Module 1

AC Circuits: Basic
Principles

Engr. Gerard Ang

School of EECE
 Types of Electrical Current
• Direct Current (DC). It is
electric current which flows in
one direction only.

• Alternating Current (AC). It

is electric current that
reverses direction periodically
usually many times per
second.
 Generation of Alternating
Current and Voltages
• Alternating voltage may be generated by:
Rotating a coil in a magnetic field
Rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil

• Altering the direction of the magnetic field

Generation of Alternating Current and
Voltages
 Faraday’s Laws of
Electromagnetic Induction
 First Law. An emf is induced
in a coil whenever the flux dφ
e =N
linking the coil changes with dt
time.
Where:
 Second Law. The magnitude e = induced emf in volts
of the induced emf in an N- N = number of turns of the
coil
turn coil is equal to the time dφ/dt = rate of change of
rate of change of the magnetic flux in Webers per
sec
magnetic flux through it
 Induced EMF
It is emf resulting from the motion of a conductor through
a magnetic field, or from a change in the magnetic field
that threads a conductor.

e = Bv
Where:
e = dynamically induced
emf in volts
B= flux density of uniform
magnetic field in Tesla
l = length of the inductor in
m
v= velocity of the conductor
in m/sec
 Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
Fleming’s left hand rule is used to determine the direction
of the force acting on a conductor. With your left hand,
stretch out the thumb, forefinger and middle finger so that
these are at right angles with each other.

Thumb = direction of force

Forefinger = direction of field.
Middle finger = direction of current
 Importance of AC
 It can be generated at comparatively high voltage
and can be raised or lowered by means of a
transformer.
 Transmission of power over long distances is much
more economical with alternating than direct
current.
 It can be built in large unit of high speed, unlike in
dc due to commutation problems.
 Induction motor (ac motor) are more efficient than
dc motor at constant speed work and less in first
cost because ac motor does not have commutator.
 AC Waveform Terminologies
1. Waveform – it is the shape of the
Positive
curve obtained by plotting the
Peak (Em)
instantaneous values of voltages or currents
+ as the ordinate against
abscissa.
time as the

0 π 2π 2. Cycle – it is a complete set of positive

- and negative value alternation of
sinusoidal wave.
Negative
Peak (-Em) 3. Alternation – It is one half cycle of a
Cycle complete set of positive and negative
Wavelength
Period
values.

1 Revolution = 360 Electrical deg.

Sinusoidal Wave = 180P Mechanical deg.
Where: P = number of poles (even)
 AC Waveform Terminologies
4. Period of the wave (T) – It is the time taken in seconds by an
alternating quantity to complete one cycle.

𝟏
𝟏
𝐓
𝐓 =𝐟
=
𝐟
5. Frequency of the wave (f) – It is the number of cycles produced
per second or Hertz (Hz) by an alternating quantity.

𝐩𝐧
𝐟𝐟== 𝐩𝐧
𝟏𝟐𝟎
𝟏𝟐𝟎
Where: n = shaft speed rotation in rev per min (rpm)
f = frequency in Hertz
6. Wavelength (λ) – it is the length of one complete wave or cycle or
the distance traveled by the wave form in one cycle.
 AC Waveform Terminologies
7. Instantaneous value of a sinusoidal wave – it is the magnitude of the
wave at any instant.
8. Maximum or Peak value of a sinusoidal wave – it is the maximum
value (positive or negative) attained by an alternating voltage or
current.
9. Peak-to-peak value of a sinusoidal wave – it is the value from the
positive peak or negative peak or vice versa. It is always twice the
peak value.
10. Phase or Phase Angle (θ) – it is the
fractional part of a period or cycle though
which the quantity has advanced or delayed from
selected origin.
θ Note:
If the waveform starts before the y-axis, it will
have a positive phase angle.
If the waveform starts after the y-axis, it will
have a negative phase angle.
 AC Waveform Terminologies
11. Phase Difference – it is the difference between the phases of two or more
alternating quantity of the same frequency which do not reached their
maximum or zero value simultaneously.

Where:
θpd θlag’g θpd = phase difference
θlead’g θleading = phase of leading quantity
θlagging = phase of lagging quantity

Note: If
θpd = (+) denotes “leading” phase difference
= (-) denotes “lagging” phase difference
F
i
n Sample Problems
d

t
h
e

p
h
a
s
e

d
i
f
 AC Waveform Terminologies
12. Average value or mean value of a sinusoidal wave – it is defined as
that steady quantity which transfers across any circuit the same charge as is
transferred by that alternating quantity during the same time. It is also the
arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one
cycle.
𝐓𝐓
𝟏𝟏
𝐕𝐕𝐚𝐯𝐞 = ∫ 𝐯 ( 𝐭 ) 𝐝𝐭
𝐚𝐯𝐞 =𝐓 ∫ 𝐯 ( 𝐭 ) 𝐝𝐭
𝐓 𝟎𝟎

13. Root-mean-square (RMS) value or effective value of a sinusoidal

wave – It is defined as that steady current which when flowing through a
given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as
produced by the alternating current when flowing through the same
resistance for the same time.

𝐓𝐓

𝐫𝐦𝐬
√
𝟏
𝐕𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 == 𝟏∫∫[𝐯
𝐓𝐓 𝟎
𝟎
[𝐯( 𝐭
( 𝐭) ]
)
𝟐𝟐
] 𝐝𝐭
𝐝𝐭
 AC Waveform Terminologies
14. Form Factor – It is the ratio of the RMS value or effective
value to the average value of an alternating quantity.

𝐑𝐌𝐒
𝐑𝐌𝐒 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫=
𝐅𝐨𝐫𝐦𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫=𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐀𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐠𝐞 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
15. Peak factor or Crest factor or Amplitude Factor – It is the
ratio of the maximum value to the RMS value or effective value of
an alternating quantity.

𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦
𝐌𝐚𝐱𝐢𝐦𝐮𝐦 𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫=
𝐏𝐞𝐚𝐤𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫= 𝐑𝐌𝐒𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮
𝐑𝐌𝐒𝐕𝐚𝐥𝐮
 Average and RMS Value and Form and Peak
Factor for Various Waveforms
Type of RMS Average Form Peak
Wave Shape
Waveform Value Value Factor Factor

Sine Wave 1.11 1.41

Half-Wave
Rectified 1.57 2.0
Sine Wave

Full-Wave
Rectified 1.11 1.41
Sine Wave
 Average and RMS Value and Form and Peak
Factor for Various Waveforms

Type of RMS Average Form Peak

Wave Shape
Waveform Value Value Factor Factor

Rectangular
Wave Vm Vm 1.0 1.0

Triangular
Wave 1.16 1.73
 Sample Problems
1. Compute for the average and effective values of the
square voltage wave shown below.
v

20 V

t
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4

2. Calculate the RMS value of the function shown below if

it is given that for 0 < t < 0.1, v = 10(1 – e-100t) and for
0.1 < t < 0.2, v = 10e-50(t – 0.1).
v

10 V

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 t (seconds)

 Sample Problems
3. Find the average and v

effective values of the saw- 10 V

tooth waveform shown. v

4. The waveform of an output 0 1 2 3

current is as shown in the

figure. It consists of a portion of
the positive half cycle of a
sine wave between the angle
θ and 180°. Determine the
effective value for θ = 30°.
 Sample Problems
5. Calculate the r.m.s. and average value of the voltage
wave shown in the figure below.

0 1 2 3
-2

-4
 Equations of Alternating
Current and Voltage
Any sinusoidal quantity can be expressed as
Where:
e(t) = instantaneous value of voltage
𝐞𝐞( 𝐭( 𝐭)=𝐄
)=𝐄𝐦𝐦𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭𝐭±𝛉)
±𝛉) i(t) = instantaneous value of current
Em = maximum value of voltage
Im = maximum value of current
t = time in seconds
ii θ = angle of rotation or phase angle in
degrees
N = number of turns of the coil
𝐞𝐞( 𝐭( 𝐭)=)=𝛚𝐍𝛟 =𝛚𝐍𝐁𝐦𝐦𝐀𝐀
𝛚𝐍𝛟𝐦𝐦=𝛚𝐍𝐁 Bm = maximum flux density
A = area of the coil
ω = angular velocity in rad per sec
ω = 2πf
 Sample Problems
1. The maximum values of the alternating voltage and
current are 400 V and 20 A respectively in a circuit
connected to a 50 Hz supply and these quantities are
sinusoidal. The instantaneous values of the voltage and
current are 283 V and 10 A respectively at t = 0 both
increasing positively. Write down the expression for current
and voltage at time t.
2. An alternating current of frequency 60 Hz has a maximum
value of 120 A. Write down the equation for the
instantaneous value. Reckoning time from the instant the
current is zero and is becoming positive, find (a) the
instantaneous value after 1/360 second and (b) the time
taken to reach 96 A for the first time.
 Sample Problems
3. An alternating current of frequency 50 Hz has a positive
maximum value of 100 A. Calculate (a) its value after 1/600
second after the instant the current is zero and its value
decreasing there afterwards (b) How many seconds after the
instant the current is zero (increasing thereafter wards) will
the current attain the value of 86.6 A?
4. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency
of 50 Hz has an RMS value of 20 A. Write down the
equation for the instantaneous value and find this value (a)
0.0025 second (b) 0.0125 second after passing through a
positive maximum value. At what time, measured from a
positive maximum value, will the instantaneous current be
14.14 A?
 Harmonics
Harmonics or Non-Sinusoidal
or Distorted or Complex
waveform - these are
alternating waveforms which
deviate to a greater or lesser
degree. Complex waveforms
are produced due to
superposition of sinusoidal
waves are different frequencies.
Such waves occur in speech,
music, TV, rectifier outputs and
many applications of
electronics.
 Harmonics
• Types of Harmonics
a. Even Harmonics - these are waves having frequencies of
2f, 4f, 6f, etc. or 2w, 4w, 6w.
b. Odd Harmonics - these are waves having frequencies of
3f, 5f, 7f, etc. or 3w. 5w, 7w.

• General Equation of a Complex Wave

The general equation of a complex wave is given as:

𝐞=𝐄
𝐞=𝐄𝟏𝐦𝟏𝐦𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭+𝛟 )+𝐄𝟐𝐦𝟐𝐦𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝛚𝐭+𝛟
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭+𝛟𝟏𝟏)+𝐄 )+⋯+𝐄𝐧𝐦𝐧𝐦𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐧𝛚𝐭+𝛟
𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝛚𝐭+𝛟𝟐𝟐)+⋯+𝐄 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐧𝛚𝐭+𝛟𝐧𝐧))
Where: E1m sin (ωt + φ1) = fundamental
E2m sin (ωt + φ2) = second harmonic
Enm sin (ωt + φn) = nth harmonic
 Harmonics
• RMS Value of a Complex Wave

𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝑬𝑬 𝑬𝑬 𝑬𝑬
𝑬𝑬𝒓𝒎𝒔
√
= 𝑬 ++
𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑬 𝒅𝒄
𝒅𝒄
𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
𝟏𝒎
++𝟏𝒎
𝟐𝟐
+⋯
𝟐𝒎
𝟐𝒎
+⋯++
𝟐𝟐
𝒏𝒎
𝒏𝒎

Where: Edc = dc component of the harmonic

Similarly,

𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝑰𝑰 𝑰𝑰 𝑰𝑰
𝑰𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
√
= 𝑰 ++
𝒓𝒎𝒔 = 𝑰 𝒅𝒄
𝟐𝟐
𝟐𝟐
𝒅𝒄
++
𝟏𝟏𝒎
𝒎
𝟐𝟐
+⋯+
+⋯+
𝟐𝟐𝒎
𝒎
𝟐𝟐
𝒏𝒎
𝒏𝒎
 Harmonics
• Power Supplied by a Complex Wave
The total average power supplied by a complex wave is the sum
of the average power supplied by each harmonic component acting
independently.

𝑬𝑬𝟏𝒎 𝑰 𝟏𝒎
𝟏𝒎 𝑰𝟏𝒎
𝑬𝑬𝟐𝒎𝟐𝒎𝑰𝑰𝟐𝒎 𝑬𝑬𝒏𝒎𝒏𝒎𝑰𝑰𝒏𝒎𝒏𝒎
𝑷=
𝑷= 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶( 𝜶𝟏𝟏−−𝜷𝜷𝟏𝟏) +) + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟐𝒎
𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶( 𝜶𝟐𝟐−𝜷 ) +⋯+¿ 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬
−𝜷𝟐𝟐) +⋯+¿ 𝐜𝐨𝐬( 𝜶( 𝜶𝒏𝒏−𝜷
−𝜷𝒏𝒏) ¿) ¿
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
 Sample Problems

A complex voltage is given by e = 60 sin ωt + 24 sin (3ωt +

π/6) + 12 sin (5ωt + π/3) is applied across a certain circuit
the resulting current is given by i = 0.6 sin (ωt - 2π/10) + 0.12
sin (3ωt - 2π/24) + 0.1 sin (5ωt - 3π/4).
Find:
(a) rms value of current and voltage
(b) total power supplied