UNIT 4 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

What is an Operating System?

An Operating System (OS) is a software that acts as an interface between

computer hardware components and the user. Every computer system must have at
least one operating system to run other programs. Applications like Browsers, MS
Office, Notepad Games, etc., need some environment to run and perform its tasks.
The OS helps you to communicate with the computer without knowing how to
speak the computer’s language. It is not possible for the user to use any computer
or mobile device without having an operating system.

History Of OS

 Operating systems were first developed in the late 1950s to manage tape
storage
 The General Motors Research Lab implemented the first OS in the early
1950s for their IBM 701
 In the mid-1960s, operating systems started to use disks
 In the late 1960s, the first version of the Unix OS was developed
 The first OS built by Microsoft was DOS. It was built in 1981 by purchasing
the 86-DOS software from a Seattle company
 The present-day popular OS Windows first came to existence in 1985 when
a GUI was created and paired with MS-DOS.
Important functions of an operating System:
1. Security –
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar
other techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user
data.

2. Control over system performance –

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the
response time between service requests and system response to having a
complete view of the system health. This can help improve performance by
providing important information needed to troubleshoot problems.

3. Job accounting –
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and
users, this information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user
or group of users.

4. Error detecting aids –

The operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and
avoid the malfunctioning of a computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users –

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers,
assemblers, and other software to the various users of the computer systems.

6. Memory Management –
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main
memory is made up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or
word is assigned a certain address. Main memory is fast storage and it can be
accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be executed, it should be first
loaded in the main memory. An Operating System performs the following
activities for memory management:
It keeps track of primary memory, i.e., which bytes of memory are used by
which user program. The memory addresses that have already been allocated
and the memory addresses of the memory that has not yet been used. In
multiprogramming, the OS decides the order in which processes are granted
access to memory, and for how long. It Allocates the memory to a process
when the process requests it and deallocates the memory when the process has
 terminated or is performing an I/O operation.

7. Processor Management –
In a multi-programming environment, the OS decides the order in which
processes have access to the processor, and how much processing time each
process has. This function of OS is called process scheduling. An Operating
System performs the following activities for processor management.
8. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It
performs the following activities for device management. Keeps track of all
devices connected to the system. designates a program responsible for every
device known as the Input/Output controller. Decides which process gets
access to a certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in an effective
and efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.

9. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and
usage. These directories may contain other directories and other files. An
Operating System carries out the following file management activities. It
keeps track of where information is stored, user access settings and status of
every file, and more… These facilities are collectively known as the file
system.
Moreover, Operating System also provides certain services to the computer
system in one form or the other.
The Operating System provides certain services to the users which can be listed
in the following manner:
1. Program Execution: The Operating System is responsible for the execution
of all types of programs whether it be user programs or system programs. The
Operating System utilizes various resources available for the efficient running
of all types of functionalities.
2. Handling Input/Output Operations: The Operating System is responsible
for handling all sorts of inputs, i.e, from the keyboard, mouse, desktop, etc.
The Operating System does all interfacing in the most appropriate manner
regarding all kinds of Inputs and Outputs.
For example, there is a difference in the nature of all types of peripheral
devices such as mice or keyboards, the Operating System is responsible for
handling data between them.
3. Manipulation of File System: The Operating System is responsible for
making decisions regarding the storage of all types of data or files, i.e, floppy
 disk/hard disk/pen drive, etc. The Operating System decides how the data
should be manipulated and stored.
4. Error Detection and Handling: The Operating System is responsible for the
detection of any type of error or bugs that can occur while any task. The well-
secured OS sometimes also acts as a countermeasure for preventing any sort
of breach to the Computer System from any external source and probably
handling them.
5. Resource Allocation: The Operating System ensures the proper use of all the
resources available by deciding which resource to be used by whom for how
much time. All the decisions are taken by the Operating System.
6. Accounting: The Operating System tracks an account of all the functionalities
taking place in the computer system at a time. All the details such as the types
of errors that occurred are recorded by the Operating System.
7. Information and Resource Protection: The Operating System is responsible
for using all the information and resources available on the machine in the
most protected way. The Operating System must foil an attempt from any
external resource to hamper any sort of data or information.
All these services are ensured by the Operating System for the convenience of the
users to make the programming task easier. All different kinds of Operating
systems more or less provide the same services.

Types of Operating Systems

An Operating System performs all the basic tasks like managing files, processes,
and memory. Thus operating system acts as the manager of all the resources,
i.e. resource manager. Thus, the operating system becomes an interface between
user and machine.
Types of Operating Systems: Some widely used operating systems are as
follows-
1. Batch Operating System –
This type of operating system does not interact with the computer directly.
There is an operator which takes similar jobs having the same requirement
and group them into batches. It is the responsibility of the operator to sort
jobs with similar nee
2. Advantages of Batch Operating System:
 It is very difficult to guess or know the time required for any job to complete.
Processors of the batch systems know how long the job would be when it is in
queue
 Multiple users can share the batch systems
 The idle time for the batch system is very less
 It is easy to manage large work repeatedly in batch systems
Disadvantages of Batch Operating System:
 The computer operators should be well known with batch systems
 Batch systems are hard to debug
 It is sometimes costly
 The other jobs will have to wait for an unknown time if any job fails
Examples of Batch based Operating System: Payroll System, Bank Statements,
etc.

2. Time-Sharing Operating Systems –

Each task is given some time to execute so that all the tasks work smoothly. Each
user gets the time of CPU as they use a single system. These systems are also
known as Multitasking Systems. The task can be from a single user or different
users also. The time that each task gets to execute is called quantum. After this
time interval is over OS switches over to the next task.

Advantages of Time-Sharing OS:

 Each task gets an equal opportunity
 Fewer chances of duplication of software
 CPU idle time can be reduced
Disadvantages of Time-Sharing OS:
 Reliability problem
 One must have to take care of the security and integrity of user programs and
data
 Data communication problem
Examples of Time-Sharing OSs are: Multics, Unix, etc.
3. Distributed Operating System –
These types of the operating system is a recent advancement in the world of
computer technology and are being widely accepted all over the world and, that
too, with a great pace. Various autonomous interconnected computers
communicate with each other using a shared communication network.
Independent systems possess their own memory unit and CPU. These are referred
to as loosely coupled systems or distributed systems. These system’s processors
differ in size and function. The major benefit of working with these types of the
operating system is that it is always possible that one user can access the files or
software which are not actually present on his system but some other system
connected within this network i.e., remote access is enabled within the devices
connected in that network.

Advantages of Distributed Operating System:

 Failure of one will not affect the other network communication, as all systems
are independent from each other
 Electronic mail increases the data exchange speed
 Since resources are being shared, computation is highly fast and durable
 Load on host computer reduces
 These systems are easily scalable as many systems can be easily added to the
network
 Delay in data processing reduces
Disadvantages of Distributed Operating System:
 Failure of the main network will stop the entire communication
 To establish distributed systems the language which is used are not well
defined yet
 These types of systems are not readily available as they are very expensive.
Not only that the underlying software is highly complex and not understood
well yet
Examples of Distributed Operating System are- LOCUS, etc.
4. Network Operating System –
These systems run on a server and provide the capability to manage data, users,
groups, security, applications, and other networking functions. These types of
operating systems allow shared access of files, printers, security, applications,
and other networking functions over a small private network. One more important
aspect of Network Operating Systems is that all the users are well aware of the
underlying configuration, of all other users within the network, their individual
connections, etc. and that’s why these computers are popularly known as tightly
coupled systems.

Advantages of Network Operating System:

 Highly stable centralized servers
 Security concerns are handled through servers
 New technologies and hardware up-gradation are easily integrated into the
system
 Server access is possible remotely from different locations and types of
systems
Disadvantages of Network Operating System:
 Servers are costly
 User has to depend on a central location for most operations
 Maintenance and updates are required regularly
Examples of Network Operating System are: Microsoft Windows Server 2003,
Microsoft Windows Server 2008, UNIX, Linux, Mac OS X, Novell NetWare, and
BSD, etc.
5. Real-Time Operating System –
These types of OSs serve real-time systems. The time interval required to process
and respond to inputs is very small. This time interval is called response time.
Real-time systems are used when there are time requirements that are very strict
like missile systems, air traffic control systems, robots, etc.
Two types of Real-Time Operating System which are as follows:
 Hard Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are meant for applications where time constraints are very strict
and even the shortest possible delay is not acceptable. These systems are built
for saving life like automatic parachutes or airbags which are required to be
readily available in case of any accident. Virtual memory is rarely found in
these systems.
 Soft Real-Time Systems:
These OSs are for applications where for time-constraint is less strict.

Advantages of RTOS:
 Maximum Consumption: Maximum utilization of devices and system, thus
more output from all the resources
 Task Shifting: The time assigned for shifting tasks in these systems are very
less. For example, in older systems, it takes about 10 microseconds in shifting
one task to another, and in the latest systems, it takes 3 microseconds.
 Focus on Application: Focus on running applications and less importance to
applications which are in the queue.
 Real-time operating system in the embedded system: Since the size of
programs are small, RTOS can also be used in embedded systems like in
transport and others.
 Error Free: These types of systems are error-free.
 Memory Allocation: Memory allocation is best managed in these types of
systems.
Disadvantages of RTOS:
 Limited Tasks: Very few tasks run at the same time and their concentration is
very less on few applications to avoid errors.
 Use heavy system resources: Sometimes the system resources are not so
good and they are expensive as well.
 Complex Algorithms: The algorithms are very complex and difficult for the
designer to write on.
 Device driver and interrupt signals: It needs specific device drivers and
interrupts signals to respond earliest to interrupts.
 Thread Priority: It is not good to set thread priority as these systems are very
less prone to switching tasks.
Examples of Real-Time Operating Systems are: Scientific experiments,
medical imaging systems, industrial control systems, weapon systems, robots, air
traffic control systems, etc.
Components of Operating System

An Operating system is an interface between users and the hardware of a

computer system. It is a system software that is viewed as an organized collection
of software consisting of procedures and functions, providing an environment for
the execution of programs. The operating system manages resources of system
software and computer hardware resources. It allows computing resources to be
used in an efficient way. Programs interact with computer hardware with the help
of operating system. A user can interact with the operating system by making
system calls or using OS commands.
Important Components of the Operating System:
 Process management
 Files management
 Command Interpreter
 System calls
 Signals
 Network management
 Security management
 I/O device management
 Secondary storage management
 Main memory management

Process Management :

A process is a program in execution. It consists of the followings:

 Executable program
 Program’s data
 Stack and stack pointer
 Program counter and other CPU registers
 Details of opened files
A process can be suspended temporarily and the execution of another process can
be taken up. A suspended process can be restarted later. Before suspending a
process, its details are saved in a table called the process table so that it can be
executed later on. An operating system supports two system calls to manage
processes Create and Kill –
 Create a system call used to create a new process.
 Kill system call used to delete an existing process.
A process can create a number of child processes. Processes can communicate
among themselves either using shared memory or by message-passing
techniques. Two processes running on two different computers can communicate
by sending messages over a network.

Files Management :

Files are used for long-term storage. Files are used for both input and output.
Every operating system provides a file management service. This file
management service can also be treated as an abstraction as it hides the
information about the disks from the user. The operating system also provides a
system call for file management. The system call for file management includes –
 File creation
 File deletion
 Read and Write operations
Files are stored in a directory. System calls provide to put a file in a directory or
to remove a file from a directory. Files in the system are protected to maintain the
privacy of the user. Below shows the Hierarchical File Structure directory.

Command Interpreter :

There are several ways for users to interface with the operating system. One of
the approaches to user interaction with the operating system is through
commands. Command interpreter provides a command-line interface. It allows
the user to enter a command on the command line prompt (cmd). The command
interpreter accepts and executes the commands entered by a user. For example, a
shell is a command interpreter under UNIX. The commands to be executed are
implemented in two ways:
 The command interpreter itself contains code to be executed.
 The command is implemented through a system file. The necessary system file
is loaded into memory and executed.

System Calls :

System calls provide an interface to the services made by an operating system.

The user interacts with the operating system programs through System calls.
These calls are normally made available as library functions in high-level
languages such as C, Java, Python etc. It provides a level of abstraction as the
user is not aware of the implementation or execution of the call made. Details of
the operating system is hidden from the user. Different hardware and software
services can be availed through system calls.
System calls are available for the following operations:
 Process Management
 Memory Management
 File Operations
 Input / Output Operations

Signals :

Signals are used in the operating systems to notify a process that a particular
event has occurred. Signals are the software or hardware interrupts that suspend
the current execution of the task. Signals are also used for inter-process
communication. A signal follows the following pattern :
 A signal is generated by the occurrence of a particular event it can be the
clicking of the mouse, the execution of the program successfully or an error
notifying, etc.
 A generated signal is delivered to a process for further execution.
 Once delivered, the signal must be handled.
 A signal can be synchronous and asynchronous which is handled by a default
handler or by the user-defined handler.
The signal causes temporarily suspends the current task it was processing, saves
its registers on the stack, and starts running a special signal handling procedure,
where the signal is assigned to it.
Network Management :

In today’s digital world, the complexity of networks and services has created
modern challenges for IT professionals and users. Network management is a set
of processes and procedures that help organizations to optimize their computer
networks. Mainly, it ensures that users have the best possible experience while
using network applications and services.
Network management is a fundamental concept of computer networks. Network
Management Systems is a software application that provides network
administrators with information on components in their networks. It ensures the
quality of service and availability of network resources. It also examines the
operations of a network, reconstructs its network configuration, modifies it for
improving performance of tasks.

Security Management:

The security mechanisms in an operating system ensure that authorized programs

have access to resources, and unauthorized programs have no access to restricted
resources. Security management refers to the various processes where the user
changes the file, memory, CPU, and other hardware resources that should have
authorization from the operating system.

I/O Device Management :

The I/O device management component is an I/O manager that hides the details
of hardware devices and manages the main memory for devices using cache and
spooling. This component provides a buffer cache and general device driver code
that allows the system to manage the main memory and the hardware devices
connected to it. It also provides and manages custom drivers for particular
hardware devices.
The purpose of the I/O system is to hide the details of hardware devices from the
application programmer. An I/O device management component allows highly
efficient resource utilization while minimizing errors and making programming
easy on the entire range of devices available in their systems.
Secondary Storage Management :

Broadly, the secondary storage area is any space, where data is stored
permanently and the user can retrieve it easily. Your computer’s hard drive is the
primary location for your files and programs. Other spaces, such as CD-
ROM/DVD drives, flash memory cards, and networked devices, also provide
secondary storage for data on the computer. The computer’s main memory
(RAM) is a volatile storage device in which all programs reside, it provides only
temporary storage space for performing tasks. Secondary storage refers to the
media devices other than RAM (e.g. CDs, DVDs, or hard disks) that provide
additional space for permanent storing of data and software programs which is
also called non-volatile storage.

Main memory management :

Main memory is a flexible and volatile type of storage device. It is a large

sequence of bytes and addresses used to store volatile data. Main memory is also
called Random Access Memory (RAM), which is the fastest computer storage
available on PCs. It is costly and low in terms of storage as compared to
secondary storage devices. Whenever computer programs are executed, it is
temporarily stored in the main memory for execution. Later, the user can
permanently store the data or program in the secondary storage device.
DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING:

Human beings are the only creatures on the earth who are able to communicate with
each other through the medium of language. But humans take this gift to another extent.
Distance, time, and physical existence of the person don’t matter in communication
these days because they build a communication system through which they can
communicate or share data like images, videos, text, files, etc with their loved ones
anytime anywhere. Communication is defined as a process in which more than one
computer transfers information, instructions to each other and for sharing resources. Or
in other words, communication is a process or act in which we can send or receive data.
A network of computers is defined as an interconnected collection of autonomous
computers. Autonomous means no computer can start, stop or control another
computer.

Components of Data Communication

A communication system is made up of the following components:

1. Message: A message is a piece of information that is to be transmitted from one
person to another. It could be a text file, an audio file, a video file, etc.
2. Sender: It is simply a device that sends data messages. It can be a computer,
mobile, telephone, laptop, video camera, or workstation, etc.
3. Receiver: It is a device that receives messages. It can be a computer, telephone
mobile, workstation, etc.
4. Transmission Medium / Communication Channels: Communication channels are
the medium that connect two or more workstations. Workstations can be connected
by either wired media or wireless media.
5. Set of rules (Protocol): When someone sends the data (The sender), it should be
understandable to the receiver also otherwise it is meaningless. For example, Sonali
sends a message to Chetan. If Sonali writes in Hindi and Chetan cannot understand
Hindi, it is a meaningless conversation.

Therefore, there are some set of rules (protocols) that is followed by every computer
connected to the internet and they are:
 TCP(Transmission Control Protocol): It is responsible for dividing messages into
packets on the source computer and reassembling the received packet at the
destination or recipient computer. It also makes sure that the packets have the
information about the source of the message data, the destination of the message
data, the sequence in which the message data should be re-assembled, and checks if
the message has been sent correctly to the specific destination.
 IP(Internet Protocol): Do You ever wonder how does computer determine which
packet belongs to which device. What happens if the message you sent to your
friend is received by your father? Scary Right. Well! IP is responsible for handling
the address of the destination computer so that each packet is sent to its proper
destination.

Type of data communication

As we know that data communication is communication in which we can send or

receive data from one device to another. The data communication is divided into three
types:
1. Simplex Communication: It is one-way communication or we can say that
unidirectional communication in which one device only receives and another device
only sends data and devices uses their entire capacity in transmission. For example,
IoT, entering data using a keyboard, listing music using a speaker, etc.
2. Half Duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it
is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data but not at the same time. When one device is sending data then another device
is only receiving and vice-versa. For example, walkie-talkie.
3. Full-duplex communication: It is a two-way communication or we can say that it
is a bidirectional communication in which both the devices can send and receive
data at the same time. For example, mobile phones, landlines, etc.

Communication Channels

Communication channels are the medium that connects two or more workstations.
Workstations can be connected by either wired media or wireless media. It is also
known as a transmission medium. The transmission medium or channel is a link that
carries messages between two or more devices. We can group the communication
media into two categories:
 Guided media transmission
 Unguided media transmission
1. Guided Media: In this transmission medium, the physical link is created using wires
or cables between two or more computers or devices, and then the data is transmitted
using these cables in terms of signals. Guided media transmission of the following
types:

1. Twisted pair cable: It is the most common form of wire used in communication. In a
twisted-pair cable, two identical wires are wrapped together in a double helix. The
twisting of the wire reduces the crosstalk. It is known as the leaking of a signal from
one wire to another due to which signal can corrupt and can cause network errors. The
twisting protects the wire from internal crosstalk as well as external forms of signal
interference. Types of Twisted Pair Cable :
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): It is used in computers and telephones widely. As
the name suggests, there is no external shielding so it does not protects from
external interference. It is cheaper than STP.
 Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): It offers greater protection from crosstalk due to
shield. Due to shielding, it protects from external interference. It is heavier and
costlier as compare to UTP.
2. Coaxial Cable: It consists of a solid wire core that is surrounded by one or more foil
or wire shields. The inner core of the coaxial cable carries the signal and the outer
shield provides the ground. It is widely used for television signals and also used by
large corporations in building security systems. Data transmission of this cable is better
but expensive as compared to twisted pair.
3. Optical fibers: Optical fiber is an important technology. It transmits large amounts
of data at very high speeds due to which it is widely used in internet cables. It carries
data as a light that travels inside a thin glass fiber. The fiber optic cable is made up of
three pieces:
1. Core: Core is the piece through which light travels. It is generally created using
glass or plastic.
2. Cladding: It is the covering of the core and reflects the light back to the core.
3. Sheath: It is the protective covering that protects fiber cable from the environment.

Unguided Media: The unguided transmission media is a transmission mode in which

the signals are propagated from one device to another device wirelessly. Signals can
wave through the air, water, or vacuum. It is generally used to transmit signals in all
directions. Unguided Media is further divided into various parts :

1. Microwave: Microwave offers communication without the use of cables. Microwave

signals are just like radio and television signals. It is used in long-distance
communication. Microwave transmission consists of a transmitter, receiver, and
atmosphere. In microwave communication, there are parabolic antennas that are
mounted on the towers to send a beam to another antenna. The higher the tower, the
greater the range.
2. Radio wave: When communication is carried out by radio frequencies, then it is
termed radio waves transmission. It offers mobility. It is consists of the transmitter and
the receiver. Both use antennas to radiate and capture the radio signal.
3. Infrared: It is short-distance communication and can pass through any object. It is
generally used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, etc.
Network Devices: Network devices, also known as networking hardware, are physical
devices that allow hardware on a computer network to communicate and interact with
one another. For example Repeater, Hub, Bridge, Switch, Routers, Gateway, router, and
NIC, etc.

1. Repeater – A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its job is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or corrupted to
extend the length to which the signal can be transmitted over the same network. An
important point to be noted about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When
the signal becomes weak, they copy it bit by bit and regenerate it at its star topology
connectors connecting if original strength. It is a 2-port device.
2. Hub – A hub is a basically multi-port repeater. A hub connects multiple wires
coming from different branches, for example, the connector in star topology which
connects different stations. Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all
connected devices. In other words, the collision domain of all hosts connected through
Hub remains one. Also, they do not have the intelligence to find out the best path for
data packets which leads to inefficiencies and wastage.
Types of Hub
 Active Hub:- These are the hubs that have their power supply and can clean, boost,
and relay the signal along with the network. It serves both as a repeater as well as a
wiring center. These are used to extend the maximum distance between nodes.
 Passive Hub:- These are the hubs that collect wiring from nodes and power supply
from the active hub. These hubs relay signals onto the network without cleaning and
boosting them and can’t be used to extend the distance between nodes.
 Intelligent Hub:- It works like an active hub and includes remote management
capabilities. They also provide flexible data rates to network devices. It also enables
an administrator to monitor the traffic passing through the hub and to configure each
port in the hub.
3. Bridge – A bridge operates at the data link layer. A bridge is a repeater, with add on
the functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC addresses of the source and
destination. It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
It has a single input and single output port, thus making it a 2 port device.
Types of Bridges
 Transparent Bridges:- These are the bridge in which the stations are completely
unaware of the bridge’s existence i.e. whether or not a bridge is added or deleted
from the network, reconfiguration of the stations is unnecessary. These bridges
make use of two processes i.e. bridge forwarding and bridge learning.
 Source Routing Bridges:- In these bridges, routing operation is performed by the
source station and the frame specifies which route to follow. The host can discover
the frame by sending a special frame called the discovery frame, which spreads
through the entire network using all possible paths to the destination.
4. Switch – A switch is a multiport bridge with a buffer and a design that can boost its
efficiency(a large number of ports imply less traffic) and performance. A switch is a
data link layer device. The switch can perform error checking before forwarding data,
which makes it very efficient as it does not forward packets that have errors and
forward good packets selectively to the correct port only. In other words, the switch
divides the collision domain of hosts, but the broadcast domain remains the same.

5. Routers – A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP
addresses. The router is mainly a Network Layer device. Routers normally connect
LANs and WANs and have a dynamically updating routing table based on which they
make decisions on routing the data packets. The router divides the broadcast domains of
hosts connected through it.

6. Gateway – A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks

that may work upon different networking models. They work as messenger agents that
take data from one system, interpret it, and transfer it to another system. Gateways are
also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer. Gateways are
generally more complex than switches or routers. A gateway is also called a protocol
converter.
7. Router – It is also known as the bridging router is a device that combines features of
both bridge and router. It can work either at the data link layer or a network layer.
Working as a router, it is capable of routing packets across networks and working as the
bridge, it is capable of filtering local area network traffic.
8. NIC – NIC or network interface card is a network adapter that is used to connect the
computer to the network. It is installed in the computer to establish a LAN. It has a
unique id that is written on the chip, and it has a connector to connect the cable to it.
The cable acts as an interface between the computer and the router or modem. NIC card
is a layer 2 device which means that Is works on both the physical and data link layers
of the network model.

What is a Computer Network?

A Computer Network is a group of two or more interconnected computer systems
that use common connection protocols for sharing various resources and files. You
can establish a computer network connection using either cable or wireless media.
Every network involves hardware and software that connects computers and tools.
What is PAN (Personal Area Network)?
PAN (Personal Area Network) is a computer network formed around a person. It
generally consists of a computer, mobile, or personal digital assistant. PAN can be
used for establishing communication among these personal devices for connecting to
a digital network and the internet.
Characteristics of PAN
Below are the main characteristics of PAN:

 It is mostly personal devices network equipped within a limited area.

 Allows you to handle the interconnection of IT devices at the surrounding of a
single user.
 PAN includes mobile devices, tablet, and laptop.
 It can be wirelessly connected to the internet called WPAN.
 Appliances use for PAN: cordless mice, keyboards, and Bluetooth systems.

Advantages of PAN
Here are the important pros/benefits of PAN network:

 PAN networks are relatively secure and safe

 It offers only short-range solution up to ten meters
 Strictly restricted to a small area

Disadvantages of PAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of using PAN network:

 It may establish a bad connection to other networks at the same radio bands.
 Distance limits.
What is a LAN (Local Area Network)?
A Local Area Network (LAN) is a group of computer and peripheral devices which
are connected in a limited area such as school, laboratory, home, and office building.
It is a widely useful network for sharing resources like files, printers, games, and other
application. The simplest type of LAN network is to connect computers and a printer
in someone’s home or office. In general, LAN will be used as one type of
transmission medium. It is a network which consists of less than 5000 interconnected
devices across several buildings.

Local Area Network (LAN)

Characteristics of LAN
Here are the important characteristics of a LAN network:

 It is a private network, so an outside regulatory body never controls it.

 LAN operates at a relatively higher speed compared to other WAN systems.
 There are various kinds of media access control methods like token ring and
ethernet.

Advantages of LAN
Here are the pros/benefits of LAN:
  Computer resources like hard-disks, DVD-ROM, and printers can share local
area networks. This significantly reduces the cost of hardware purchases.
 You can use the same software over the network instead of purchasing the
licensed software for each client in the network.
 Data of all network users can be stored on a single hard disk of the server
computer.
 You can easily transfer data and messages over networked computers.
 It will be easy to manage data at only one place, which makes data more
secure.
 Local Area Network offers the facility to share a single internet connection
among all the LAN users.

Disadvantages of LAN
Here are the cons/drawbacks of LAN:

 LAN will indeed save cost because of shared computer resources, but the initial
cost of installing Local Area Networks is quite high.
 The LAN admin can check personal data files of every LAN user, so it does not
offer good privacy.
 Unauthorized users can access critical data of an organization in case LAN
admin is not able to secure centralized data repository.
 Local Area Network requires a constant LAN administration as there are issues
related to software setup and hardware failures

What is WAN (Wide Area Network)?

WAN (Wide Area Network) is another important computer network that which is
spread across a large geographical area. WAN network system could be a connection
of a LAN which connects with other LAN’s using telephone lines and radio waves. It
is mostly limited to an enterprise or an organization.
 Wide Area Network (WAN)
Characteristics of WAN
Below are the characteristics of WAN:

 The software files will be shared among all the users; therefore, all can access
to the latest files.
  Any organization can form its global integrated network using WAN.

Advantages of WAN
Here are the benefits/pros of WAN:

 WAN helps you to cover a larger geographical area. Therefore business offices
situated at longer distances can easily communicate.
 Contains devices like mobile phones, laptop, tablet, computers, gaming
consoles, etc.
 WLAN connections work using radio transmitters and receivers built into client
devices.

Disadvantages of WAN
Here are the drawbacks/cons of WAN network:

 The initial setup cost of investment is very high.

 It is difficult to maintain the WAN network. You need skilled technicians and
network administrators.
 There are more errors and issues because of the wide coverage and the use of
different technologies.
 It requires more time to resolve issues because of the involvement of multiple
wired and wireless technologies.
 Offers lower security compared to other types of network in computer.

Also Check: LAN vs WAN: What’s the Difference?

What is MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)?

A Metropolitan Area Network or MAN is consisting of a computer network across
an entire city, college campus, or a small region. This type of network is large than a
LAN, which is mostly limited to a single building or site. Depending upon the type of
configuration, this type of network allows you to cover an area from several miles to
tens of miles.
 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
Characteristics of MAN
Here are important characteristics of the MAN network:

 It mostly covers towns and cities in a maximum 50 km range

 Mostly used medium is optical fibers, cables
 Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications.

Advantages of MAN
Here are the pros/benefits of MAN network:

 It offers fast communication using high-speed carriers, like fiber optic cables.
 It provides excellent support for an extensive size network and greater access to
WANs.
 The dual bus in MAN network provides support to transmit data in both
directions concurrently.
 A MAN network mostly includes some areas of a city or an entire city.

Disadvantages of MAN
Here are drawbacks/cons of using the MAN network:

 You need more cable to establish MAN connection from one place to another.
 In MAN network it is tough to make the system secure from hackers
Other Types of Computer Networks
Apart from above mentioned computer networks, here are some other important types
of networks:

 WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network)

 Storage Area Network
 System Area Network
 Home Area Network
 POLAN- Passive Optical LAN
 Enterprise private network
 Campus Area Network
 Virtual Area Network

Let’s see all these different types of networks in detail:

1) WLAN
WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) helps you to link single or multiple devices
using wireless communication within a limited area like home, school, or office
building. It gives users an ability to move around within a local coverage area which
may be connected to the network. Today most modern day’s WLAN systems are
based on IEEE 802.11 standards.

2) Storage-Area Network (SAN)

A Storage Area Network is a type of network which allows consolidated, block-level
data storage. It is mainly used to make storage devices, like disk arrays, optical
jukeboxes, and tape libraries.

3) System-Area Network
System Area Network is used for a local network. It offers high-speed connection in
server-to-server and processor-to-processor applications. The computers connected on
a SAN network operate as a single system at quite high speed.

4) Passive Optical Local Area Network

POLAN is a networking technology which helps you to integrate into structured
cabling. It allows you to resolve the issues of supporting Ethernet protocols and
network apps.
POLAN allows you to use optical splitter which helps you to separate an optical
signal from a single-mode optical fiber. It converts this single signal into multiple
signals.

5) Home Area Network (HAN):

A Home Area Network is always built using two or more interconnected computers to
form a local area network (LAN) within the home. For example, in the United States,
about 15 million homes have more than one computer.

These types of network connections help computer owners to interconnect with

multiple computers. This network allows sharing files, programs, printers, and other
peripherals.

6) Enterprise Private Network :

Enterprise private network (EPN) networks are build and owned by businesses that
want to securely connect numerous locations in order to share various computer
resources.

7) Campus Area Network (CAN):

A Campus Area Network is made up of an interconnection of LANs within a specific
geographical area. For example, a university campus can be linked with a variety of
campus buildings to connect all the academic departments.

8) Virtual Private Network:

A VPN is a private network which uses a public network to connect remote sites or
users together. The VPN network uses “virtual” connections routed through the
internet from the enterprise’s private network or a third-party VPN service to the
remote site.
What is a Web Browser?
A web browser is application software that can process and display a web page on the internet.
The web browser is capable to make a request for web services and documents to web server. It
acts an interface between the server and the client. As web browser is software, thus it is to be
installed on the client computer and used to surf the internet for websites and web pages.
Popular examples of web browsers include Google Chrome, Microsoft Internet Explorer,
Microsoft Edge, Mozilla Firefox, Opera Mini, etc.

What is a Web Server?

A web server is a dedicated computer that sends web based documents to the client’s computer
when request through the web browser. A web server accepts HTTP request from the client’s
browser, processes it to find the required document, and then sends a suitable response to client
machine.
A web server is a basically a set of hardware and software whose primary function is to serve
web-based material through the internet on demand.

Difference between Web Browser and Web Server

The following table highlights the important differences between a Web Browser and a
Web Server −

Factor Web Browser Web Server

Purpose Web Browser is software which Web server is a software which

is used to browse and display provides these documents when
pages available over internet. requested by web browsers.

Function A web browser sends request Web server sees and approves those
to server for web based requests made by web browsers and
documents and services. sends the document in response

Process Web browsers send HTTP Web servers receive HTTP Request
Request and receive HTTP and send HTTP Response.
Response

Processing Web browser has no Web servers follow three major

Model processing model. processing models: process based,
thread based or hybrid.

Data Storage Web browsers stores user data Web servers provide an area to store
in cookies in local machine. the website.

Installation Web Browser is installed on Web servers can be installed anywhere

 user's machine. but it need to be on a network or on
local computer.

Acts as Web browser acts as an Web servers act as the sender of web
interface between the web resources like web pages.
server and client.

Responsibility Web browser is responsible to Web server is responsible for hosting

request for a website or websites, processing web requests, and
webpage located on the sending the demanded document to the
internet. client.

Example Examples of web browsers Apache Server is an example of a web

include Google Chrome, server.
Internet explorer, Mozilla
Firefox, etc.

WHAT IS INTERNET:

Internet is the foremost important tool and the prominent resource that is being
used by almost every person across the globe. It connects millions of computers,
webpages, websites, and servers. Using the internet we can send emails, photos,
videos, messages to our loved ones. Or in other words, the internet is a widespread
interconnected network of computers and electronics devices(that support internet).
It creates a communication medium to share and get information online. If your
device is connected to the Internet then only you will be able to access all the
applications, websites, social media apps, and many more services. Internet
nowadays is considered as the fastest medium for sending and receiving
information.

Origin Of Internet: The internet came in the year 1960 with the creation of the
first working model called ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency). It
allowed multiple computers to work on a single network that was their biggest
achievement at that time. ARPANET use packet switching to communicate
multiple computer systems under a single network. In October 1969, using
ARPANET first message was transferred from one computer to another. After that
technology continues to grow.

How is the Internet set up?

The internet is set up with the help of physical optical fiber data transmission
cables or copper wires and various other networking mediums like LAN, WAN,
MAN, etc. For accessing the Internet even the 2g, 3g, and 4g services and the wifi
require these physical cable setup to access the Internet. There is an authority
named ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers) located in
the USA which manages the Internet and protocols related to it like IP addresses.

Difference between Worldwide Web and Internet

The difference between the world wide web and the internet are:

 All the web pages and web documents are stored there on the World wide
web and to find all that stuff you will have a specific URL for each website.
Whereas the internet is a global network of computers that is accessed by the
World wide web.
 World wide web is a service whereas the internet is an infrastructure.
 World wide web is a subset of the internet whereas the internet is the
superset of the world wide web.
 World wide web is software-oriented whereas the internet is hardware-
oriented.
 World wide web uses HTTP whereas the internet uses IP addresses.
 The Internet can be considered as a Library whereas all the kinds of stuff
like books from different topics present over there can be considered as
World wide web.

Uses of the Internet

Some of the important usages of the internet are:

1. Online Businesses (E-commerce): Online shopping websites have made

our life easier, e-commerce sites like Amazon, Flipkart, Myntra are
providing very spectacular services with just one click and this is a great use
of the Internet.
2. Cashless transactions: All the merchandising companies are offering
services to their customers to pay the bills of the products online via various
digital payment apps like Paytm, Google pay, etc. UPI payment gateway is
 also increasing day by day. Digital payment industries are growing at a rate
of 50% every year too because of the INTERNET.
3. Education: It is the internet facility that provides a whole bunch of
educational material to everyone through any server across the web. Those
who are unable to attend physical classes can choose any course from the
internet and can have the point-to-point knowledge of it just by sitting at
home. High-class faculties are teaching online on digital platforms and
providing quality education to students with the help of the Internet.
4. Social Networking: The purpose of social networking sites and apps is to
connect people all over the world. With the help of social networking sites,
we can talk, share videos, images with our loved ones when they are far
away from us. Also, we can create groups for discussion or for meetings.
5. Entertainment: The Internet is also used for entertainment. There are
numerous entertainment options available on the internet like watching
movies, playing games, listening to music, etc. You can also download
movies, games, songs, TV Serial, etc., easily from the internet.

Advantages of the Internet

1. Online Banking and Transaction: The Internet allows us to transfer money

online by the net banking system. Money can be credited or Debited from
one account to the other.
2. Education, online jobs, freelancing: Through the Internet, we are able to
get more jobs via online platforms like LinkedIn and to reach more job
providers. Freelancing on the other hand has helped the youth to earn a side
income and the best part is all this can be done via INTERNET.
3. Entertainment: There are numerous options of entertainment online we can
listen to music, play games can watch movies, web series, listening to
podcasts, YouTube itself is a hub of knowledge as well as entertainment.
4. New Job roles: The Internet has given us access to social media, and digital
products so we are having numerous new job opportunities like digital
marketing and social media marketing online businesses are earning huge
amounts of money just because the internet being the medium to help us to
do so.
 5. Best Communication Medium: The communication barrier has been
removed from the Internet. You can send messages via email, Whatsapp,
and Facebook. Voice chatting and video conferencing are also available to
help you to do important meetings online.
6. Comfort to humans: Without putting any physical effort you can do so
many things like shopping online it can be anything from stationeries to
clothes, books to personal items, etc. You can books train and plane tickets
online.
7. GPS Tracking and Google maps: Yet another advantage of the internet is
that you are able to find any road in any direction, areas with less traffic with
the help of GPS in your mobile.

Disadvantages of the Internet

1. Time wastage: Wasting too much time on the internet surfing on social
media apps and doing nothing decreases your productivity rather than
wasting time on scrolling social media apps one should utilize that time in
doing something skillful and even more productive.
2. Bad impacts on health: Spending too much time on the internet causes bad
impacts on your health physical body needs some outdoor games exercise
and many more things. Looking at the screen for a longer duration causes
serious impacts on the eyes.
3. Cyber Crimes: Cyberbullying, spam, viruses, hacking, and stealing data are
some of the crimes which are on the verge these days. Your system which
contains all the confidential data can be easily hacked by cybercriminals.
4. Effects on children: Small children are heavily addicted to the Internet
watching movies, games all the time is not good for their overall personality
as well as social development.
5. Bullying and spreading negativity: The Internet has given a free tool in the
form of social media apps to all those people who always try to spread
negativity with very revolting and shameful messages and try to bully each
other which is wrong.
UNIT 5 DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Database Management System

 Database management system is a software which is used to manage the

database. For example: MySQL, Oracle, etc are a very popular commercial
database which is used in different applications.
 DBMS provides an interface to perform various operations like database
creation, storing data in it, updating data, creating a table in the database and
a lot more.
 It provides protection and security to the database. In the case of multiple
users, it also maintains data consistency.

DBMS allows users the following tasks:

 Data Definition: It is used for creation, modification, and removal of

definition that defines the organization of data in the database.
 Data Updation: It is used for the insertion, modification, and deletion of the
actual data in the database.
 Data Retrieval: It is used to retrieve the data from the database which can
be used by applications for various purposes.
 User Administration: It is used for registering and monitoring users,
maintain data integrity, enforcing data security, dealing with concurrency
control, monitoring performance and recovering information corrupted by
unexpected failure.

Characteristics of DBMS

 It uses a digital repository established on a server to store and manage the

information.
 It can provide a clear and logical view of the process that manipulates data.
 DBMS contains automatic backup and recovery procedures.
 It contains ACID properties which maintain data in a healthy state in case of
failure.
 It can reduce the complex relationship between data.
 It is used to support manipulation and processing of data.
  It is used to provide security of data.
 It can view the database from different viewpoints according to the
requirements of the user.

Advantages of DBMS

 Controls database redundancy: It can control data redundancy because it

stores all the data in one single database file and that recorded data is placed
in the database.
 Data sharing: In DBMS, the authorized users of an organization can share
the data among multiple users.
 Easily Maintenance: It can be easily maintainable due to the centralized
nature of the database system.
 Reduce time: It reduces development time and maintenance need.
 Backup: It provides backup and recovery subsystems which create
automatic backup of data from hardware and software failures and restores
the data if required.
 multiple user interface: It provides different types of user interfaces like
graphical user interfaces, application program interfaces

Disadvantages of DBMS

 Cost of Hardware and Software: It requires a high speed of data processor

and large memory size to run DBMS software.
 Size: It occupies a large space of disks and large memory to run them
efficiently.
 Complexity: Database system creates additional complexity and
requirements.
 Higher impact of failure: Failure is highly impacted the database because
in most of the organization, all the data stored in a single database and if the
database is damaged due to electric failure or database corruption then the
data may be lost forever.
SQL is a language to operate databases; it includes database creation, deletion,
fetching rows, modifying rows, etc. SQL is an ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) standard language, but there are many different versions of the
SQL language.

What is SQL?

SQL is Structured Query Language, which is a computer language for storing,

manipulating and retrieving data stored in a relational database.

SQL is the standard language for Relational Database System. All the Relational
Database Management Systems (RDMS) like MySQL, MS Access, Oracle,
Sybase, Informix, Postgres and SQL Server use SQL as their standard database
language.

Also, they are using different dialects, such as −

 MS SQL Server using T-SQL,

 Oracle using PL/SQL,
 MS Access version of SQL is called JET SQL (native format) etc.

Why SQL?

SQL is widely popular because it offers the following advantages −

 Allows users to access data in the relational database management systems.

 Allows users to describe the data.
 Allows users to define the data in a database and manipulate that data.
 Allows to embed within other languages using SQL modules, libraries &
pre-compilers.
 Allows users to create and drop databases and tables.
 Allows users to create view, stored procedure, functions in a database.
 Allows users to set permissions on tables, procedures and views.

Database Design in Database Management System

 1. Database design provides a means to represent real world entities in a form
that can be processed by the computer. Database models present a process of
abstracting real world entities into computer representations.

2. To develop a good design, one has to understand the meaning of information

and the intended use of stored representation within the computer system.
Once we develop the understanding and identify the use of information in
the application, we can determine how much and what kind of information
we require.
3. After determination of application’s information requirement, it will be clear
that which data entities represent information redundancies, entities that are
critical, useful and are not related to the applications.
4. It is important to collect and analyze the static and dynamic information
available about real world application before starting the database design.
5. For evolving a good database design, it is important that one uses a model, a
database design model. The database design models have following
benefits.
6. They provide a means to represent real-world objects in computer usable
form

Data Security in Database Management System

Database security involves protecting a database from unauthorized access,

malicious destruction ands even any accidental loss or misuse. Due to the high
value of data incorporate databases, there is strong motivation for unauthorized
users to gain access to it, for instance, competitors or dissatisfied employees

The competitors may have strong motivation to access confidential information

about product development plans, cost-saving initiatives and customer profiles.

Some may want to access information regarding unannounced financial results,

business transactions and even customer’s credit card numbers. They may not only
steal the valuable information, in fact, if they have access to the database, they may
even destroy it and great havoc may occur.

DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
A database administrator (DBA) is a person or group in charge of implementing
DBMS in an organization. The DBA job requires a high degree of technical
expertise. DBA consists of a team of people rather than just one person.

The primary role of Database administrator is as follows −

 Database design
 Performance issues
 Database accessibility
 Capacity issues
 Data replication
 Table Maintenance

Responsibilities of DBA

The responsibilities of DBA are as follows −

 Makes the decision concerning the content of the database.

 Plans the storage structure and access strategy.
 Provides the support to the users.
 Defines the security and integrity checks.
 Interpreter backup and recovery strategies.
 Monitoring the performance and responding to the changes in the
requirements.

Software and its Types

In a computer system, the software is basically a set of instructions or commands

that tells a computer what to do. Or in other words, the software is a computer
program that provides a set of instructions to execute a user’s commands and tell
the computer what to do. For example like MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
The chart below describes the types of software:
 System Software

System software is software that directly operates the computer hardware and
provides the basic functionality to the users as well as to the other software to
operate smoothly. Or in other words, system software basically controls a
computer’s internal functioning and also controls hardware devices such as
monitors, printers, and storage devices, etc. It is like an interface between hardware
and user applications, it helps them to communicate with each other because
hardware understands machine language(i.e. 1 or 0) whereas user applications are
work in human-readable languages like English, Hindi, German, etc. so system
software converts the human-readable language into machine language and vice
versa.

Features of system software:

Let us discuss some of the features of System Software:

1. System Software is closer to the computer system.

2. System Software is written in a low-level language in general.
3. System software is difficult to design and understand.
4. System software is fast in speed(working speed).
5. System software is less interactive for the users in comparison to application
software.

Types of system software:

It has two subtypes which are:

1. Operating System: It is the main program of a computer system. When the

computer system ON it is the first software that loads into the computer’s
memory. Basically, it manages all the resources such as memory, CPU,
printer, hard disk, etc., and provides an interface to the user, which helps the
user to interact with the computer system. It also provides various services to
 other computer software. Examples of operating systems are Linux, Apple
macOS, Microsoft Windows, etc.
2. Language Processor: As we know that system software converts the
human-readable language into a machine language and vice versa. So, the
conversion is done by the language processor. It converts programs written
in high-level programming languages like Java, C, C++, Python, etc(known
as source code), into sets of instructions that are easily readable by
machines(known as object code or machine code).
3. Device Driver: A device driver is a program or software that controls a
device and helps that device to perform its functions. Every device like a
printer, mouse, modem, etc. needs a driver to connect with the computer
system eternally. So, when you connect a new device with your computer
system, first you need to install the driver of that device so that your
operating system knows how to control or manage that device.

Application Software

Software that performs special functions or provides functions that are much more
than the basic operation of the computer is known as application software. Or in
other words, application software is designed to perform a specific task for end-
users. It is a product or a program that is designed only to fulfill end-users’
requirements. It includes word processors, spreadsheets, database management,
inventory, payroll programs, etc.

Features of application software:

Let us discuss some of the features of Application Software:

1. An important feature of application software is it performs more specialized

tasks like word processing, spreadsheets, email, etc.
2. Mostly, the size of the software is big, so it requires more storage space.
3. Application software is more interactive for the users, so it is easy to use and
design.
4. The application software is easy to design and understand.
5. Application software is written in a high-level language in general.
Types of application software:

There are different types of application software and those are:

1. General Purpose Software: This type of application software is used for a

variety of tasks and it is not limited to performing a specific task only. For
example, MS-Word, MS-Excel, PowerPoint, etc.
2. Customized Software: This type of application software is used or designed
to perform specific tasks or functions or designed for specific organizations.
For example, railway reservation system, airline reservation system, invoices
management system, etc.
3. Utility Software: This type of application software is used to support the
computer infrastructure. It is designed to analyze, configure, optimize and
maintains the system, and take care of its requirements as well. For example,
antivirus, disk fragmented, memory tester, disk repair, disk cleaners, registry
cleaners, disk space analyzer, etc.

Difference between system software and application software

Now, let us discuss some difference between system software and application
software:

System Software Application Software

It is designed to manage the resources of It is designed to fulfill the
the computer system, like memory and requirements of the user for
process management, etc. performing specific tasks.
Written in a low-level language Written in a high-level language
Less interactive for the users More interactive for the users
Application software is not so
System software plays vital role for the
important for the functioning of the
effective functioning of a system.
system, as it is task specific.
It is independent of the application
It needs system software to run.
software to run.
Difference between Software and Program
1. Software :
Software, as name suggest, is simply a collection or set of programs, procedures,
data or instructions to instruct computer about what to do and are designed to
perform well defined function.

2. Program :
Program, as name suggests, is simply a collection of instructions or ordered
operations for computer to perform specific function or perform particular task and
achieve a specific result.

Software Program
Software’s are mainly dependent on operating Programs are mainly dependent
system. on compiler.
Various categories of software includes
There are no such categories of
application software, system software,
program.
computer programming tools, etc.
Size of program generally ranges
Size of software generally ranges from
from kilobytes (Kb) to megabytes
megabytes (Mb) to gigabytes (Gb).
(Mb).
Software’s are usually developed by people
Programs are usually developed
having expert knowledge and experience as
by person who is beginner and
well as are trained in developing software and
have no prior experience.
are also referred to as software developers.
Software’s can be a program that generally runs
Programs cannot be a software.
on computer.
If programs are not present in
If software’s are not present in computers, then computer, then also computer can
computer is useless. function well because of operating
system.
 Software Program
Program cannot run on computer
Software’s can be downloaded on computer
without any software present in
using internet without any need of program.
computer.
Features of program includes
Features of software includes security, safety,
reliable, cost effectiveness,
dependability, correctness, etc.
maintainability, profitability, etc.
It requires more time to create software than It requires less time to create
program. program than software.
Examples of software includes Adobe Examples of program includes
Photoshop, Google Chrome, PowerPoint, Web browsers, word processors,
Adobe Reader, etc. video games, etc.