data, movement of data inside the system. Todays computers have one, two or more CPU’s.
• Primary Storage, is also known as main memory, is a place where the programs and data are temporarily
stored during processing. The data in the primary storage is erased when we turnoff a computer.
• Auxiliary storage, is also known as secondary storage, is used for both input and output. In this storage both
programs and data stored permanently. Even when we turn off the computer also data remain in the secondary
storage.
• Output device is usually a monitor or a printer to show output. If the output is shown on the monitor it is
called soft copy and if it is printed on the printer, we say it is as a hard copy.

Computer software:
• Computer software is divided into two broad categories. They are System Software and
Application Software.
System software:
• System software manages the computer resources.
• Operating System is a system software.
• It provides the interface between hardware & the user and but does nothing to directly serve the user’s needs.
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• It provides a platform for the application software to run.
Application Software:
It is a collection of programs written for a specific application.
Eg: M.S.Office, Windows media players, Web browsers etc.
• Application software on the other hand is directly responsible for helping users to solve their problems.

The relationship between system software and application software can be shown below.
• In the diagram each circle represents an interface point.
• To work with a system, user uses an application software.
• The application software interacts with the operating system which is part of the system software layer.
• The system software provides the direct interaction with the hardware.

History of Computers:
Generations of Computers:
A generation of computers refers to the specific improvements in computer technology with time. In
1946, electronic pathways called circuits were developed to perform the counting. It replaced the gears and
other mechanical parts used for counting in previous computing machines.

In each new generation, the circuits became smaller and more advanced than the previous generation
circuits. The miniaturization helped increase the speed, memory and power of computers. There are five
generations of computers which are described below;

First Generation Computers:

The first generation (1946-1959) computers were slow, huge and expensive. In these computers, vacuum
tubes were used as the basic components of CPU and memory. These computers were mainly depended on
batch operating system and punch cards. Magnetic tape and paper tape were used as output and input devices
in this generation; Some of the popular first generation computers are

o ENIAC ( Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer)

o EDVAC ( Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer)
o UNIVACI( Universal Automatic Computer)
o IBM-701
o IBM-650

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Second Generation Computers:
The second generation (1959-1965) was the era of the transistor computers. These computers used
transistors which were cheap, compact and consuming less power; it made transistor computers faster than
the first generation computers.

In this generation, magnetic cores were used as the primary memory and magnetic disc and tapes were used
as the secondary storage. Assembly language and programming languages like COBOL and FORTRAN, and
Batch processing and multiprogramming operating systems were used in these computers.

Some of the popular second generation computers are;

o IBM 1620
o IBM 7094
o CDC 1604
o CDC 3600
o UNIVAC 1108

Third Generation Computers:

The third generation computers used integrated circuits (ICs) instead of transistors. A single IC can pack
huge number of transistors which increased the power of a computer and reduced the cost. The computers
also became more reliable, efficient and smaller in size. These generation computers used remote processing,
time-sharing, multi programming as operating system. Also, the high-level programming languages like
FORTRON-II TO IV, COBOL, PASCAL PL/1, ALGOL-68 were used in this generation.

Some of the popular third generation computers are;

o IBM-360 series
o Honeywell-6000 series
o PDP(Personal Data Processor)
o IBM-370/168
o TDC-316

Fourth Generation Computers:

The fourth generation (1971-1980) computers used very large scale integrated (VLSI) circuits; a chip
containing millions of transistors and other circuit elements. These chips made this generation computers
more compact, powerful, fast and affordable. These generation computers used real time, time sharing and
distributed operating system. The programming languages like C, C++, DBASE were also used in this
generation.

Some of the popular fourth generation computers are;

o DEC 10
o STAR 1000
o PDP 11
o CRAY-1(Super Computer)
o CRAY-X-MP(Super Computer)

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Fifth Generation Computers:

In fifth generation (1980-till date) computers, the VLSI technology was replaced with ULSI (Ultra Large
Scale Integration). It made possible the production of microprocessor chips with ten million electronic
components. This generation computers used parallel processing hardware and AI (Artificial Intelligence)
software. The programming languages used in this generation were C, C++, Java, .Net, etc.

Some of the popular fifth generation computers are;

o Desktop
o Laptop
o NoteBook
o UltraBook
o ChromeBook

Basic organization of a computer: ALU, input-output units, memory,

program counter:
A Central Processing Unit is the most important component of a computer system. A CPU is a
hardware that performs data input/output, processing and storage functions for a computer
system.
A computer consists of 5 functionally independent main parts:
1)input, 2)memory,3)arithmetic & logic unit(ALU) 4)output and 5)control units.
Input Unit :
The input unit consists of input devices such as a mouse, keyboard, scanner ,joystick etc.
These devices are used to input information or instruction into the computer system. That is that input
unit takes data from us to the computer in an organized for processing.
The input unit performs the following major functions:
-The input unit converts the inputted data or instructions into binary form for further processing.
-Input unit transmits the data to the main memory of the computer.
Output Unit:
Output unit consists of devices that are used to display the results or output of processing. The output data
is first stored in the memory and then displayed in human readable form through output devices.
Examples : monitor, printer, projector, graphic displays etc.
The output unit performs the following major functions:
-The output unit accepts the data or information in binary form from the main memory of the computer
system.
-The output unit converts the binary data into a human –readable form for better understanding.
CPU(Central Processing Unit):
CPU is known as the brain of the computer system. It is an electronic hardware device that processes all
the operations (eg: arithmetic and logical operations) of the computer. In other words, all the major
calculations , operations or comparisons are performed inside the CPU.

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Control Unit:
The control unit of a CPU controls all the activities and operations of the computer. It is also responsible for
controlling input/output , memory and other devices connected to the CPU.
The control unit acts like the supervisor which determines the sequence in which computer programs and instructions
are executed.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) :
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) is responsible for performing arithmetic and logical functions or operations.
It consists of two subsections, which are:
 Arithmetic Section
 Logic Section
 Arithmetic Section: By arithmetic operations, we mean operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, and all these operation and functions are performed by ALU. Also, all the
complex operations are done by making repetitive use of the mentioned operations by ALU.
 Logic Section: By Logical operations(AND ,OR etc), we mean operations or functions like selecting,
comparing, matching, and merging the data, and all these are performed by ALU.
 Note: CPU may contain more than one ALU and it can be used for maintaining timers that help run the
computer system.

Memory Unit:
Memory Unit is an essential part of the computer system which is used to store data and instructions
before and after processing.
There are two types of memory units:
1. Primary memory/Main memory
2. Secondary memory/Auxiliary memory
Primary Memory: Primary memory cannot store a vast amount of data.
The data stored in the primary memory is temporary. The data will be lost if they are disconnected from
the power supply.
Primary-storage is a fast-memory that operates at electronic-speed. Programs must be stored in the memory while they
are being executed.
Primary memory is also known as the Main Memory or temporary memory. Random Access Memory
(RAM) is an example of Primary memory.
Secondary Memory:
Secondary memory is also known as the Auxiliary Memory or permanent storage.
Secondary-storage is used when large amounts of data & many programs have to be stored.
The data stored in the secondary memory is safe even when there is a power failure or no power supply.
Hard Disk is usually considered a secondary memory.
Eg: Magnetic disks and optical disks(CD-ROMs).

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NOTE: Primary memory is the only memory that is directly accessible to the CPU. Secondary memory is
not directly accessible to the CPU. The data accessed from the secondary unit is first loaded into RAM and
then further transferred to the processing unit.
Program Counter:
A program counter (PC) is a CPU register in the computer processor which has the address of the next
instruction to be executed from memory.
A program counter is a register in a computer processor that contains the address (location) of
the instruction being executed at the current time. As each instruction gets fetched, the program counter
increases its stored value by 1. After each instruction is fetched, the program counter points to the next
instruction in the sequence. When the computer restarts or is reset, the program counter normally reverts
to 0.
Computer Languages Classification

Computer languages have been evolved from Low Level to High Level Languages. In the earliest
days of computers, only Binary Language was used to write programs.
 The computer languages are classified as follows...
Low Level Language (Machine Language)
 Low Level language is the only language which can be understood by the computer. . Low level
language is also known as Machine Language. Binary Language is an example of low level
language.
 The binary language contains only two symbols 1 & 0. All the instructions of binary language are
written in the form of binary numbers 1's & 0's.
 As the CPU directly understands the binary language instructions, it does not require any
translator.
 CPU directly starts executing the binary language instructions, and takes very less time to execute
the instructions as it does not requires any translation. Low level language is considered as the
First Generation Language (FGL)
Advantages
 A computer can easily understand the low level language.
 Low level language instructions are executed directly without any translation.
 Low level language instructions require very less time for their execution.

Disadvantages
 Low level language instructions are very difficult to use and understand.
 Low level language instructions are machine dependent, that means a program written for
particular machine does not executes on other machine.
 In low level language, there is more chance for errors and it is very difficult to find errors, debug

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and modify.
Middle Level Language (Assembly Language)
 Middle level language is a computer language in which the instructions are created using symbols
such as letters, digits and special characters. Assembly language is an example of middle level
language.
 In assembly language, we use predefined words called mnemonics. Binary code instructions in
low level language are replaced with mnemonics and operands in middle level language.
 But computer cannot understand mnemonics, so we use a translator called Assembler to translate
mnemonics into binary language.
Advantages
 Writing instructions in middle level language is easier than writing instructions in low level
language.
 Middle level language is more readable compared to low level language.
 Easy to understand, find errors and modify.
Disadvantages
 Middle level language is specific to a particular machine architecture that means it is machine
dependent.
 Middle level language needs to be translated into low level language.
 Middle level language executes slower compared to low level language.
High Level Language
 High level language is a computer language which can be understood by the users.
 High level language is very similar to the human languages and have a set of grammar rules that
are used to make instructions more easily.
 Every high level language have a set of predefined words known as Keywords and a set of rules
known as Syntax to create instructions.
 High level language needs to be converted into low level language to make it understandable by
the computer. We use Compiler or interpretor to convert high level language to low level
language.
 Languages like COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C ,C++, JAVA etc., are the examples of high level
languages.
Advantages
 Writing instructions in high level language is more easier.
 High level language is more readable and understandable.
 The programs created using high level language runs on different machines with little change or
no change.
 Easy to understand, create programs, find errors and modify.
Disadvantages
 High level language needs to be translated to low level language.
 High level language executes slower compared to middle and low level languages
Compiler Interpreter
Compiler Takes Entire program as input Interpreter Takes Single instruction as input
Intermediate Object Code is Generated No Intermediate Object Code is Generated
Conditional Control Statements executes Conditional Control Statements executes
Faster Slower
Memory Requirement: More (Since Object Memory Requirement is Less
Code is Generated)
Program need not be compiled every time Every time higher level program is converted into
lower level program
Errors are displayed after entire program is Errors are displayed for every instruction
checked interpreted (if any)
Example: C Compiler Example: BASIC
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Understanding Computer Languages

The following figure provides few key points related to the computer languages.

From the above figure, we can observe the following key points...
 The programming languages like C, C++, Java etc., are written in High level language which is
more comfortable for the developers.
 High level language is more closer to the users.

Introduction to C Programming Language :

 C is a Structured Programming Language. C is derived from ALGOL, the first language to use a
block structure.
 In 1967, Martin Richards developed a language called Basic Combined programming language
(BCPL).
 Ken Thompson followed in 1970 with a similar language called B. B was used to develop the first
version of UNIX.
 Dennis Ritchie developed C which took many concepts from ALGOL, BCPL.
 In 1972 first version is release. but got popular with the book by Brian W. Kernighan and Dennis
Ritchie in 1978
 In 1983, the American National standards Institute (ANSI) started certifying the standard C. It was
approved in the Dec-1989.
 In 1990, the International Standards Organization (ISO) adopted the ANSI standard. This version
of C is known as C89.
 In 1995, minor changes were made to the standard. This version is known as C95.
 A much more significant update was made in 1999. The changes incorporated into the standard,
now known as C99 are summarized in the following list.
1. Extensions to the character type to support non-English characters.
2. A Boolean type
3. Extensions to the integer type
4. Inclusion of type definitions in the for statement.
5. Addition of imaginary and complex types.
6. Incorporation off the C++ style line comment (///)

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Figure: Taxonomy of C Language

Structure of C program:
The program written in C language follows this basic structure. The sequence of sections should be
as they are in the basic structure. A C program should have one or more sections but the sequence
of sections is to be followed.
1. Documentation section
2. Linking section
3. Definition section
4. Global declaration section
5. Main function section
{
Declaration section
Executable section
}
6. Sub program or function section

1.Documentation Section:-

This comes first and is used to document the use of logic or reasons in your program. It can be
used to write the program's objective, developer and logic details. The documentation is done in C
language with /* and */. Whatever is written between these two are calledcomments.
2. Linking Section:-

This section tells the compiler to link the certain occurrences of keywords or functions in your
program to the header files specified in this section.
e.g. #include <stdio.h>

3. Definition Section:-
It is used to declare some constants and assign them some value.
e.g. #define MAX 25
Here #define is a compiler directive which tells the compiler whenever MAX is found in
the program, replace it with 25.
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4. Global Declaration Section:-

Here the variables which are used throughout the program (including main and other functions)
are declared so as to make them global(i.e accessible to all parts of program)
e.g. int i; (before main())
5. Main Function Section :-

It tells the compiler where to start the execution from.

main()
{
point from where execution starts
}
main function has two sections
1. Declaration section: In this, the variables and their data types are declared.
2. Executable section: This has the part of program which actually performs the task we
need.

6. Sub Program Or Function Section:-

This has all the sub programs or the functions which our program needs.

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Your first C Program

 Our first C program is very simple. it has only one preprocessor command, no global declarations,
and no local definitions. Its purpose will be simply to print a greeting to the user.
 So, the statements section had only 2 statements. one that prints a greeting and one that stops the
program.
Preprocessor commands:
 Preprocessor commands come at the beginning of the program. All preprocessor commands start
with a pound sign (#).
 The preprocessor command tells the compiler to include the standard input/output library file in
the program.
 We need this library file to print a message to the terminal. Printing is one of the input/output
processes identified in this library.
 The complete syntax for this command is shown below.
#include <stdio.h>
 A preprocessor command it must start with a pound symbol, there can be no space between the
pound sign and the keyword
 include. it tells the preprocessor that we want the library include, it tells the preprocessor that we
want the library
 The name of the header file is stdio.h, the abbreviation is standard input/ output header file.
main():
 The executable part of our program begins with the function main, which is identified by the
function header.
 In the main function int says that the function will return an integer value to the OS, that the
functions name is main, and it has no parameters (the parameters list is void).
int main(void)
 Within main there are 2 statements.
o one to print the message and
o one to terminate the program.
 The print statement uses a library function to execute this print function, printf, followed by a
parameters list enclosed in parentheses.
 For example, whatever we want to display we place that in two double quote marks (".."). the \n at
the end of the message tells the computer to advance to the next line in the output.
 The last statement in our program, return 0, terminates the program and returns control to the OS.
COMMENTS: C uses two different types of comments:
Comments are the non executable statements in a program.
The compiler ignores these comments when it translates the program into executable code.

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Two types of Comments:
 Block comments (Multi line comments) and Line comments.
A block comment is used when comment spans for more than one line. Opening and closing
tokens uses two characters. The opening token is /* and the closing token is */. Everything
written inside these tokens are ignored by the compiler.
/* This is a Block comment */
 A line comment uses two slashes(//) to identify a comment. This format does not require an end-
of-comment token; Programmers generally use this format for short comments.
//This is a single-line comment
 These comments can appear anywhere in the program. Comments cannot be nested.

Program
/* The greeting program. This program demonstrates some of the components of a simple C program.
Written by: your name Date: date*/
#include<stdio.h>
int main( )
{
// Local Declarations
// Statements
printf(“Hello World\n”);
return 0;
}// main

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SIMPLE ‘C’ PROGRAM:

/* simple program in c */
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
printf(“welcome to c programming”);
} /* End of main */

Basics of a Computer Program- Algorithms, flowcharts (Using Dia Tool), pseudo

code:
Algorithm:
A programming algorithm is a step by step procedure used for solving a problem.
Example:
Write an algorithm to find the largest of 2 numbers?
Algorithm:
Step 1: Start
Step 2: Input the values of A, B
Step 3: Compare A and B.
Step 4: If A > B then go to step 6
Step 5: Print “B is largest” go to Step 7
Step 6: Print “A is largest”
Step 7: Stop

Flowchart: Flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm. Programmers often use it as a

program-planning tool to solve a problem. It makes use of symbols which are connected among them to
indicate the flow of information and processing.
The process of drawing a flowchart for an algorithm is known as “flowcharting”.
Basic Symbols used in Flowchart Designs:
1. Terminal: The oval symbol indicates Start, Stop and Halt in a program’s logic flow. A pause/halt is
generally used in a program logic under some error conditions. Terminal is the first and last
symbols in the flowchart.

 Input/Output: A parallelogram denotes any function of input/output type. Program

instructions that take input from input devices and display output on output devices are
indicated with parallelogram in a flowchart.

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 Processing: A box represents arithmetic instructions. All arithmetic processes such as
adding, subtracting, multiplication and division are indicated by action or process symbol.

 Decision Diamond symbol represents a decision point. Decision based operations such as
yes/no question or true/false are indicated by diamond in flowchart.

 Connectors: Whenever flowchart becomes complex or it spreads over more than one page,
it is useful to use connectors to avoid any confusions. It is represented by a circle.

 Flow lines: Flow lines indicate the exact sequence in which instructions are executed.
Arrows represent the direction of flow of control and relationship among different symbols
of flowchart.

Rules For Creating Flowchart :

A flowchart is a graphical representation of an algorithm.it should follow some rules while
creating a flowchart
Rule 1: Flowchart opening statement must be ‘start’ keyword.
Rule 2: Flowchart ending statement must be ‘end’ keyword.
Rule 3: All symbols in the flowchart must be connected with an arrow line.
Rule 4: The decision symbol in the flowchart is associated with the arrow line.

Advantages of Flowchart:
 Flowcharts are a better way of communicating the logic of the system.
 Flowcharts act as a guide for blueprint during program designed.
 Flowcharts help in debugging process.
 With the help of flowcharts programs can be easily analyzed.
 It provides better documentation.

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 Flowcharts serve as a good proper documentation.
 Easy to trace errors in the software.
 Easy to understand.
 The flowchart can be reused for inconvenience in the future.
 It helps to provide correct logic.

Disadvantages of Flowchart:
 It is difficult to draw flowcharts for large and complex programs.
 There is no standard to determine the amount of detail.
 Difficult to reproduce the flowcharts.
 It is very difficult to modify the Flowchart.
 Making a flowchart is costly.
 Some developer thinks that it is waste of time.
 It makes software processes low.
 If changes are done in software, then the flowchart must be redrawn
Example : Draw a flowchart to input two numbers from the user and display the
largest of two numbers

Pseudo code:
The pseudo code in C is an informal way of writing a program for better human understanding.
Pseudo code is a method of representing logic in programming that is independent of any
programming language.

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Let's consider an example of implementing a simple program that calculates the average of three numbers
using pseudo code in C:
1. Start
2. Input three numbers
3. Calculate the sum of the three numbers
4. Divide the sum by 3 to get the average
5. Display the average
6. End

Pseudo code in C has the following Advantages :

1.Pseudo code is easier to read and comprehend than actual programming code since it describes program logic in
everyday language.

2. Saving time: By working out the specifics of the program logic before creating the actual code, producing
pseudo code allows you to save time in the long run.

3.Reduces errors: Because pseudo code enables you to develop the logic of your program in a more streamlined
manner, it can help to decrease errors in your code.

4.Pseudo code is portable because it is language-independent and is simple to adapt to new programming
languages.

Creating and running programs/ Compilation and execution

We have 4 steps to convert a program in high-level language into Machine language.
1. Writing and editing the program.
2. Compiling the program.
3. Linking the program with the required library modules and
4. Executing the program.
Writing and editing programs:
 The software used to write and edit programs is known as text editor.
 The text editor could be widely applicable is word processor, it is more special editor with compiler
because these editors have some features like copy, paste of code from one place to another place
in the program and can perform align the statements with tabs.
 After we complete the program save the file to the disk. This file will be given input to the compiler.
This file is called source file.

Compiling Programs:
 The code in the source file to be converted into machine language, it is done by compiler.
 The C compiler is 2 separate programs. They are preprocessor and translator.
 Preprocessor reads the preprocessor commands. These commands tell the preprocessor to look

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for the special code libraries and make substitutions into the code. The result of
preprocessing is called the translation unit.
 After preprocessor has prepared the code the translator converts the code into machine language.
 The translator reads the translation unit and writes the resulting object module to a file. Even
though the output of the compiler is machine language it is not completed to be executed.
Linking programs:
 C program is made up of many functions. These functions are like input/output processes, mathematical
library functions, etc.
 The linker assembles all these functions into final executable program.

Executing Programs:
 Once our program is linked it is ready for execution. To execute a program, , we use Operating
System command such as run to load the program into main memory..
 Getting the program into main memory is the function of the operating system program is known as
loader. When the program is loaded execution takes place.
 In today’s integrated environment all these processes are done in a single click or one pull down
window.
 The program takes the input from a file or from the user. After processing/ execution is done output is
displayed on the monitor or stored in a file.
 When the program has finished its job, it tells the operating system which then removes the program
from the memory.

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Identifiers

Names of the variables and other program elements such as functions, array, etc, are known as
identifiers. There are few rules that govern the way variable are named (identifiers).
Identifiers can be named from the combination of A-Z, a-z, 0-9, _ (Underscore).
 The first alphabet of the identifier should be either an alphabet or an underscore. Digitsare
not allowed.
 First 63 characters of an identifier are significant.
 It may not have a space or a hyphen (-). It may not have a special characters like $,@,% ,*, etc.
 It should not be a keyword.Eg:
name, ptr, sum [valid]
Eg: sum-sal, 2name, std no, int [invalid]

Valid names Invalid names

a // valid but poor style $sum //$ is illegal
student_name 2names // first char digit
_astudentName aum-salary // contains hyphen
_Bool // Boolean system id stdnt Nmbr // contains spaces
INT_MIN // System Defined Value int // Keyword

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Keywords
Definition:
Keywords are the system defined identifiers (reserved identifiers) and cannot be as the names of
the program variables or other user defined program elements (user defined function names).

1. All keywords have fixed meanings that do not change.

2. White spaces are not allowed in keywords.
3. Keyword may not be used as an identifier.
4. It is strongly recommended that keywords should be in lower case letters.
5. There are totally 32(Thirty-Two) keywords used in a C programming.
int float double Long short signed unsigned const
if Else switch break default do While for
register extern static struct typedef enum return sizeof
goto union auto Case void char continue volatile

Data Types:
 A type defines a set of values and a set of operations that can be applied on those values.
 The data type specifies the size and type of information the variable will store.

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Primitive data types/Primary datatypes in C:

1.Integer Data Type:

The integer datatype in C is used to store the integer numbers(any number including positive, negative
and zero without decimal part). Octal values, hexadecimal values, and decimal values can be stored in
int data type in C.
The storage size of int data type is 2 or 4 or 8 byte.
It varies depend upon the processor in the cpu that we use.
If we are using 16 bitprocessor, 2 byte(16 bit) of memory will be allocated for int data type.
like wise, 4 byte (32 bit) of memory for 32 bit processor and 8 byte (64 bit) of memoryfor 64 bit
processor is allocated for int datatype.
int (2 byte) can store values from -32,768 to +32,767
int (4 byte) can store values from -2,147,483,648 to +2,147,483,647.

 Range: -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647

 Size: 4 bytes
 Format Specifier: %d

Syntax of Integer
We use int keyword to declare the integer variable:
int var_name;

The integer data type can also be used as

1. unsigned int: Unsigned int data type in C is used to store the data values from zero to positive
numbers but it can’t store negative values like signed int.
2. short int: It is lesser in size than the int by 2 bytes so can only store values from -32,768 to 32,767.
3. long int: Larger version of the int datatype so can store values greater than int.
4. unsigned short int: Similar in relationship with short int as unsigned int with int.

Program:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{

int a = 9; // Integer value with positive data.

int b = -9; // integer value with negative data.

int c = 89U; // U or u is Used for Unsigned int in C.

long int d = 99998L; // L or l is used for long int in C.

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printf("Integer value with positive data: %d\n", a);
printf("Integer value with negative data: %d\n", b);
printf("Integer value with an unsigned int data: %u\n", c);
printf("Integer value with an long int data: %ld", d);
return 0;
}

Output:
Integer value with positive data: 9
Integer value with negative data: -9
Integer value with an unsigned int data: 89
Integer value with an long int data: 99998

2. Character Data Type

Character data type allows its variable to store only a single character. The size of the character is 1
byte.
 Range: (-128 to 127) or (0 to 255)
 Size: 1 byte
 Format Specifier: %c

Syntax of char
The char keyword is used to declare the variable of character type:
char var_name;

program:
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
char a = 'a';
char c ;

printf("Value of a: %c\n", a);

a++;
printf("Value of a after increment is: %c\n", a);

/*c is assigned ASCII value which corresponds to the character 'c' , a-->97 b-->98 c-->99 here c will
be printed.*/
c = 99;

printf("Value of c: %c", c);

return 0;
}
Output
Value of a: a
Value of a after increment is: b
Value of c: c

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3.Float Data Type

In C programming float data type is used to store floating-point values. Float in C is used to store
decimal and exponential values. It is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point
values) with single precision.
 Range: 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38
 Size: 4 bytes
 Format Specifier: %f

Syntax of float
The float keyword is used to declare the variable as a floating point:
float var_name;

program:
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
float a = 9.0f;
float b = 2.5f;

// 2x10^-4
float c = 2E-4f;
printf("%f\n", a);
printf("%f\n", b);
printf("%f", c);
return 0;
}

Output

9.000000
2.500000
0.000200
4.Double Data Type
A Double data type in C is used to store decimal numbers (numbers with floating point values) with
double precision.
It is used to define numeric values which hold numbers with decimal values in C.
 Range: 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308
 Size: 8 bytes
 Format Specifier: %lf
Syntax of Double:
The variable can be declared as double precision floating point using the double keyword:
double var_name;
program:
#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
double a = 123123123.00;

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double b = 12.293123;
double c = 2312312312.123123;

printf("%lf\n", a);

printf("%lf\n", b);

printf("%lf", c);

return 0;
}
Output:

123123123.000000
12.293123
2312312312.123123

Type Storage size Format specifier Value range Precision

float 4 bytes %f 1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38 6 decimal places
double 8 bytes %lf 2.3E-308 to 1.7E+308 15 decimal places
long double 10 bytes %Lf 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932 19 decimal places

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Data Type Size (bytes) Range Format Specifier

short int 2 -32,768 to 32,767 %hd

unsigned short int 2 0 to 65,535 %hu

unsigned int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295 %u

int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 %d

long int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 %ld

unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295 %lu

long long int 8 -(2^63) to (2^63)-1 %lld

unsigned long long int 8 0 to 18,446,744,073,709,551,615 %llu

signed char 1 -128 to 127 %c

unsigned char 1 0 to 255 %c

float 4 %f
1.2E-38 to 3.4E+38

double 8 %lf
1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308

long double 16 %Lf

3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+4932

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5.Void Data Type
The void type, used with the keyword void, has no values and no operations.
Void is an empty data type that has no value.
This can be used in functions and pointers.

Variables
 Variables are containers for storing data values, like numbers and characters.
 Variable is a name given to memory location that holds a value.
 variable is a name of the memory location. It is used to store data. Its value can be changed, and it
can be reused many times.

Rules for defining a variables:

 A variable can have alphabets, digits, and underscore.

 A variable name can start with the alphabet, and underscore only. It can't start with a digit.
 No whitespace is allowed within the variable name.
 A variable name must not be any reserved word or keyword, e.g. int, float, etc.

valid names: invalid names:

int a; int 2;
int _ab; int var name;
int a30; int long;

Variable decleration:

Syntax to declare a variable:

datatype variable_list;

Eg: int a;
float b;
char c;
Here, a, b, c are variables. The int, float, char are the data types.

Variable initialization
Datatype variable_name= value;

We can also provide values while declaring the variables as given below:

int a=10,b=20; //declaring 2 variable of integer type

float f=20.8;
char c='A';
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Types of variables: 1.Local variables 2.Global variables

Local Variables:
A variable that is declared inside the function or block is called a local variable.

 The scope of the local variable is with in the fuctions only.

 Local variables can’t be accessed outside the function.
 By default value of a local variable is Garbage value.
//program for local variables
#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a=10; //local variables a and b
float b;
printf("%d\n%f\n",a,b);
return 0;
}

Global Variables:
A variable that is declared outside the function or block is called a global variable. Any function can
change the value of the global variable. It is available to all the functions.
The scope of the global variable is through out a program.

 The default value of a global variable is zero.

//program for global variables

#include <stdio.h>
int c=20; //global variable
int b; //global variable
int main()
{
int a=10; //local variables a
printf("%d\n%d\n%d\n",a,b,c);
return 0;
}

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Difference between identifier and variable

 The identifier is only used to identify an entity uniquely in a program at the time of execution
whereas, a variable is a name given to a memory location that is used to hold a value.
 Variable is only a kind of identifier, other kinds of identifiers are function names, class names,
structure names, etc.

Constants
 Constants are data values that cannot be changed during the execution of a program. Like
variables, constants have a type.
Types of constants:
1.Numeric constants
a)Integer constants:
Decimal,Octal,Hexadecimal
b)Real constants
2.Character constants
Single character constants
String constants

1.Integer constants:
Decimal Constants:

A whole number represented in base 10 is known as a decimal constant. It has digits that range
from 0 to 9. Declaring a decimal constant has a simple syntax that just requires the value to be written.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int decimal = 42;
printf("The decimal constant is: %d\n", decimal);
return 0;
}

Output:

The decimal constant is: 42

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Octal Constant:

A base 8 value is represented by an octal constant. It is prefixed with a '0' (zero) to show that it is an
octal constant and has digits ranging from 0 to 7.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int octal = 052; // Octal representation of decimal 42
printf("The octal constant is: %o\n", octal);
return 0;
}

Output:

The octal constant is: 52

Hexadecimal Constant:

A base-16 value is represented by a hexadecimal constant. It uses letters A to F (or a to f) and

numbers 0 to 9 to represent values from 10 to 15. It is prefixed with '0x' or '0X' to identify it as a
hexadecimal constant.

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
int hexadecimal = 0x2A; // Hexadecimal representation of decimal 42
printf("The hexadecimal constant is: %x\n", hexadecimal);
return 0;
}

Output:

The hexadecimal constant is: 2a

2.Real or Floating-Point Constant:

A fractional component or exponentiation of a number is represented by a real or floating-point

constant. It can be expressed with a decimal point, the letter "E", or the symbol "e" in exponential or
decimal notation.

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Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
float real = 3.14;
printf("The real constant is: %f\n", real);
return 0;
}

Output:

The real constant is: 3.140000

2.Character Constant:

Single character constant:

A character constant represents a single character that is enclosed in single quotes.

Example: char c=’a’;

char c=’5’;

ASCII character Symbolic name ASCII character Symbolic name

Null character ‘\0’ Form feed ‘\f’
Alert (bell) ‘\a’ Carriage return ‘\r’
Backspace ‘\b’ Single quote ‘\’’
Horizontal tab ‘\t’ Double quote ‘\”’
New line ‘\n’ Backslash ‘\\’
Vertical tab ‘\v’

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
char character = 'A';
printf("The character constant is: %c\n", character);
return 0;
}

Output:

The character constant is: A

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String Constant:

A sequence of zero or more characters wrapped in double quotes is represented by a string constant. It
is a character array that ends with the null character \0.

Example:
“ “ // a null string
“h”
“computer”
“wide characters”

Example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{
char string[] = "Hello, World!";
printf("The string constant is: %s\n", string);
return 0;
}

Output:

The string constant is: Hello, World!

To define constant in C:
There are two ways to define constant in C programming.

1. const keyword
2. #define preprocessor

1) Using const keyword

The const keyword is used to define constant in C programming.

Syntax:

const datatype variablename=value;

eg: const float PI=3.14; // Now, the value of PI variable can't be changed.

Program:
#include<stdio.h>

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int main()
{
const float PI=3.14;
printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
return 0;
}

Output:

The value of PI is: 3.140000

If you try to change the the value of PI, it will render compile time error.

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
const float PI=3.14;
PI=4.5;
printf("The value of PI is: %f",PI);
return 0;
}
Output:
Compile Time Error: Cannot modify a const object

2) Using #define preprocessor

The #define preprocessor is also used to define constant.

Syntax:

#define datatype variablename value

Example program:

#include <stdio.h>
#define PI 3.14
int main()
{
printf("%f",PI);
return 0;
}
Output:
3.140000

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Boolean constants:
 A Boolean data type can take only 2 values. The values are true and false.
 When we use the Boolean constant must include the Boolean library, stdbool.h.
Example:
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
int main()
{
bool x = false;
if(x== true)
printf("x is true.");
else
printf("x is false.");
return 0;
}
Output:
x is false.

Basic Input/output
Standard input-- used to take the input from the device such as Keyboard.
Standard output--used to send output to a device such as monitor or screen.
Types of Input Output:
There are 2 kinds of I/O functions as given below.

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Unforma tted I/O Functio ns

getchar() :
The getchar() reads character type data from input file stdin. It reads one character at a
time till the user pressses the enter key. The getchar() returns a character type. It reads
next character in the input file.
Syntax:
Variablename= getchar();

putchar() :
The putchar() writes the character type data to the output file stdout(screen). It is used to
print one character at a time.
Syntax:
Putchar(Variable_name);

//getchar putchar example:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char a;
printf("enter a character \n");
a = getchar();
printf("you entered character is \t");
putchar(a);
return 0;
}
Output:
enter a character
A
you entered character is A

gets()
The gets() is used to read string from standard input file stdin and places it into some
buffer which the programmer must p rovide. The gets() stops reading when an enter key is
pressed or EOF is reached.
Syntax:
gets(variablename);

puts() :
The puts() is used to send the string to the output file stdout, until it finds a NULL end of
string marker. The NULL is not written, instead the newline character is written to the
output stdout.
Syntax:
puts(variablename);

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//gets puts example
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
char ch[20];
printf("Enter the text: ");
gets(ch);
puts(ch);
return(0);
}
Output:
Enter the text: welcome
welcome

F o r ma t t e d I n p u t O u t p u t Fu n c t i o n s :

1 .s c a n f ( ) :

 The scanf() reads all types of data values given by the user and these values are
assigned to the variables. It requires the conversion specification (such as %s and %d )
to identify the type of data to be read during the program execution.
 You need to pass the address of the variable to the scanf function along with other
arguments so that the read values can be assigned to the correct destination.

Syntax: scanf(“control string”, address list);

(or)
scanf(“format specifiers”, &variable1,&variable2…);

Example:
int x;
float y;
scanf (“%d % f “, &x, &y);
Control string
 It tells the function the type of data being Input and uses the same control sequences as the printf()
function.
 It enclosed with double quotes (“ “).
 It specifies the type of values that have to be read from keyboard. Control string consists of
format specification.
Example:
Integer - %d Float - %f double - %lf long double - %Lf char - %c

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Addresses list
 It contain addresses of i/o variables proceed the addresses are specified by before the variable by
ampersand (&) operator.

scanf() reads the characters from standard input and interprets them according to the
format string specification. It stops reading when it encounters a space or when some
input fails to match with the conversion specification.

2 .p r i n t f ( ) :

 The printf() prints all types of data value to the standard output(typically the screen). It
requires a conversion symbol and variable name to print the data. The printf() is part of
every C compiler. Its header file is stdio.h.

Syntax:

printf(“Format control string”, data_value1, data_value2, . . . , data_valuen);

The first argument is the format string which is composed of ordinary characters and
conversion specification. This is followed by zero or more optional arguments.

Control String
1. Format Specifier given in the form of % specifier.
2. Escape sequence characters such as \n (new line) \t(tab).
3. It can have a string that must be printed on the monitor.

 The format of numbers displayed by printf() can be controlled by field with specifiers included as
part of each conversion control sequence.
printf(“sum of %.3d and %4d is %5d”,6,15,21);
Output: sum of ∧∧6 and ∧∧∧5 is ∧∧∧21

Example program using scanf() and printf() functions:

#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a;
printf("Enter the value of a = ");
scanf("%d",&a);
printf("\nThe value of a = %d",a);
return(0);
}
Output:
Enter the value of a = 10

The value of a = 10

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//Example program using field width in print statement
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("\n%3d",6);
printf("\n%3d",18);
printf("\n%3d",124);
printf("\n ----");
printf("\n%9d",6+18+124);
return 0;
}
Output:
6
18
124
----
148

Float point
%5.2f – 42.30
%5.2f – 142.36
%10.3f – ∧∧∧∧25.670
Format Modifier (modifiers for printf formats)
 A format specification can also include “modifiers” that can control how much of the item’s
values is printed and how much space it gets.
 The modifiers come between the % and the format control letter.

Justification
 It controls the placement of a value when it is shorter than the specified width.
 Justification can be left or right. The format modifier (-) minus is used.
Left Justification
 A format specification has (-) minus sign used before the width modifier says to left justify the
argument within its specified width.
Example: printf(“%-10d”,59);
Output: 59∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧

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Right Justification + format modifier (or) explicit sign display
 The positive sign is used before the width modifier, says to right justify the argument with its
specified width.
Example: printf(“%+10d”,59);
Output: ∧∧∧∧∧∧∧∧59
printf() using left and right justification
#include<stdio.h>
int main()
{
printf("%+10s\n","right");
printf("%-10s\n","left");
printf("%+10s\n","abcd");
printf("%-10s\n","abcd");
return 0;
}

Output:

right
left
abcd
abcd

Usually the format string is enclosed with the double quotation marks in both scanf()
and printf().

Type Conversion
 Type converse on can be defined as converting one data type into another data type.
 There are 2 different type conversions are there they are:
1. Automatic or implicit type conversion.
2. Type casting or explicit type conversion.
Implicit Type Conversion
 When the type conversion is performed automatically by the compiler without programmer
intervention such type of conversion is known as implicit type conversion.
 If operators are different types the lower type is automatically converted to higher type before
operation proceed.
 The following Figure shows the ranks as we use them for conversion.

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 There are two types of conversions in implicit type conversion as:

1. Assignment Type Conversion
2. Automatic Type Conversion
Assignment Type Conversion
 This means that the value of the expression on the right side of the equal sign is converted to the
data type of the variable to the left of the equal sign.
Example: result = 4;
 When ‘result’ is declared as double ‘4’ is an integer then ‘4’ will be converted to the double
Precision value 4.0 and the value is assigned to the result.
Automatic Type Conversion
 The data type have lower rank is converted automatically in to higher rank data before the
operation process.
 This automatic conversion across an assignment operator is referred to as integer type conversion
Example program for implicit type conversion
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
double a = 2.5,s;
int b=2;
s=a+b;
printf("value of s = %d “, s);
}
Output:
value of s = 4

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Explicit Type Conversion/Type Casting
 Type conversion performed by the programmer to change the data type of the expression of a
specific type is known as explicit type conversion.
Syntax: (data type) expression
Example: double sum/count;
Example program for explicit type conversion
#include <stdio.h>
int main ()
{
int sum=17,count=5;
double mean;
mean=(double)sum/count;
printf("value of mean = %f “, mean);
}
Output:
value of mean = 3.400000
Operators:
Operators can be defined as the symbols that help us to perform specific mathematical, relational,
bitwise, conditional, or logical computations on operands. In other words, we can say that an operator
operates the operands.
For example, ‘+’ is an operator used for addition, as shown below:
c = a + b;
Here, ‘+’ is the operator known as the addition operator, and ‘a’ and ‘b’ are operands. The addition
operator tells the compiler to add both of the operands ‘a’ and ‘b’. The functionality of the C
programming language is incomplete without the use of operators.

Types of Operators in C:
C operators can be classified into the following types:

1. Arithmetic operators
2. Increment and decrement operators
3. Relational operators
4. Logical operators

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5. Bitwise operators
6. Assignment operators
7. Conditional operators
8. Special operators

1. Arithmetic Operators :

The C language supports all the basic arithmetic operators such

as addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, etc.

Example(where a and b are

variables with some
Operator Description
integer value)

+ adds two operands (values) a+b

- subtract second operands from first a-b

* multiply two operands a*b

divide the numerator by the denominator, i.e.

/ divide the operand on the left side with the a/b
operand on the right side

This is the modulus operator, it returns the

% remainder of the division of two operands as the a%b
result

This is the Increment operator - increases the

++ integer value by one. This operator needs only a++ or ++a
a single operand.

This is the Decrement operator - decreases

-- integer value by one. This operator needs only --b or b--
a single operand.

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Program using arithmetic operators:
int main()
{
int a = 50, b = 23, result;
// addition
result = a+b;
printf("Addition of a and b = %d \n",result);
// subtraction
result = a-b;
printf("Subtraction of a and b = %d \n",result);
// multiplication
result = a*b;
printf("Multiplication of a and b = %d \n",result);
// division
result = a/b;
printf("Division of a and b = %d \n",result);
//modulus
result = a%b;
printf("modulus of a and b = %d",result);
return 0;
}

Output:
Addition of a and b = 73
Subtraction of a and b = 27
Multiplication of a and b = 1150
Division of a and b = 2
modulus of a and b = 4

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2.Increment and decrement operators:
 The increment operator is used to increase the value of any numeric value by 1.
 The decrement operator is used to decrease the value of any numeric value by 1.

++ increment operator, -- decrement operator

 When we use the increment and decrement operator as a prefix (means before the operand), then,
first the increment operation is done and that value is used, like in the first two printf() functions,
we get the updated values of a and b.
 Whereas when we use the increment and decrement operators as postfix (means after the
operand), then, first the larger expression is evaluated which is printf() in this case and then the
value of the operand is updated.

Program for using increment and decrement operators:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()
{

int a = 10, b = 20, c, d;

/* Using increment operator */

printf("Incrementing value of a = %d \n", ++a);

/* Using decrement operator */

printf("Decrementing value of b = %d \n", --b);

// first print value of a, then decrement a

printf("Decrementing value of a = %d \n", a--);
printf("Value of a = %d \n", a);

// first print value of b, then increment b

printf("Incrementing value of b = %d \n", b++);
printf("Value of b = %d \n", b);

return 0;

Output:

Incrementing value of a = 11
Decrementing value of b = 19
Decrementing value of a = 11
Value of a = 10
Incrementing value of b = 19
Value of b = 20

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3. Relational operators in C

 The relational operators (or comparison operators) are used to check the relationship between two
operands.
 It checks whether two operands are equal or not equal or less than or greater than, etc.
 It returns 1 if the relationship checks pass, otherwise, it returns 0.
 When we use relational operators, we get the output based on the result of the comparison.
 If it's true, then the output is 1 and if it's false, then the output is 0.

Example
Operator Description
(a and b, where a = 10 and b =
11)

== Check if the two operands are equal a == b, returns 0

a != b, returns 1 because a is not

!= Check if the two operands are not equal.
equal to b

Check if the operand on the left is greater than the

> a > b, returns 0
operand on the right

Check operand on the left is smaller than the right

< a < b, returns 1
operand

check left operand is greater than or equal to the

>= a >= b, returns 0
right operand

Check if the operand on the left is smaller than or

<= a <= b, returns 1
equal to the right operand

Program for relational operators:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 10, b = 20, result;

// Equal
result = (a==b);
printf("(a == b) = %d \n",result);

// less than

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result = (a<b);
printf("(a < b) = %d \n",result);

// greater than
result = (a>b);
printf("(a > b) = %d \n",result);

// less than equal to

result = (a<=b);
printf("(a <= b) = %d \n",result);

return 0;

Output:

(a == b) = 0
(a < b) = 1
(a > b) = 0
(a <= b) = 1

4.Logical Operators :

C language supports the following 3 logical operators.

Example
Operator Description
(a and b, where a = 1 and b = 0)

&& Logical AND a && b, returns 0

|| Logical OR a || b, returns 1

! Logical NOT !a, returns 0

These operators are used to perform logical operations and are used with conditional statements like if
else.

1. With the AND operator, only if both operands are true, the result is true.
2. With the OR operator, if a single operand is true, then the result will be true.
3. The NOT operator changes true to false, and false to true.

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Program for logical operators:

#include <stdio.h>

int main() {

int a = 1, b = 0, result;

// And
result = (a && b);
printf("a && b = %d \n",result);

// Or
result = (a || b);
printf("a || b = %d \n",result);

// Not
result = !a;
printf("!a = %d \n",result);

return 0;

Output:
a && b = 0
a || b = 1
!a = 0
5.Bitwise operators:
 Bitwise operators perform manipulations of data at the bit level.
 These operators also perform the shifting of bits from right to left.
 Bitwise operators are not applied to float or double, long double, void, etc.
 There are 6 bitwise operators in C programming.

The following table contains the bitwise operators.

Operator Description
& Bitwise AND
| Bitwise OR
^ Bitwise Exclusive OR
~ One’s complement
>> Shift Right
<< Shift Left

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The bitwise AND, OR, and NOT operator works the same way as the Logical AND, OR, and NOT
operators, except that the bitwise operators work bit by bit.

we have a truth table for showing how these operators work with different values.

a b a&b a|b a^b

0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 1 1

1 0 0 1 1

1 1 1 1 0

Bitwise operators can produce any arbitrary value as a result. It is not mandatory that the result will either
be 0 or 1.

Bitwise >> and << operators

 The bitwise shift operator shifts the bit value, either to the left or right.
 The left operand specifies the value to be shifted and the right operand specifies the number of
positions that the bits in the value have to be shifted.
 Both operands have the same precedence.

Understand, how bits shift from left to right and vice versa.

a = 00010000

b=2

a << b = 01000000

a >> b = 00000100

In case of a << b, 2 bits are shifted to left in 00010000 and additional zeros are added to the opposite end,
that is right, hence the value becomes 01000000

And for a >> b, 2 bits are shifted from the right, hence two zeros are removed from the right and two are
added on the left, hence the value becomes 00000100

Please note, shift doesn't work like rotating, which means, the bits shifted are not added at the other end.
The bits that are shifted are lost.

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Program for bitwise operators:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 0001000, b = 2, result;
// <<
result = a<<b;
printf("a << b = %d \n",result);

// >>
result = a>>b;
printf("a >> b = %d \n",result);
return 0;
}
Output:
a << b = 2048
a >> b = 128

6.Assignment Operators:
 The assignment operators are used to assign value to a variable.
 For example, if we want to assign a value 10 to a variable x then we can do this by using the
assignment operator like: x = 10; Here, = (equal to) operator is used to assign the value.
 In the C language, the = (equal to) operator is used for assignment however it has several other
variants such as +=, -= to combine two operations in a single statement.

Example
Operator Description (a and b are two variables, with
where a=10 and b=5)

assigns values from right side operand

= a=b, a gets value 5
to left side operand

adds right operand to the left

a+=b, is same as a=a+b, value
+= operand and assign the result to left
of a becomes 15
operand

subtracts right operand from the left

a-=b, is same as a=a-b, value
-= operand and assign the result to left
of a becomes 5
operand

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Example
Operator Description (a and b are two variables, with
where a=10 and b=5)

mutiply left operand with the right

a*=b, is same as a=a*b, value
*= operand and assign the result to left
of a becomes 50
operand

divides left operand with the right

a/=b, is same as a=a/b, value
/= operand and assign the result to left
of a becomes 2
operand

calculate modulus using two operands a%=b, is same as a=a%b, value

%=
and assign the result to left operand of a becomes 0

 When we combine the arithmetic operators with the assignment operator =, then we get
the shorthand form of all the arthmetic operators.

Example program Using Assignment Operators:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{

int a = 10,b=30,c=10;
// += operator
a += 20;
printf("result = %d \n",a);

// -= operator
b -= 5;
printf("result = %d \n",b);

// *= operator
c *= 10;
printf("result = %d \n",c);

return 0;
}
Output:
result = 30
result = 25
result = 100

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7.Ternary Operator (?)/Conditional operator:

The ternary operator, also known as the conditional operator in the C language can be used
for statements of the form if-then-else.

The basic syntax for using ternary operator is:

(Expression1)? Expression2 : Expression3;

Here is how it works:

 The question mark ? in the syntax represents the if part.

 The first expression (expression 1) returns either true or false, based on which it is
decided whether (expression 2) will be executed or (expression 3)
 If (expression 1) returns true then the (expression 2) is executed.
 If (expression 1) returns false then the expression on the right side of : i.e (expression 3)
is executed.

Example Program using ternary operators:

/* Using ternary operator
- If a == b then store a+b in result
- otherwise store a-b in result
*/

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{

int a = 20, b = 20, result;

result = (a==b)?(a+b):(a-b);

printf("result = %d",result);
return 0;
}

Output:
result = 40

8.Special Operator s: &, *, sizeof, etc:

sizeof operator is used to find size of any entity(variable, array, etc.), & operator to find the address of a
variable, etc. You can see a list of such operators in the below table.

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Operator Description Example

returns the size(length in bytes)

sizeof of the entity, for eg. a variable sizeof(x) will return the size of the variable x
or an array, etc.

returns the memory address of

& &x will return the address of the variable x
the variable

represents a pointer to an m = &x (memory address of the variable x)

object. The * operator returns
*
the value stored at a memory *m will return the value stored at the memory
address. address m

used to access individual

. (dot) If emp is a structure with an element int age in it,
elements of a C structure or C
operator then emp.age will return the value of age.
union.

used to access structure or

-> (arrow) If p is a pointer to the emp structure, then we can
union elements using a pointer
operator access age element using p->age
to the structure or union.

if arr is an array, then we can access its values

used to access array elements
[] operator using arr[index], where index represents the array
using indexing
index starting from zero

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Program using size of and & operator:

#include <stdio.h>
int main()
{
int a = 20;
char b = 'B';
double c = 17349494.249324;

// sizeof operator
printf("Size of a is: %d \n", sizeof(a));
printf("Size of b is: %d \n", sizeof(b));
printf("Size of c is: %d \n", sizeof(c));
// & operator
printf("Memory address of a: %d \n", &a);
return 0;
}

Output:
Size of a is: 4
Size of b is: 1
Size of c is: 8
Memory address of a: -1254020756

Storage classes and type qualifiers

 Storage classes specify the scope of the objects. Type qualifiers specify processing
limitations on objects.
Storage classes
 There are only 4 storage class specifiers. They are auto, register, static and extern

Auto variables
 A variable is declared inside a function without any storage class specification, is by default an
automatic variable.
 An automatic variables can also called local variable, because they are local to a function
 By default they are assigned to the garbage value by the compiler.
 They are created when a function is called and or destroyed automatically when the function
exists.
Syntax: storage class specification data type variable name;

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Example: auto int x=10;
Program using auto variable
main() #include<stdio.h>
{ main()
int c; {
(or) auto int a=5,b=10;
auto int c; printf(“%d”,a);
} printf(“%d”,b);
}
Register variables
 The register storage class is used to define local variables that should be stored in register instead
of RAM.
 A register access is much faster than a memory access keeping the frequently accessed variable in
the resistor will lead to faster execution of programs.
Syntax: storage class data type variable name;
Example: register int count;
 Therefore only a few variables can be placed in the resistor.
Program using register variable
#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
register int i;
for(i=0;i<10;i++)
{
printf(“%2d”,i);
}
}
Output: 0123456789
Static variables
 A variable is declared to be static by prefixing its normal declaration with keyword static.
Syntax: storage class data type variable name;
Example: static int a;

 Static variables can be declared within a function. These variables retain their values from
pervious call i.e., the value that they had before returning from the function.
Program using static variable
sun()
main()
{
int i;
for(i=1;i<=3;i++)
{
sun();
}

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}
sun()
{
static int x=0;
x=x+1;
printf(“%d”,x);
}
Output: 1 2 3
Explanation: Static variables are initialized only once when the program i compiled it never reinitialized
the value.
Extern variable
 A variable that is defined outside of any function is a global variable. Global variables remain
available throughout the entire program.
 The extern keyword is used before a variable to inform the compiler that this variable is declared
somewhere else.
 The extern declaration does not allocate storage for variables.
Syntax: storage class data type variable name;
Example: extern int a;
Program using extern variable
#include<stdio.h>
int i;
main()
{
printf(“%d”,i);
}
Output: 0
Note: if you will not use extern keyword with global variable the compiler will automatically intiliase
with default value 0.
#include<stdio.h>
extern int i;
main()
{
printf(“%d”,i);
}
Output: compilation error undefined symbol
Note: when we use extern modifier with any variable it is only declaration memory is not allocate for this
variable. Hence compiler will show error message.
#include<stdio.h>
extern int i=10;
main()
{
printf(“%d”,i);
}
Output: 10
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#include<stdio.h>
main()
{
extern int i=10;
printf(“%d”,i);
}
Note: we cannot initialize extern variable locally i.e within the block. We can only initialize extern
variable globally.

Part-2
Characterstics of an algorithm:

Algorithm:
Algorithm is a step by step procedure to solve a particular problem.
There are some characteristics which every algorithm should follow.There are five different characteristics
which deal with various aspects of algorithm.
They are as follows:
1.Input specified
2.Output specified
3.Definiteness
4.Effectiveness
5. Finiteness
6.Independent

Let us see these characteristics one by one.

1)Input specified
The input is the data to be transformed during the computation to produce the output.An algorithm should

have 0 or more well-defined inputs.Input precision requires that you know what kind of data, how much

and what form the data should be

2)Output specified
The output is the data resulting from the computation (your intended result). An algorithm should have 1

or more well-defined outputs, and should match the desired output.Output precision also requires that you

know what kind of data, how much and what form the output should be (or even if there will be any output

at all!).
3)Definiteness
Algorithms must specify every step and the order the steps must be taken in the process.Definiteness

means specifying the sequence of operations for turning input into output. Algorithm should be clear and
unambiguous.Details of each step must be also be spelled out (including how to handle errors).It should

contain everything quantitative and not qualitative.

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4)Effectiveness
For an algorithm to be effective, it means that all those steps that are required to get to output must be

feasible with the available resources.It should not contain any unnecessary and redundant steps which

could make an algorithm ineffective.

For example,suppose you are cooking a recipe and you chop vegetables which are not be used in the

recipe then it is a waste of time.

5)Finiteness
The algorithm must stop, eventually.Stopping may mean that you get the expected output OR you get a

response that no solution is possible. Algorithms must terminate after a finite number of steps.An

algorithm should not be infinite and always terminate after definite number of steps.

There is no point in developing an algorithm which is infinite as it will be useless for us.
6)Independent
An algorithm should have step-by-step directions, which should be independent of any programming

code.It should be such that it could be run on any of the programming languages.

FLOW CHART

Diagrammatic representation of an algorithm is called flow chart.

Symbols used in flowchart are mentioned below −

Name Symbol Purpose

Terminal start/stop/begin/end

Input/output Input/output of data

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Name Symbol Purpose

Process Any processing to be performaed can be

represented

Decision box Decision operation that determine which

of the alternative paths to be followed

Connector Used to connect different parts of

flowchart

Flow Join 2 symbols and also represents flow

of execution

Pre defined Module (or) subroutines specified else

process where

Page Used to connect flowchart in 2 different

connector pages

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Problem solving strategies:
Top down approach and bottom up approach:
Top-Down Approach is an approach to design algorithms in which a bigger problem is broken down
into smaller parts. Thus, it uses the decomposition approach. This approach is generally used by
structured programming languages such as C, COBOL, FORTRAN.

Bottom-Up Approach is one in which the smaller problems are solved, and then these solved problems
are integrated to find the solution to a bigger problem. Therefore, it uses composition approach.

It requires a significant amount of communication among different modules. It is generally used with
object oriented programming paradigm such as C++, Java, and Python. Data encapsulation and data
hiding is also implemented in this approach. The bottom-up approach is generally used in testing
modules.

Difference between Top-Down Approach and Bottom-Up Approach

The following table highlights all the major differences between top-down approach and bottom-up
approach −

S.No. Top-Down Approach Bottom-Up Approach

In this approach, the problem is In this approach, the smaller problems

1.
broken down into smaller parts. are solved.

It is generally used by structured It is generally used with object

2. programming languages such as C, oriented programming paradigm such
COBOL, FORTRAN, etc. as C++, Java, Python, etc.

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It is generally used with It is generally used in testing modules.

3. documentation of module and
debugging code.

It does not require communication It requires relatively more

4.
between modules. communication between modules.

It contains redundant information. It does not contain redundant

5.
information.

6. Decomposition approach is used here. Composition approach is used here.

The implementation depends on the Data encapsulation and data hiding is

7.
programming language and platform. implemented in this approach.

Time and Space Complexicity of an algorithm:

Time complexity is the time taken by the algorithm to execute each set of instructions.
It is always better to select the most efficient algorithm when a simple problem can solve with different
methods.
The time complexity of an algorithm is the total amount of time required by an algorithm to complete its
execution.
Generally, the running time of an algorithm depends upon the following...

1. Whether it is running on Single processor machine or Multi processor machine.

2. Whether it is a 32 bit machine or 64 bit machine.
3. Read and Write speed of the machine.
4. The amount of time required by an algorithm to
perform Arithmetic operations, logical operations, return value and assignment operations etc.,
5. Input data

Consider the following piece of code...

Example 1
int sum(int a, int b)
{
return a+b;
}
In the above sample code, it requires 1 unit of time to calculate a+b and 1 unit of time to return the value.
That means, totally it takes 2 units of time to complete its execution. And it does not change based on the
input values of a and b. That means for all input values, it requires the same amount of time i.e. 2 units.
If any program requires a fixed amount of time for all input values then its time complexity is said to
be Constant Time Complexity.

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Consider the following piece of code...

Example 2
int sum(int A[], int n)
{
int sum = 0, i;
for(i = 0; i < n; i++)
sum = sum + A[i];
return sum;
}

For the above code, time complexity can be calculated as follows

In above calculation
Cost is the amount of computer time required for a single operation in each line.
Repeatation is the amount of computer time required by each operation for all its repeatations.
Total is the amount of computer time required by each operation to execute.
So above code requires '4n+4' Units of computer time to complete the task. Here the exact time is not fixed.
And it changes based on the n value. If we increase the n value then the time required also increases linearly.

Totally it takes '4n+4' units of time to complete its execution and it is Linear Time Complexity.
If the amount of time required by an algorithm is increased with the increase of input value then that
time complexity is said to be Linear Time Complexity.

Space complexity is usually referred to as the amount of memory consumed by the algorithm.
When we design an algorithm to solve a problem, it needs some computer memory to complete its
execution. For any algorithm, memory is required for the following purposes...

1. To store program instructions.

2. To store constant values.
3. To store variable values.
4. And for few other things like funcion calls, jumping statements etc,.

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Total amount of computer memory required by an algorithm to complete its execution is called as space
complexity of that algorithm.

To calculate the space complexity, we must know the memory required to store different datatype values
(according to the compiler).
1. 2 bytes to store Integer value.
2. 4 bytes to store Floating Point value.
3. 1 byte to store Character value.
4. 6 (OR) 8 bytes to store double value.

Consider the following code..

int square(int a)
{
return a*a;
}
In the above piece of code, it requires 2 bytes of memory to store variable 'a' and another 2 bytes of memory
is used for return value.
That means, totally it requires 4 bytes of memory to complete its execution. And this 4 bytes of memory
is fixed for any input value of 'a'. This space complexity is said to be Constant Space Complexity.

If the amount of space required by an algorithm is increased with the increase of input value, then that
space complexity is said to be Linear Space Complexity.

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