RAFFLES INSTITUTION

PHYSICS DEPARTMENT

DD

MATHEMATICS FOR
JIP PHYSICS
H2 PHYSICS 9478/H1 PHYSICS 8867

Introduction
Physics is the study of the systems and interactions in the physical world. And Mathematics
is almost always the language used by Physicists to describe the relationship between
physical quantities and the states of the physical world.
In this module, we will explore some of the mathematical requirements in the A Level Physics
syllabus.

1 Arithmetic
Basic skills in using electronic calculators are expected. You should be comfortable working
with decimals and standard form (scientific) notations. Accuracy and precision of values are
important. There are certain rules for the number of significant figures and/or decimal places
which will be taught in the first chapter of the syllabus.

1.1 Making approximations

An important skill that Physics students should possess is the ability to make approximations.
This is required mainly in:
• Making approximate evaluations of numerical expressions to check the magnitude of
machine calculations. e.g. π 2 ≈ 10
• Determining approximate size or magnitude of certain objects and quantities

Exercise 1
What is the approximate mass of a single sheet of A4 paper?
A 0.01 g B 0.3 g C1g D 30 g
[adapted from 2013 A Level Paper 1 Q2]

2 Algebra
Most investigations in Physics are concerned with finding the relationship between physical
quantities. These relationships can be represented or determined by algebraic equations or
graphs (to be covered in Section 3).

You would be expected to solve simple algebraic equations, and these include linear
simultaneous equations and quadratic equations.

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2.1 Changing the subject of an equation

Very often, you may be required to rearrange or simplify equations to solve for a particular
quantity. As a result, the equations you are used to may take different forms.
1 2EK
For example, the formula EK = mv 2 can be re-written as v =
2 m
1 1 1
The formula for total resistance of 2 resistors in parallel, = + can be simplified as
Rtotal R1 R2
R1R2
Rtotal =
R1 + R2

2.2 Logarithms
Logarithms are used when quantities have values that range over several orders of
magnitude.
You will need to recognize logarithmic forms of expressions like ab , a b , x n , e kx and be able
to manipulate and solve equations involving logarithmic and exponential functions.

2.3 A note about formulae – Just mere memory work?

An algebraic equation that shows the relationship between physical quantities is a formula.
In the study of Physics, you will encounter many important formula. Instead of regarding
them as mere mathematical expressions to be memorised, think of each formula as
something that helps to ‘tell a story’ about the real world.
Take, for example, the formula for speed:
distance
speed =
time
Besides enabling us to make calculations of the quantities by substituting values, it also
allows us to see that speed is directly propotional to distance. Hence, the greater distance a
person covers in a fixed time, the greater would be the persons speed.
While these relationships may seem obvious, students are often unable to articulate them in
words. Increasingly, we see such qualitative type of questions in the A Level examinations.

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3 Graphs
The relationship between physical quantities can be visually represented on a graph. As a
Physics student, you will definitely encounter graph work and will need to be competent in
sketching, drawing and analyzing graphs.

3.1 Rearranging equations to plot graphs

During your investigations in the laboratory, you will sometimes need to represent your
findings in a simple graph.
You will not always be told what type of graph to plot, but you will be given an equation to
work with. The most basic type of graph would be a linear graph.
y mx + c , where y and x represent the
The equation for a linear graph is in the form=
variables, m represents the gradient and c represents the y-intercept.

Exercise 2
The following equations represent how variables x and y are related. Rearrange them to
obtain the linear form. (A and B are constants.)
x+A
1. y = 2π
B

2. y = AB x

3. y = e − Ax

3.2 Plots of common simple expressions (and examples in Physics)

Many relationships in Science can be modelled by certain mathematical equations and
represented using line graphs. Note that in Physics, the term ‘line graph’ could refer to either
a straight line or curved line. In this section, we will look at some of these common equations
and cite relevant examples in Physics.

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Proportional (or directly proportional) relationship: y ∝ x

Fig.1 Fig. 2

Fig. 1 shows a proportional relationship where the graph is a straight line passing through the
origin. An example of this is a resistor R that follows Ohm’s Law V = I R (Fig. 2), in which the
current I through it is proportional to the potential difference V applied across it. This means
that, for example, if the potential difference is doubled then the current also doubles.

Linear relationship:=
y mx + c

Fig. 4
Fig.3
Fig. 3 shows a linear relationship. This is similar to a proportional relationship in that the graph
shows a straight line, but here it does not pass through the origin. An example of this is a
spring that obeys Hooke’s Law, in which the total length of a spring increases linearly with the
force exerted on it (Fig. 4). This means that equal increases in force produce equal increases
in the length of the spring. The intercept on the vertical axis is the length of the spring when
the force on it is zero, i.e. the ‘normal’ length of the spring.

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Square relationship: y ∝ x 2

Fig.5 Fig.6

Fig. 5 shows a square relationship. Note here that the graph on the left includes both positive
and negative values of x, while the example (Fig. 6) just shows the right side of the graph
representing only positive values. The example here is the relationship between the kinetic
energy EK of an object and its speed v (for which negative values would have no real-world
1
meaning) EK = mv 2 . This relationship is not linear: the line on the graph is curved, and it
2
shows that the kinetic energy increases more rapidly than the speed.

Exponential decay relationship: y ∝ e − x

Fig.7 Fig.8

Fig. 7 shows an exponential decay relationship. The graph slopes downwards, rapidly at first
and then slowly approaching the horizontal axis (asymptote). An example would be the
variation of activity A of a sample of radioactive nuclei with time t, A = Ao e − λt , shown in
Fig. 8. The vertical intercept shows the initial activity Ao of the sample.

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1
Inversely proportional relationship: y ∝
x

Fig. 10
Fig. 9
Fig. 9 shows an inversely proportional relationship (or an inverse relationship). Again, note
that the graph on the left shows both positive and negative values of x. An example is Boyle’s
Law, which shows the relationship between the volume V and pressure P of a fixed mass of
1
gas at constant temperature (Fig. 10) P ∝ . The inverse relationship means that, for
V
example, if the pressure is doubled then the volume is halved. Note that, as the pressure is
increased, the volume gets smaller and smaller but never reaches zero (it would if the
pressure were infinite but this is impossible). On the graph, therefore, the curve gets closer
and closer to the horizontal axis but never actually meets it. (The technical term for the line to
which a curve is tending is an asymptote.)

1
Inverse square relationship: y ∝
x2

Fig. 11 Fig.12

Fig. 11 shows an inverse square relationship. This is similar in shape to the inverse
relationship but the decrease towards the horizontal axis is rather steep in this case. An
example is the way that the intensity (or irradiance) of light I from a lamp decreases as you
move away from the lamp. Again, the curve approaches the horizontal axis but never meets
it. So, as you move away from a lamp, the light intensity falls quite steeply but theoretically
would never drop to zero, no matter how far you moved away.

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Sinusoidal relationship: y = sin x or y = cos x

Fig. 13 Fig. 14

Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 show the relationship between displacement x of an object and time t
when the object is undergoing simple harmonic oscillatory motion. Depending on the initial
position of the object, the variation of displacement can take either a sine or cosine function.

3.3 Significant features of graphs

When dealing with graphs, we should always consider whether the following features have
significance:
• Gradient
• Area under graph
• Value of intercepts (will not be covered here)

Gradient
The gradient of a graph at a point tells us the rate at which one variable is changing with
respect to the other variable.

y
If y varies linearly with x, then a straight line graph
(x2, y2) is obtained and the gradient is constant.

∆y
(x1, y1) The gradient is given by
∆x ∆y y 2 − y1
gradient
= =
∆x x2 − x1
x
Fig.
Fig. 15
1.4

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If the graph is a curve, the gradient at each point is

tangent
changing. To determine the gradient at a particular
point, a tangent line at that point would have to be
drawn as shown in Fig. 16.
The gradient of the graph at that point would then be
the gradient of the tangent line.
x
Fig. 16

Area under graph

y
y(x)

x
a b
Fig. 1.5
17
The area under a graph sometimes has a physical meaning. This can be determined either
through:
1. Integrating the mathematical function over the required range (integration is not a
requirement for H1 and H2 Physics)
2. Counting the number of squares under the graph

Significance of the features

The significance of the features mentioned depends on the equation that relates the physical
quantities represented on the graph.
For example, in Kinematics we learn the following relationships (with respect to time t)
between displacement x and velocity v and acceleration a.
dx dv
v= and a=
dt dt
From the equations, we know that the gradient of any point on the x-t or v-t graphs would
be the velocity or acceleration of the body respectively.
By rewriting the above equations in the following way,
dx
=
v
dt
⇒ =
dx v dt ⇒ ∫=
dx ∫ v dt ⇒ =
∆x ∫ v dt
We can see that the area under the v-t graph is the change in displacement of the body.
Similar, the area under the a-t graph would be the change in velocity of the body.

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Exercise 3

4.0

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0

Fig. 18
For the graph shown in Fig. 18, estimate
(a) the gradient of the graph at x = 1.0,

(b) the area under the graph from x = 0 to x = 2.0.

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3.6 Describing relationships in graphs

In Section 3.3, we looked at some common graphs that you might encounter in your course
of Physics. It is important to be able to sketch these relationships, as well as to be able to
recognize and describe them.

Increasing or decreasing graphs

The most basic thing to observe is whether the line is going up or going down.

‘as x increases,
y increases’

‘as x increases,
y decreases’

Fig. 19

Graphs with straight lines

• linear relationship • linear relationship

• as x increases, y increases • as x increases, y decreases
steadily steadily

Fig. 20

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Graphs with curves

• non-linear relationship • non-linear relationship

• as x increases, y increases • as x increases, y increases
at an increasing rate at a decreasing rate
Fig. 21

Proportional or just linear?

• straight line passing through • straight line with vertical

origin intercept
• (directly) proportional • linear relationship
relationship
Fig. 22

Indefinite increase or leveling off?

Fig. 23

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Some curves may increase indefinitely (Fig. 23a) while others will ‘level off’ or ‘tend
towards a minimum value’ (Fig. 23b) or ‘tend towards a maximum value’ (Fig. 23c). The
values that the graphs tend towards are known as ‘asymptotes’ of the graph.

Periodic graphs

Some graphs do not always just go up or just go

down. Fig. 24 shows a periodic relationship, where
the pattern repeats itself. The sine and cosine
graphs in Fig. 13 and Fig. 14 also show periodic
relationships.

Fig. 24

Exercise 4

Based on your observations of the graph in

Fig. 25, describe the relationship between the
variables x and y.

Fig. 25

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4 Trigonometry

4.1 Pythagorean Theorem

The Pythagorean theorem states that the sum of the square of the short sides of a right
triangle is equal to the square of its hypotenuse.

For the triangle in Fig. 26, c

2 2 2 a
a +b =
c

Hence we can always express the length of any sides of a

b
right triangle in terms of the lengths of the other sides:
Fig.
Fig.26
2.1
=
a c 2 − b2 =
b c 2 − a2 =
c a2 + b2

4.2 Sine and Cosine

Trigonometry, as its Greek and Latin roots suggest, is primarily the study of triangles.
Trigonometric functions are sometimes designated as circular functions and are used
widely in topics such as oscillations, waves and alternating currents.
There are three trigonometric functions that you will use on a regular basis in physics
problems: sine, cosine and tangent.
opposite, a

hypothenuse, c

adjacent, b
Fig. 27
Fig. 2.2

Consider an angle of a right triangle, designated by θ in Fig. 27. Designating the two
perpendicular side as opposite and adjacent to the angle θ. The sine and cosine are
then defined as the ratios
opposite adjacent
s in θ ≡ and c os θ ≡
hypothenuse hypothenuse
The ratio of sine to cosine is the tangent:
opposite sin θ
t an θ ≡ =
adjacent cos θ
The easy way to remember these trigonometry functions is “TOA-CAH-SOH”.

According to the Pythagorean theorem,

a2 + b2 =
c2
a2 b2
⇒ + 1
=
c2 c2
⇒ sin2 θ + cos2 θ =
1

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4.3 The Radian

The angle θ may be presented in radian 1. Fig. 28 shows a
circle of radius r and an arc of length s subtended by the
angle θ. r
s

The radian is defined as the ratio

s
θ≡
r
Since the circumference of the circle is 2π r , the angle
subtended by a complete circle is therefore 2π rad .
2π rad ≡ 360° Fig.
Fig.2.3
28

4.4 Laws of Sines and Cosines

Fig. 29a shows a triangle of arbitrary shape. We will now attempt to derive two important
relations connecting the lengths a, b and c of the three sides with the magnitudes of their
opposite angles A, B and C.
A A

c d b c d' b

B C B C
a a

Fig.
Fig.29a
2.4a Fig.2.4b
Fig. 29b

Fig. 29a shows the perpendicular drawn from vertex A to opposite side BC. Let this length
be d. It can be seen that
= sin B b sin C
d c=
sin B sin C
⇒ =
b c

Repeating for vertex B to opposite side AC in Fig. 29b, we obtain

= sin A a sin C
d' c=
sin A sin B
⇒ =
a b

The result is the law of sines:

sin A sin B sin C
= =
a b c

1 You should be very careful to set your scientific calculators to “radian” when doing most trigonometric computation.

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c d b

a'
B C
a
Fig.2.5
Fig. 30

Now in Fig. 30, length BC is divided into two segments of length a' and a − a' ,
respectively. Since a' = b cos C ,
a − a' =a − b cos C

Using d = b sin C and applying the Pythagorean theorem to the left-side right triangle,
c 2 = d 2 + ( a − a' ) = b 2 sin2 C + a 2 − 2ab cos C + b 2 cos2 C
2

Applying the identity sin2 θ + cos2 θ =

1 , we obtained the law of cosines:
c 2 = a 2 + b 2 − 2ab cos C

Exercise 5
A triangle ABC has length AB = 19 cm and BC = 3.0 cm . The angle at the vertex A is
37° . Determine length AC and the angles at vertices B and C of the triangle.
Sketch your triangle.

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5 Scalars & Vectors

Physics is a branch of natural science that aims to understand how the universe behaves.
Physicists set out to identify all fundamental laws 2 that are used to describe how our
world around us would behave in the future. Fundamental laws are universally accepted
within the scientific community through reproducible experimental observations and
quantitative measurements.

5.1 Scalars & Vectors

At the heart of all quantitative measurements are physical quantities. All physical
quantities are either scalar or vector. A scalar is described by a magnitude (or

numerical value, often with units) while a vector, represented by the notation A , A or
A , is described by both a magnitude and a direction.


Fig. 31 Raffles Institution main gate and Bishan Junction 8.

Fig. 31 shows the positions of RI main gate and Bishan Junction 8 (J8). The red arrow,
representing the displacement of J8 from our main gate, shows not just the straight line
distance of 760 m but also the direction.
However, it is impossible to arrive at J8 by foot simply by walking in a straight line as you
will walk right through houses or condominiums and cross the road illegally. According
to Google map, the distance (blue dots) you have to cover (could be shorter if you know
your way around) is 1.2 km.

Scalars Vectors

Form magnitude (units) magnitude (units) +

direction
Examples mass
distance displacement
speed velocity
temperature

2 Laws are usually encoded using mathematical statements while principles are not. Laws have no exceptions and are

unbreakable while principles have a tint of uncertainty, arising mainly from their lack of clear mathematical definition.

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5.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction

Just like a scalar, you can add or subtract as many vectors as you wish. The method of
adding (or subtracting) vectors is known as vector addition.
Consider the two vectors A and B as shown in Fig. 32. To add these two vectors, we will
use the triangle method whereby the vectors are arranged head-to-tail as shown.

A
B
A
+ B =
A+B
B
A

Fig.3.2
Fig. 32

Like scalars, vector addition is commutative, that is, the vectors can be added in any
convenient order (the alternative is shown by the dotted arrows). The resultant vector
is represented by a line with a double-arrowhead.
Fig. 33 shows the addition of three vectors A, B and C.

A
B
A
+ B + C =

A+B+C

Fig. 33
Fig. 3.3

Vectors can also be subtracted from one another. To evaluate A − B , for example, we
simply rewrite it as A + ( −B ) , that is, this is a vector sum of A and −B . This vector
subtraction is shown in Fig. 34.

−B
A−B

A
− B =
A

Fig.3.5
Fig. 34

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5.3 Change in Vector

Often, we may be asked to find the change in the vector. There are two ways to evaluate
the change depending on the mathematical form that you subcribe to.
Suppose we want to find the vector representing the change from A to B shown in
Fig. 32. These are presented in the table below.

Method 1 Method 2

Form A + ∆ =B ∆= B − A

Vector
Diagram A
B
∆
∆
B
−A

Fig. 35a Fig. 35b

5.4 Vector Resolution

The graphical method of adding vectors gives us a visual guide (very helpful as to the
approximate magnitude and direction of the resultant vector. However, to obtain higher
accuracy in problem solving, we need to make use of projections of vectors along
coordinate axes. These projections are called the components of the vector and the
method of obtaining its components is known as vector resolution.

To illustrate this, suppose a pencil in a room is illuminated by parallel beam of light from
two directions perpendicular to one another as shown in Fig. 36. The coordinate axes,
along which the projections lie, is the two perpendicular sides of the wall. The shadows
cast by the pencil is the projections of the pencil in those directions.

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wall
shadow

shadow

parallel beam of light

Fig.
Fig. 3.6
36

To resolve a vector S (of magnitude S), we take the following steps:

1. Choose two perpendicular directions (denoted as x- and y-direction) in which to
resolve the vector. 3
2. Draw a right triangle such that the original vector is the hypotenuse while the sides
are in the x-y directions.
3. Indicate any known angle as θ if none has been defined.
4. The component of the vector adjacent to the angle θ is Sx = S cos θ and that opposite
to the angle θ is Sy = S sin θ .

 
S S
y

Sy = S sin θ
S S

θ θ
Sx = S cos θ
 
Fig.
Fig. 37
3.7

Conversely, given that Sx and Sy are the components of a vector, we have

Sy
=
S Sx2 + Sy2 and tan θ =
Sx
where the angle θ is adjacent to Sx .

3 This choice is important as it dictates the ease with which the problem can be solved.

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Exercise 6
A block of mass m is placed on a smooth slope inclined at
an angle θ to the horizontal as shown in the figure.
Determine an expression for the acceleration of the block.
[Hint: Draw the forces acting on the block.]

Exercise 7

F1 = 60 N

60°
F2 = 120 N
F2 = 30 N

The forces acting on the object is given in the figure above. Determine the resultant force
using vector resolution.

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