Here is a more detailed and elaborated version of the summary to help you grasp the concepts

effectively:

---

### **Data Link Layer Overview**

- **Purpose**: Converts raw physical layer data into a reliable communication link.
- **Key Functions**:
1. **Framing**: Breaks the continuous bit stream into manageable frames.
2. **Physical Addressing**:
- Adds headers to identify the source and destination.
- For inter-network communication, identifies the next network device.
3. **Flow Control**: Prevents data overflow at the receiver by synchronizing data production and
absorption rates.
4. **Error Control**:
- Detects and retransmits lost/damaged frames.
- Identifies duplicate frames and eliminates them.
5. **Access Control**:
- Manages link usage when multiple devices share the link.

---

### **Error Detection and Correction**

- **Goal**: Ensure transmitted data is received accurately.
- **Error Types**:
1. **Single-bit Error**: A single bit is altered (0 → 1 or 1 → 0).
2. **Burst Error**: A sequence of bits is altered; more common than single-bit errors.

#### **Error Detection Methods**

| **Method** | **Description**
| **Performance** |
|-----------------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-------------------------------------|----------------------------------------------------------------------|
| **Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)** | Adds a parity bit to ensure an even number of 1s. Single-bit
errors are detectable. Cannot reliably detect burst errors if the total number of errors is even. |
| **Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)** | Organizes data in a grid and adds parity for columns.
Effective at detecting burst errors unless identical errors occur in the same position across rows. |
| **Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)** | Uses binary division with a predetermined divisor. CRC
remainder detects errors. Can detect all burst errors within the divisor's bit length. |
| **Checksum** | Adds the sum of data blocks to ensure accuracy.
| Limited to detecting minor errors. |

#### **Error Correction Techniques**

1. **Backward Error Correction**:
- Receiver requests retransmission of data from the sender.
2. **Forward Error Correction**:
- Receiver corrects errors using redundant bits embedded in the data.

#### **Hamming Code**

- **Purpose**: Identifies and corrects a single-bit error by adding redundancy.
- **Formula**: \( 2^r \geq m + r + 1 \), where:
- \( m \): Data bits
- \( r \): Redundant bits
- **Working**:
- Assign redundant bits (\( r \)) to specific positions (e.g., \( 2^0, 2^1, 2^2, \dots \)).
 - At the receiver, calculate parity bits to identify and correct the error.

---

### **Data Compression**

- **Purpose**: Reduce the number of bits required for data representation.
- **Benefits**:
- Saves storage space.
- Increases transmission efficiency.
- Reduces costs for hardware and bandwidth.

#### **Compression Types**

| **Type** | **Description** | **Examples**
|
|-------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|----------------
------------|
| **Lossless** | Original data can be perfectly reconstructed without loss. |
Huffman Encoding |
| **Lossy** | Some data loss occurs, but the result closely resembles the original.
| JPEG (images), MPEG (videos) |

#### **Huffman Coding**

- **Key Concepts**:
- Assigns shorter codes to frequent symbols and longer codes to rare ones.
- Codes are unique and prefix-free.
- **Steps**:
1. Build a frequency-sorted list of symbols.
2. Combine two least frequent symbols into a subtree with a parent node.
3. Assign binary codes (0 for left, 1 for right).
4. Repeat until all symbols form a tree.

---

### **Data Link Control**

- **Definition**: Ensures proper coordination of data transmission across the link.
- **Components**:
1. **Line Discipline**:
- Determines which device can transmit.
- Types:
- **ENQ/ACK**: Uses Enquiry and Acknowledgment for dedicated links.
- **Poll/Select**: Used in master-slave setups; master polls slaves for data or selects a slave to
receive data.
2. **Flow Control**:
- Prevents data loss by synchronizing sender and receiver speeds.
3. **Error Control**:
- Detects, informs, and retransmits lost or corrupted frames.

#### **Comparison of Line Discipline Methods**

| **Method** | **When Used** | **Mechanism**
|
|------------------|-------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------|
| **ENQ/ACK** | Dedicated links | Sender sends ENQ; receiver replies ACK (ready) or
NAK (not ready). |
| **Poll/Select** | Primary-secondary communication | Primary device polls secondaries for data (poll)
or notifies a secondary to receive (select). |

Here’s an **elaborated version** of each topic from your PDF. I've expanded on the explanations while
keeping them structured and easy to follow.

---

### **Flow Control**

Flow control ensures that the sender does not overwhelm the receiver with data. It synchronizes the data
flow rate between sender and receiver.

#### **Techniques:**
1. **Stop-and-Wait**:
- The sender transmits one frame and waits for an acknowledgment (ACK) before sending the next
frame.
- If the ACK is not received within a specific time, the sender retransmits the frame.
- **Advantages**:
- Simple and ensures error detection for every frame.
- **Disadvantages**:
- Inefficient for high-speed networks because the channel remains idle during the wait time.

2. **Sliding Window**:
- Both sender and receiver maintain a "window" that limits the number of frames in transit.
- Multiple frames can be sent before waiting for an ACK.
- Windows slide forward as frames are acknowledged, making this method more efficient.
- **Key Features**:
- Uses sequential frame numbering (e.g., if \( n = 8 \), numbers are \( 0, 1, ..., 7, 0, 1, ...\)).
- Receiver acknowledges frames using a single ACK for several frames.

| **Feature** | **Stop-and-Wait** | **Sliding Window** |

|----------------------|-------------------------|------------------------------|
| **Efficiency** | Low | High |
| **Frames Sent** | One at a time | Multiple frames at once |
| **Acknowledgment** | Per frame | Cumulative for multiple frames |

---

### **Error Control**

Error control ensures that the receiver gets error-free data by detecting and retransmitting corrupted or
lost frames.

#### **Mechanism**:
1. **Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)**:
- Used for retransmission when errors are detected.
- **Retransmission Scenarios**:
- **Damaged frame**: Frame is corrupted during transmission.
- **Lost frame**: Frame does not reach the receiver.
- **Lost acknowledgment**: Receiver’s ACK does not reach the sender.

2. **Types of ARQ**:
1. **Stop-and-Wait ARQ**:
- A simple method where the sender waits for an ACK before sending the next frame.
- Retransmits the last frame if no ACK is received within a timeout.
2. **Sliding Window ARQ**:
- Maintains copies of frames until ACKs are received.
 - **Go-Back-n ARQ**: Retransmits the damaged frame and all subsequent ones.
- **Selective-Repeat ARQ**: Only retransmits the erroneous frame.

| **ARQ Method** | **Retransmission** | **Efficiency** |

|-----------------------|---------------------------------------|---------------------------|
| **Stop-and-Wait** | One frame at a time | Low |
| **Go-Back-n** | Damaged frame + subsequent frames | Moderate |
| **Selective-Repeat** | Only the damaged frame | High |

---

### **Multiple Access Protocols**

When multiple devices share the same communication medium, multiple access protocols are used to
coordinate their access.

#### **Types**:
1. **Random Access**:
- Devices transmit data without a fixed schedule.
- **Protocols**:
1. **Pure ALOHA**:
- Transmits data whenever a frame is ready.
- Collisions can occur if multiple devices send simultaneously.
- Vulnerable time = \( 2T_f \) (twice the frame time).
2. **Slotted ALOHA**:
- Time is divided into slots.
- Devices transmit only at the start of a slot, reducing collisions.
- Vulnerable time = \( T_f \).
3. **CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access)**:
- Reduces collisions by sensing the medium before transmitting.
- **Variants**:
- **1-Persistent CSMA**: Sends immediately if idle; high collision chances.
- **Non-Persistent CSMA**: Waits randomly if busy; reduces collisions.
- **P-Persistent CSMA**: Combines 1-persistent and non-persistent approaches.

2. **Controlled Access**:
- Devices consult each other to determine who transmits.
- **Methods**:
- **Reservation**: Devices reserve time slots.
- **Polling**: Central controller polls devices for permission to send.
- **Token Passing**: Devices pass a token; only the token-holder transmits.

| **Type** | **Collision Management** | **Efficiency** |

|-----------------------|------------------------------------|-------------------------------|
| **ALOHA (Pure)** | None | Low |
| **Slotted ALOHA** | Time-slot synchronization | Moderate |
| **CSMA** | Sensing before sending | High |
| **CSMA/CD** | Detects and aborts collisions | Higher |
| **CSMA/CA** | Avoids collisions entirely | Highest |

---

### **Sliding Window ARQ**

1. **Sender Window**:
- Sends multiple frames based on the window size.
- Retransmits unacknowledged frames when a timeout occurs.
2. **Receiver Window**:
- Buffers frames received out of order in **Selective-Repeat ARQ**.
- Discards subsequent frames in **Go-Back-n ARQ** until the missing frame is retransmitted.

---

### **Error Detection Techniques**

1. **Vertical Redundancy Check (VRC)**:
- Adds a parity bit to ensure an even/odd number of 1s in the frame.
2. **Longitudinal Redundancy Check (LRC)**:
- Adds parity bits for columns in a data block.
3. **Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)**:
- Uses binary division to append a remainder (CRC code) to the data for error checking.
4. **Checksum**:
- Adds the sum of data blocks to verify correctness.

---

### **CSMA Variants**

- **CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)**:
- Monitors the medium for collisions.
- Stops transmission upon collision and retries after a random backoff time.
- **CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)**:
- Used in wireless networks to prevent collisions by deferring transmission.

---

### **ALOHA Protocols**

1. **Pure ALOHA**:
- Sends data anytime; collisions are possible.
- Vulnerable time = \( 2T_f \).
2. **Slotted ALOHA**:
- Transmits only at the start of slots to reduce collisions.
- Vulnerable time = \( T_f \).

Here’s an **elaborated explanation** starting from **Multiple Access Protocols** to the final topics,
covering all aspects in detail.

---

### **Multiple Access Protocols**

Multiple access protocols manage communication when multiple devices (stations) share a common
communication channel.

---

#### **1. Random Access**

- No station has priority or control over others.
- Stations compete for the channel.
- Collisions are possible if multiple stations transmit simultaneously.

##### **Types of Random Access Protocols:**

1. **ALOHA**:
- Originated with pure ALOHA, where stations send data whenever it’s ready.
 - **Types**:
- **Pure ALOHA**:
- Vulnerable time = \( 2T_f \) (twice the frame time).
- Collisions occur if frames overlap during this time.
- Relies on acknowledgment (ACK) for successful transmissions.
- **Efficiency**: \( \text{Maximum efficiency} = 18.4\% \).
- **Slotted ALOHA**:
- Time is divided into discrete slots.
- Frames are sent only at the beginning of time slots, reducing collisions.
- Vulnerable time = \( T_f \).
- **Efficiency**: \( \text{Maximum efficiency} = 36.8\% \).

| **Feature** | **Pure ALOHA** | **Slotted ALOHA** |

|-----------------------|----------------------------------|---------------------------------|
| Vulnerable Time | \( 2T_f \) | \( T_f \) |
| Collision Probability | High | Reduced |
| Efficiency | 18.4% | 36.8% |

2. **Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA)**:

- Stations sense the medium before transmitting.
- Reduces, but does not eliminate, collisions due to propagation delay.

| **CSMA Variant** | **Mechanism** |

**Advantages** | **Disadvantages** |
|--------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|-----------------
-----------|---------------------------|
| **1-Persistent CSMA** | Sends immediately if channel is idle. | Fast
response. | High collision chances. |
| **Non-Persistent CSMA** | Waits randomly if channel is busy, reducing collision chances.
| Low collision probability. | Slower response. |
| **P-Persistent CSMA** | Sends with a probability \( p \) when the channel is idle; waits for the next slot
otherwise. | Balances efficiency/collisions. | Complex implementation. |

3. **CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)**:

- Detects collisions during transmission.
- On collision detection:
- Transmission is aborted immediately.
- A **JAM signal** is sent to notify other stations.
- Backoff mechanism is used to retry after a random time.
- Commonly used in wired networks like Ethernet.

4. **CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)**:

- Used in wireless networks where collision detection is impractical.
- **Strategies**:
1. **Interframe Space (IFS)**:
- Waits a short time before transmitting to avoid collisions with ongoing transmissions.
2. **Contention Window**:
- Divides time into slots; stations pick a random slot to send data.
- Adapts dynamically to collisions using exponential backoff.
3. **Acknowledgment**:
- Ensures successful delivery by requiring explicit ACK from the receiver.

| **CSMA Type** | **Collision Handling** | **Use Case** |

|----------------------|--------------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| CSMA/CD | Detects and aborts collisions. | Wired networks (e.g., Ethernet) |
| CSMA/CA | Avoids collisions proactively. | Wireless networks (e.g., Wi-Fi) |

---

#### **2. Controlled Access Protocols**

Stations coordinate access to the medium by agreeing on which station sends at any time.

##### **Types of Controlled Access Protocols**:

1. **Reservation**:
- Stations reserve time slots in advance.
- A reservation frame precedes the data frames.
- Example:
- For \( N \) stations, there are \( N \) mini-slots for reservation.
- Only stations with reservations transmit data.

2. **Polling**:
- A central controller (primary station) polls secondary stations one by one.
- Only the polled station can transmit.
- Efficient for low traffic but introduces delays under high traffic.

3. **Token Passing**:
- A special token circulates in the network.
- Only the station holding the token can transmit.
- Reduces collisions but requires efficient token management.

---

### **ALOHA Protocols**

1. **Pure ALOHA**:
- Transmits frames without coordination.
- Collisions occur if frames overlap during the vulnerable time (\( 2T_f \)).
- Stations retransmit after a random backoff time.

2. **Slotted ALOHA**:
- Reduces collision chances by dividing time into discrete slots.
- Stations transmit only at the beginning of slots.

| **Metric** | **Pure ALOHA** | **Slotted ALOHA** |

|---------------------|-----------------------------|------------------------------|
| Vulnerable Time | \( 2T_f \) | \( T_f \) |
| Efficiency | \( 18.4\% \) | \( 36.8\% \) |

---

### **CSMA Variants**

- **1-Persistent**:
- Transmits immediately when the channel is idle.
- High collision probability.
- **Non-Persistent**:
- Waits a random time if the channel is busy.
- Reduces collision chances but increases delays.
- **P-Persistent**:
- Combines 1-persistent and non-persistent approaches, balancing efficiency and collision avoidance.

---
### **CSMA/CD (Collision Detection)**
1. **Steps**:
- Sense the medium before transmitting.
- If idle, transmit; monitor the medium for collisions.
- If a collision is detected:
- Stop transmission.
- Send a JAM signal to notify others.
- Backoff and retry after a random time.

2. **Energy Levels**:
- **Zero**: Channel idle.
- **Normal**: Successful transmission.
- **Abnormal**: Collision detected (energy level doubles).

---

### **CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance)**

Designed for wireless networks:
- **Interframe Space (IFS)**: Defers transmission after sensing an idle channel.
- **Contention Window**: Randomly selects a slot for transmission.
- **Acknowledgment**: Confirms successful frame delivery.

---

### **Summary of Access Methods**

| **Method** | **Mechanism** | **Advantages** | **Disadvantages**
|
|----------------------|---------------------------------------------|---------------------------------|----------------------------------|
| Random Access | Stations transmit as needed. | Simple, decentralized. | High
collision probability. |
| Controlled Access | Stations coordinate for medium access. | Reduces collisions. | Overhead
for coordination. |
| CSMA/CD | Detects collisions and aborts transmission. | Efficient for wired networks. |
Inefficient for long propagation delays. |
| CSMA/CA | Avoids collisions using IFS and contention. | Best for wireless networks. |
Increased complexity. |

Here's a **detailed, elaborate, and fully comprehensive short note** covering all topics and subtopics from
the uploaded materials. This format ensures that every critical detail is included, making it easy to study
and understand.

---

## **Comprehensive Short Note on Networking Topics**

### **1. Token Passing**

- **Definition**: A controlled access method where stations in a network are organized into a **logical
ring**.
- **How It Works**:
- A special packet called a **token** circulates among the stations.
- The station holding the token has the exclusive right to transmit data.
- Once data transmission is complete, the token is passed to the next station.
- Stations without data to send pass the token to the next station.
#### **Key Features**:
- Token passing eliminates collisions by ensuring only one station transmits at a time.
- Token management ensures:
- Tokens are not lost or duplicated.
- High-priority stations can access the channel when needed.

#### **Topologies for Token Passing**:

1. **Physical Ring**:
- Stations pass the token sequentially.
- Failure of a single link disrupts the entire system.
2. **Dual Ring**:
- A secondary ring serves as a backup.
- Activates automatically when the primary ring fails.
3. **Bus Ring**:
- Stations are connected in a bus topology but form a logical ring for token management.
4. **Star Ring**:
- Uses a hub that logically maintains the ring.
- Offers fault tolerance; failed links can be bypassed by the hub.

---

### **2. IEEE Standards**

- Developed as **Project 802** to standardize LAN and MAN protocols.
- Covers the **Physical Layer** and the **Data Link Layer** (split into LLC and MAC sublayers).

#### **Standards and Their Roles**:

| **Standard** | **Description** | **Access Method** |
|--------------|-----------------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| IEEE 802.2 | Logical Link Control (LLC) | Uniform protocol for flow and error control. |
| IEEE 802.3 | Ethernet | CSMA/CD. |
| IEEE 802.4 | Token Bus | Combines Ethernet's physical bus with Token Ring's access
method. |
| IEEE 802.5 | Token Ring | Token passing in a logical ring. |
| IEEE 802.11 | Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi) | CSMA/CA. |
| IEEE 802.15 | Bluetooth (PAN) | Ad-hoc, personal area networks. |

---

### **3. Wired LAN Protocols**

#### **3.1 Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)**
- Uses **CSMA/CD** for medium access.
- **Frame Format**:
- **Preamble (7 bytes)**: Alerts the receiver about the incoming frame.
- **Start Frame Delimiter (1 byte)**: Marks the start of the frame.
- **Destination/Source Address (6 bytes each)**: Contains MAC addresses.
- **Length/Type (2 bytes)**: Specifies payload length or type.
- **Data**: Encapsulated information from higher layers.
- **CRC (4 bytes)**: Detects errors in transmission.

---

#### **3.2 Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)**

- Uses **Token Passing** for collision-free communication.
- **Frame Types**:
- **Token Frame**: Allows access to the medium.
 - **Data/Command Frame**: Contains transmitted data.
- **Abort Frame**: Ends transmission in case of errors.

**Frame Format**:
| **Field** | **Description** |
|---------------------|--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Start Delimiter | Marks the start of the frame. |
| Access Control | Includes priority, token bit, and reservation fields. |
| Frame Control | Indicates whether the frame contains data or control information.
|
| Destination/Source Address | 6-byte MAC addresses of the recipient and sender.
|
| Data | Encapsulated data from higher layers. |
| CRC | Error-checking field. |
| End Delimiter | Marks the end of the frame. |
| Frame Status | Indicates whether the frame has been successfully read by the recipient.
|

---

#### **3.3 Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)**

- Combines Ethernet's physical topology with Token Ring's collision-free feature.
- Operates as a **logical ring** using tokens.

---

### **4. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)**

- High-speed LAN over **fiber optic cables**.
- Features a **dual-ring topology**:
- Primary ring for data.
- Secondary ring for backup.

**Access Method**: **Token Passing**.

**Frame Format**:
| **Field** | **Purpose** |
|---------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Start Delimiter | Indicates frame arrival. |
| Frame Control | Specifies data or control type. |
| Destination/Source Address | MAC addresses for communication. |
| Data | Information from higher layers. |
| CRC | Ensures data integrity. |
| End Delimiter | Marks the end of the frame. |

---

### **5. Wireless LANs (IEEE 802.11)**

- Covers both **Basic Service Set (BSS)** and **Extended Service Set (ESS)**:
- **BSS**: A single group of stations with or without an access point (AP).
- **ESS**: Multiple BSSs interconnected via a distribution system.

#### **MAC Sublayer**

1. **Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)**:
- Uses **CSMA/CA** to avoid collisions.
2. **Point Coordination Function (PCF)**:
 - Poll-based access for time-sensitive transmissions.

---

### **6. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)**

- Designed for short-range personal area networks (PANs).
- **Architecture**:
- **Piconet**: One primary and up to seven active secondary devices.
- **Scatternet**: Multiple interconnected piconets.

#### **Frame Format**:

| **Field** | **Purpose** |
|---------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Access Code | Identifies the piconet. |
| Header | Includes address, type, flow control, acknowledgment, and error correction.
|
| Payload | Contains data from higher layers. |

---

### **7. Summary of Access Methods**

| **Access Method** | **How It Works** | **Example**
|
|-------------------------|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------|---------------------------|
| **Token Passing** | A token circulates to grant transmission rights. | Token
Ring, FDDI |
| **CSMA/CD** | Senses the medium and detects collisions. | Ethernet
|
| **CSMA/CA** | Avoids collisions by deferring transmission and using acknowledgments. |
Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) |
| **Polling** | A central controller polls devices to allow transmission. | PCF in Wi-Fi
|

Here’s a detailed and well-structured short note focusing on **Wired LANs** and **Wireless LANs**,
covering all topics and subtopics from your document. It is designed to make learning efficient and
comprehensive.

---

## **Wired LANs**

### **Overview**
- **Wired LANs** use physical cables (like twisted pair, coaxial, or fiber optics) to connect devices.
- Standards for wired LANs are developed under **IEEE Project 802**.

---

### **1. IEEE Standards for Wired LANs**

- **IEEE Project 802**:
- Defines standards for LANs and MANs.
- Covers the first two layers of the OSI model:
- **Physical Layer**: Specifies hardware connections.
- **Data Link Layer**: Split into:
1. **Logical Link Control (LLC)**: Handles flow and error control.
 2. **Media Access Control (MAC)**: Defines access methods for each LAN type.

#### **Key IEEE Standards for Wired LANs**

| **Standard** | **Purpose** | **Access Method** |
|--------------|----------------------------|-----------------------------------|
| IEEE 802.3 | Ethernet | CSMA/CD. |
| IEEE 802.4 | Token Bus | Combines Ethernet’s physical bus and Token Ring's access. |
| IEEE 802.5 | Token Ring | Token Passing in a logical ring. |

---

### **2. Ethernet (IEEE 802.3)**

- **Definition**: A widely used LAN technology that implements **CSMA/CD** (Carrier Sense Multiple
Access with Collision Detection) for medium access.

#### **Key Features**:

1. **Access Method**:
- Uses **CSMA/CD**:
- Senses the channel before transmitting.
- Detects collisions and retransmits after a random backoff time.
2. **Addressing**:
- Each device has a unique **6-byte MAC address**.
3. **Frame Format**:
- **Fields**:
- **Preamble (7 bytes)**: Alerts the receiver of an incoming frame.
- **SFD (1 byte)**: Marks the start of the frame.
- **Destination/Source Address (6 bytes each)**: Contains MAC addresses.
- **Length/Type (2 bytes)**: Specifies payload length or type.
- **Data**: Encapsulated upper-layer information.
- **CRC (4 bytes)**: Detects errors in transmission.

| **Field** | **Purpose** |
|---------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Preamble | Alerts the receiver about the incoming frame. |
| SFD | Marks the start of the frame. |
| Destination Address | Physical address of the recipient. |
| Source Address | Physical address of the sender. |
| Length/Type | Indicates the size or type of the payload. |
| Data | Contains user data from higher layers. |
| CRC | Ensures error detection. |

---

### **3. Token Ring (IEEE 802.5)**

- **Definition**: A LAN technology where devices are connected in a **logical ring**, using **Token
Passing** for access control.

#### **Key Features**:

1. **Access Method**:
- **Token Passing**:
- A special packet (token) circulates through the network.
- Only the station holding the token can transmit data.
2. **Frame Types**:
- **Token Frame**: Allows access to the medium.
- **Data/Command Frame**: Contains transmitted data.
 - **Abort Frame**: Terminates the frame in case of an error.
3. **Frame Format**:
- **Fields**:
- **Start Delimiter (SD)**: Marks the beginning of the frame.
- **Access Control (AC)**: Contains priority and token status.
- **Frame Control (FC)**: Indicates data or control type.
- **Destination/Source Address**: MAC addresses.
- **Data**: Encapsulated information from upper layers.
- **CRC**: Ensures error detection.

---

### **4. Token Bus (IEEE 802.4)**

- **Definition**: A hybrid LAN technology that combines Ethernet's physical topology with Token Ring's
**collision-free access method**.
- **Key Feature**:
- Devices are arranged in a **bus topology** but operate as a **logical ring** using token passing.

---

### **5. Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)**

- **Definition**: High-speed LAN standard using **fiber optic cables**.
- **Key Features**:
- **Dual Ring Topology**:
- Primary ring for data transmission.
- Secondary ring for backup.
- **Access Method**: Token Passing.
- **Frame Format**:
- Similar to Token Ring, with fields for addresses, data, CRC, and delimiters.

---

## **Wireless LANs**

### **Overview**
- **Wireless LANs (WLANs)** use radio waves for communication, eliminating the need for physical
cables.
- Defined by **IEEE 802.11** standards.

---

### **1. Architecture of Wireless LANs**

#### **Basic Service Set (BSS)**:
1. **Ad-hoc Mode**:
- Stations communicate directly without an access point (AP).
- Ideal for temporary networks.
2. **Infrastructure Mode**:
- Stations communicate via an AP.
- Enables connectivity with other networks.

#### **Extended Service Set (ESS)**:

- Multiple interconnected BSSs.
- Stations communicate via APs connected through a distribution system (DS).

---
### **2. MAC Sublayer in WLANs**
1. **Distributed Coordination Function (DCF)**:
- Implements **CSMA/CA**:
- Stations sense the channel before transmitting.
- Avoids collisions using acknowledgments and backoff mechanisms.
2. **Point Coordination Function (PCF)**:
- Poll-based access method.
- Used for time-sensitive transmissions.

---

### **3. Frame Format in WLANs**

| **Field** | **Purpose** |
|---------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Frame Control | Indicates frame type and control information. |
| Duration/ID | Indicates the duration for which the medium is occupied. |
| Address 1-4 | Contains source, destination, and intermediate addresses. |
| Data | Contains user data from higher layers. |
| CRC | Ensures error detection. |

---

### **4. Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15)**

- **Definition**: A wireless LAN technology for personal area networks (PANs).
- **Architecture**:
1. **Piconet**:
- One primary and up to seven active secondary devices.
- Communication can be one-to-one or one-to-many.
2. **Scatternet**:
- Interconnected piconets where a device acts as a primary in one and a secondary in another.

#### **Frame Format**:

| **Field** | **Purpose** |
|---------------------|-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| Access Code | Identifies the piconet. |
| Header | Includes address, type, flow control, acknowledgment, and error correction.
|
| Payload | Contains data or control information. |

---

### **Comparison of Wired and Wireless LANs**

| **Feature** | **Wired LAN** | **Wireless LAN** |
|-----------------------|-----------------------------------------|-----------------------------------------|
| Medium | Physical cables (e.g., twisted pair). | Radio waves. |
| Mobility | Limited to cable range. | High mobility. |
| Installation Cost | High (cabling and infrastructure). | Low (no cabling). |
| Speed | Higher (e.g., Gigabit Ethernet). | Lower (e.g., 802.11n or 802.11ac). |
| Reliability | More reliable (less interference). | Prone to interference (walls, devices). |
| Security | Easier to secure (physical access). | Requires encryption (WEP, WPA, WPA2). |

---

This short note captures all key aspects of **Wired and Wireless LANs**, making it easy to understand
while retaining all critical points. Let me know if you need further elaboration!