SRM VALLIAMMAI ENGINEERING COLLEGE

PH3123 - ENGINEERING PHYSICS (R-2023)

UNIT I - PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
ELASTICITY

INTRODUCTION: Elasticity is the property of the body by virtue of which it tends to regain its
original shape or size after the removal of deforming forces.

CLASSFICATION OF ELASTIC MATERIALS

Elastic materials are classified into two types:
➢ Perfectly elastic
➢ Plastic

Materials which recover their original state after the removal of the deforming force are called
perfectly elastic materials. Materials which do not recover their original state even after the
removal of deforming force are called as plastic materials. A material which does not undergo any
relative displacement of its parts when an external force acts on it, however large it may be, is
called a perfectly rigid material.

No substance is perfectly elastic or perfectly plastic, since every substance tends to regain its
equilibrium condition at least partially. A quartz fiber which recovers most of its original state
after a large deforming force is removed can be considered as perfectly elastic body. But a perfectly
plastic body like putty can recover its original state only if the deforming force applied is very
small.

STRESS: It is defined as the restoring force per unit area which brings back the body to its original
value from the deformed state.
𝐷𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = Unit of Stress is N/m2 (or) Pascal.
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

TYPES OF STRESS
a. Normal Stress: When the force is applied perpendicular to the surface of the body, then the stress
applied is normal Stress.

b. Tangential Stress: When the force is applied along the surface of the body, then the stress applied
is called as tangential stress. The tangential stress is also called as Shearing Stress.
 STRAIN: Strain is defined as the change in dimension (fractional deformation) produced by the
external force of the body. It can also be defined as the ratio of the change in dimension to the
original dimension.

TYPES OF STRAIN
a) LONGITUDINAL OR TENSILE STRAIN
It is defined as the ratio between the changes in length to the original length
without any change in its shape, after the removal of the external forces. If the
original length of the body is ‘L’ and the change in length due to applied force is
𝑙
‘l’, Longitudinal strain = 𝐿

b) SHEARING STRAIN
It is defined as the angular deformation produced on the body due to the
application of external tangential forces on it. Let ABCD be a body with its
CD fixed as shown in the figure. A tangential force is applied on the upper
surface AB of the body. Therefore, the body shears to angle and it goes to a
new position. This angle measured in radians is called Shearing Strain.

c) VOLUMETRIC STRAIN
It is defined as the ratio between the changes in volume to the original
volume without any change in its shape. When forces are applied normal to
the surface of the body of volume ‘V’, it undergoes a change in volume ‘v’,
𝑣
Volumetric Strain = = 𝑉

HOOKE’S LAW

Robert Hooke, in 1679, proposed a relation between stress and strain. The maximum value of the
stress within which a body completely regains its original condition of shape and size when the
deforming forces are removed is known as the elastic limit.
Hooke’s law states that within the elastic limit, the ratio of the stress to the strain is constant.
This constant is called the modulus of elasticity of the material.
Stress α strain
Stress = a constant X Strain
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
= Constant
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
The constant is a proportionality constant which is known as modulus of elasticity.
TYPES OF MODULI OF ELASTICITY
There are three moduli of elasticity:
• Young’ modulus (Y)
• Bulk modulus (K)
• Rigidity modulus (n)

(i) YOUNG'S MODULUS OF ELASTICITY(Y):

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to longitudinal strain is called the
young's modulus of elasticity.
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑌) =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

(ii) RIGIDITY MODULUS OF ELASTICITY(n):

Within the elastic limit, the ratio of the shearing stress to shearing strain is called rigidity
modulus.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑛) =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

(iii) BULK MODULUS OR VOLUME MODULUS OF ELASTICITY(K):

Within the elastic limit of a body, the ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain is
called bulk modulus of elasticity.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑘 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 (𝑘) =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

POISSON’S RATIO (𝝈)

It is defined as the ratio between the lateral strain
per unit stress (𝛽) to the longitudinal strain per unit stress
(𝛼), within the elastic limits.
𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝛽)
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑠𝑜𝑛′ 𝑠 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 (𝜎) =
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (𝛼)
𝛽
𝜎= = 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝛼

STRESS-STRAIN DIAGRAM:
Consider a wire rigidly fixed at one end and gradually loaded at the other end. The corresponding
strain produced at each time is noted until the wire breaks down. A graph plotted between strain
along X-axis and stress along Y-axis is known as stress-strain diagram.

(i)Proportional limit:The portion OA of the curve is a straight line. Upto OA, the material obeys
Hooke's law. i.e, stress is directly proportional to strain. The wire is perfectly elastic. The point A
is called the limit of proportionality or proportional limit.
 (ii)Elastic limit: The stress is further increased till a point A' is reached. The point A' is called
elastic limit. Upto the point A', the wire regains its original length if the stress is removed.

(iii)Yield point: On further increasing the stress beyond the elastic limit, the curve bends and a
point B is reached. Here, a slight increase in stress produces a larger strain in the material. The
point B is called the yield point. The value of the stress at the yield point is called yield strength.

(iv)Permanent set: In the region A'B, if

stress is removed, the wire will never
return to its original length, but the wire is
said to have taken a permanent set.

(v)Plastic range: Beyond B, the

extension(strain) increases rapidly without
any increase in the load. This is known as
plastic flow.

(vi)Ultimate Tensile strength: If

the wire is further loaded, a point C is
reached. At this point C, the wire begins to
thin down at some point where it finally
breaks. The value of the developed stress is maximum is called the ultimate tensile strength.

(vii)Breaking point: The point D is known as the breaking point, where the wire breaks down
completely. The stress corresponding to D is called breaking stress.

USES OF STRESS –STRAIN DIAGRAM

➢ It is used to measure the elastic strength yield strength and tensile strength of metals
➢ It is used to estimate the working stress and safety factor of an engineering material.
➢ This diagram is also used to identify the ductile and brittle materials.
➢ The area under the curve in the elastic region gives the energy required to deform it elastically.
The area under the curve upto Ultimate Tensile strength (UTS) gives the energy required to deform
it plastically.

FACTORS AFFECTING ELASTICITY:

(i) EFFECT OF STRESS: The action of large constant stress or the repeated number of cycles of
stresses acting on a body affect the elasticity of the body gradually. Considering this fact, the
working stress on an engineering material is kept well below its ultimate tensile strength.
(ii) EFFECT OF CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE: A change in temperature affects the elastic
properties of a material. Generally, the elasticity decreases with increase in temperature. This is
due to increase in grain size with rise of temperature, the distance between the atoms also increases
and so the elastic restoring force decreases. this in turn decreases the elasticity.
A carbon filament which is highly elastic state at normal temperature becomes plastic at high
temperature.
Lead is not a very good elastic material. But at low temperature, it becomes a good elastic material.
However; elasticity remains unaffected with change in a temperature in a material like invar steel

(iii) EFFECT OF IMPURITIES: The elastic property of a material is either increased or

decreased due to the addition of impurities. It depends on the elastic or plastic properties of the
impurities. The addition of impurities to metals binds the crystal grains better. If the impurity has
more elasticity than the material to which it is added, it increases the elasticity. If the impurity is
less elasticity than the material to which it is added, it decreases the elasticity.
For example, the addition of potassium or copper in gold increases the elastic properties of gold.
If we add carbon in minute quantities to molten iron, the elastic properties of iron are increased
enormously. If more carbon is added, the elastic properties are decreased.

(iv) EFFECT OF HAMMERING, ROLLING AND ANNEALING: Various heat treatment

processes are adopted to get the desired physical and mechanical properties through the changes
in micro constituents of the material.
A metal with smaller grains has better elasticity than the same metal with larger grains. Annealing
(heating and then slow cooling) is adopted to increase softness and ductility in the materials. due
to formation of large crystal grains, it results in decrease in the elastic properties.
Hammering and rolling are metal processing techniques to make thin plates and sheets. They
break the grains into fine grains and increase its elastic properties.

(v)EFFECT OF CRYSTALLINE NATURE: For a given metal, the modulus of elasticity is

more when it is in single crystal form and in the poly crystalline state its modulus of elasticity is
comparatively small

CRYSTAL PHYSICS

INTRODUCTION
The matters in this world are classified as solids, liquids and gases. These materials are
made up of atoms and molecules. Materials differ from one another on their properties. These
differences in properties of the solids are due to their structures. The behavior of a solid material
is closely related to its structure.
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
The branch of physics that deals with the structure, properties and external or internal
symmetries in crystals are known as crystal physics or crystallography.

CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS
On the basis of crystal structure materials are broadly classified as
1. Crystalline solids 2. Non-Crystalline or Amorphous solids

CRYSTALLINE SOLIDS OR CRYSTALS: Materials in which the atoms are arranged in

systematic pattern are known as crystalline solids. They have well defined geometrical form.
Examples: Diamond, copper, platinum, silver, polonium, etc.
The crystals are of two forms
1. Single crystal 2. Poly crystal

Single crystal contains only one crystal. Poly crystal is an aggregate of many small crystals
separated by well-defined grain boundaries.

AMORPHOUS SOLIDS: Materials in which the atoms are arranged in an irregular fashion
are known as non-crystalline solids. Examples: Plastics, Rubber and Glass.

FUNDAMENTALS OF CRYSTALLOGRAPHIC TERMS

LATTICE: It is an imaginary concept. A lattice is a regular and periodic arrangement of points
in three dimensions. It is defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array.

SPACE LATTICE: The geometrical representation of the crystal

structure in terms of lattice points is called space lattice, provided the
environment about every point is identical to that of every other point.

LATTICE POINTS: The points in the space lattice are called lattice
points
LATTICE LINE: The lines joining the lattice points are called as lattice line.

LATTICE PLANE: The place containing the lattice points are called as lattice plane.

BASIS: The crystal structure is formed by associating unit assembly of atoms or molecules which
is identical in composition, arrangement and orientation with every lattice point. This unit
assembly of atoms or molecules is called basis or motif.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE: Crystal structure is formed by combining space lattice with a basis.

Space lattice + Basis → Crystal Structure

UNIT CELL:
A unit cell is defined as the smallest geometric figure which on
repetition in three dimension gives the actual crystal structure. It is also
defined as fundamental elementary pattern with minimum number of atoms
or molecules which represents the total characteristics of the crystal.

LATTICE PARAMETERS:
Fig shows the unit cell of a three-dimensional crystal lattice. The
intercepts a, b and c are nothing but the edges of the unit cell
which defines the dimensions of a unit cell. These are known as
primitives or characteristic intercepts on the axes. The distance
between two lattice points is known as axial length. The angles
between (a, b), (b, c) and (c, a) are denoted by
γ, α and βrespectively. These three angles (γ, α and β) are
called interfacial angles. Both intercepts and interfacial angles
form the lattice parameters of unit cell.

PRIMITIVE CELL: The primitive cell is the simplest type of unit cell which contains only one
lattice point (only one atom) per unit cell. Example: Simple cubic

11. NON – PRIMITIVE CELLS: If more than one lattice point (more than one atom) in a unit
cell, it is called a non-primitive cell. Example: BCC and FCC
THE CRYSTAL SYSTEMS & BRAVAIS LATTICES
Crystals are classified into 7 crystal systems based on lattice parameters. The 7 basic crystal
systems are
1. Triclinic 2. Monoclinic 3. Orthorhombic 4. Tetragonal 5. Hexagonal 6. Trigonal (or)
Rhombohedral and 7. Cubic

Axial
Sl. Crystal Interfacial angles
lengths Example
No systems (α, β, γ)
(a, b, c)
1. Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 900 Iron, Copper, NaCl, CaF2
2. Tetragonal a=b≠c α = β = γ = 900 Ordinary white tin, Indium
3. Orthorhombic a≠b≠c α = β = γ = 900 Sulphur, Topaz
4. Monoclinic a≠b≠c α = γ = 900; β ≠ 900 Na2SO4, FeSO4
5. Triclinic a≠b≠c α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900 CuSO4, K2Cr2O7
6. Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ ≠ 900 Calcite, Bi, Sb, CaSO4
7. Hexagonal a=b≠c α = β = 900; γ = 1200 Quartz, Tourmaline

BRAVAIS LATTICES: According to Bravais there are only 14 possible ways of arranging points
in space lattice from the seven crystal systems such that all the lattice points have the same
surroundings. These 14 space lattices are called the Bravais lattices.

Let us discuss seven crystal systems and each Bravais lattice now.

1. CUBIC SYSTEMS:
In this crystal system, all the three axial lengths of the unit cell are equal, and they are
perpendicular to each other.
i.e., a = b = c and α = β = γ = 900
Example: Iron, Copper, Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Calcium Fluoride (CaF2)
Cubic lattice has three possible types of arrangements.

(a) Simple (or primitive) cubic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners
of the unit cell as shown in figure.
(b) Body centered cubic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the
unit cell and one lattice point at the centre of the body as shown in figure.
(c) Face centered cubic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and one lattice
point at the centre of each of 6 faces of the cube as shown in the figure.
 2. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM: In this the three axes are perpendicular to
each other and two axes are equal in length and the third axis may be
longer or shorter.
i.e., a = b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 900
Example: Ordinary white tin, Indium, Tin oxide

Tetragonal lattice has two possible types of arrangement

(a) Simple tetragonal lattice: It has lattice points at
all 8 corners of the unit cell.
(b) Body centered tetragonal lattice: It has lattice
points at all eight corners of the unit cell and one
lattice point at the centre of the body.

3. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM: In this system three axes are of different

lengths and are perpendicular to each other.
i.e., a ≠ b ≠ c and α = β = γ = 900
Example: Sulphur, Topaz
Orthorhombic system has four possible types of space lattices.

(a) Simple Orthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit
cell.
(b) Body Centered Orthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and one
lattice point at the centre of the body as shown in figure.
(c) Face Centered Orthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and 6
lattice points at the centre of each of the 6 faces of the unit cell as shown in figure.
(d) Base - Centered Orthorhombic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell and 2
lattice points each at the centre of two faces (base) opposite to each other as shown in figure.
 4. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM:
In this system three axes are of different lengths. Two axes are
perpendicular to each other and third is obliquely inclined
i.e., a ≠ b ≠ c and α = γ = 900; β ≠ 900
Example: Sodium Sulphite (Na2SO4), Ferrous Sulphate (FeSO4)
Monoclinic lattice has two possible space lattices.

(a) Simple monoclinic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8

corners of the unit cell.
(b) Base centered monoclinic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8
corners of the unit cell and 2 lattice points each at the center of
two faces opposite to each other.

5. TRICLINIC SYSTEM:
In this all the crystal axes are of unequal lengths and all are oblique
to each other.
i.e., a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 900
Example: Copper sulphate (CuSO4), Potassium dichromate
(K2Cr2O7)
Triclinic lattice has only one possible type of arrangement.
(a) Simple triclinic lattice: It has lattice points at all 8 corners of the unit cell.

6. RHOMBOHEDRAL SYSTEM (TRIGONAL): In this system,

three axial lengths of the unit cell are equal. They are equally inclined to
each other at an angle other than 900
i.e., a = b = c and α = β = γ ≠ 900
Example: Calcite, Bismuth, CaSO4
Rhombohedral lattice has only one possible type of arrangement
(a) Simple Rhombohedral lattice: It has lattice Points at all 8 corners
of the unit cell.

5. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM:
In this system, two axial lengths of unit cell (say horizontal) are equal and
lying on one plane at an angle 1200 with each other. The third axial length
(say vertical) is either longer or shorter than other two and it is perpendicular
to this plane.
i.e., a = b ≠ c and α = β = 900; γ = 1200
Example: Quartz, Tourmaline.
Hexagonal lattice has only one possible type of arrangement.
 (a) Simple hexagonal lattice: It has lattice points at all 12 corners of the hexagonal prism and 2
lattice points each at the centre of two hexagonal faces of the unit cell.

These 14 types of space lattices are called Bravais lattices. It is mathematically proved that there
are only 14 independent ways of arranging points in three-dimensional space such that each
arrangement confirms to the definition of space lattice

Sl. No. Crystal System Bravais lattice

1. Cubic 3 Simple, Body centered and Face centered

2. Tetragonal 2 Simple and Body centered

Simple, Body centered, Base centered
3. Orthorhombic 4
and Face centered
4. Monoclinic 2 Simple and Base centered

5. Triclinic 1 Simple
Rhombohedral
6. 1 Simple
(Trigonal)
7. Hexagonal 1 Simple

Total 14

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE UNIT CELL

A unit cell is characterized by the following properties.
➢ Number of atoms per unit cell
➢ Coordination number
➢ Nearest neighboring distance
➢ Atomic radius
➢ Packing factor

1. Number of atoms per unit cell: The total number of atoms present in an unit cell is known as
number of atoms per unit cell or effective number.
2. Coordination number: It is the number of nearest atoms directly surrounding a particular atom.
If the coordination number is high, then the crystal is highly closely packed. If it is low, then the
structure is loosely packed.

3. Nearest neighbouring distance (2r): It is the distance between the centers of two nearest
neighbouring atoms. It is expressed in terms of the length of edge of the unit cell ‘a’ and it is ‘2r’
a = 2r

4. Atomic radius (r): It is half of the distance between two nearest 2r

neighbouring atoms in a crystal. It is denoted by ‘r’

5. Packing factor (PF): Packing factor is defined as the ratio of the total volume occupied by the
atoms in a unit cell to the total volume of a unit cell. It is also known as density of packing.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURES (SC, BCC, FCC, HCP and DIAMOND CUBIC)

It is noted that a large number of metallic crystal structures have HCP, FCC and BCC
structures. Simple Cubic (SC) structure is very rare in metals.

SIMPLE CUBIC STRUCTURE: Figure shows the unit cell

of a simple cubic structure. In this structure, there is one atom
at each of the 8 corners of the unit cell. Let us find the
characteristics of the SC structure.

1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

Simple cube has 8 corners, each corner has 1 atom. But each corner atom is shared by 8
adjacent unit cells. So, each atom will give its part to one unit cell
 Thus, the simple cubic is a primitive cell.

2. Co-ordination number
If we consider on corner atom as X, then it is directly surrounded
by 6 other atoms. So, Coordination number is 6.

3. Atomic radius:
Consider a face of unit cell of simple cubic structure as shown in
figure.
The atoms touch each other along the edges of the cube.
The distance between the centre of the nearest atoms is equal to
the cube edge a. If ‘a’ is the side of the unit cell and ‘r’ be the radius, then

4. Packing factor:

𝜋
𝑃. 𝐹 =
6
𝑃. 𝐹 = = 0.523

Therefore 52% of the volume of unit cell is occupied by atoms and remaining 48% is vacant.
Example: Only one element Polonium (Po) at certain temperature range exhibits this structure.

BODY CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (BCC)

This type of unit cell has 8 corners, and each corner has one atom and one more atom present at
the centre of the body. Let us find the characteristics of a BCC unit cell.
1. Number of atoms per unit cell:
Body centered cube has 8 corners, each corner has 1 atom. But each corner atom is shared
by 8 adjacent unit cells. So, each atom will give its part to one unit cell

2. Co-ordination number:
If we consider the body centered atom, it is directly surrounded by
8 corner atoms. So, the coordination number is 8.

3. Atomic radius:
Here the corner atoms do not touch each other. But each corner atom
touches the central atom. The side of a unit cell is ‘a’. Consider the atoms
at A, G and O at the centre of the cell. These atoms lie in one straight line along the body diagonal
AG.
From fig.,

Substitute (2) in (1), we get

4. Packing factor
 68% of the volume is occupied by atoms and 32% volume is vacant.
Example: Tungsten, Chromium and Molybdenum

FACE CENTERED CUBIC STRUCTURE (FCC)

This type of unit cell has 8 corners and each corner has 1
atom also each face (totally 6 faces) has 1 atom at its centre.

1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

A unit cell of FCC structure has 8 corner atoms; each corner
atom is shared by 8 adjoining cells.
Number of atoms in unit cell due to the contribution of corner atoms atom.
Also there are 6 face centered atoms and each face centered atom is shared by 2 adjacent
unit cells.

2. Co-ordination number:
FCC structure has 8 atoms at the 8 corners and 6 atoms
at the centers of six faces of a unit cell. If we consider corner
atom as X, then it is directly surrounded by 12 other atoms
(both corner and face centered atoms).
The co-ordination number is = 12.

3. Atomic radius: The atoms touch each other along the diagonal of any face of the cube. The
length of diagonal of the face is

From the figure,

4. Packing factor:
Number of atoms per unit cell = 4

In FCC unit cell, 74% of the volume is occupied by atoms and 26% volume is vacant.
Example: Copper, Aluminium, Nickel, Gold, Lead and Platinum.

HEXAGONAL CLOSE-PACKED STRUCTURE

It has three layers. At the bottom layer, it has 6 corners and
each corner has 1 atom and one more atom present at the centre of
the bottom face. Also at the top layer, it has 6 corners and each
corner has 1 atom and one more atom present at the centre of the
top face. Then the middle layer has 3 atoms at a distance from
bottom or top layer. These 3 atoms are present totally inside the
unit cell.
Height of the hexagon is ‘c’ (distance between bottom and top
layer is ‘c’)

1. Number of atoms per unit cell:

Each corner atom is shared by 6 other unit cells.

Each face centered atom is shared by 2 adjacent unit cells.

There are 3 atoms present inside the unit cell (at the middle layer) which are not shared.
2. Co-ordination number:
In the bottom layer the face centered atom has 6 nearest neighbours in
the same plane. Then at a distance of there will be 3 atoms above and
below the layer. In total there are 12 nearest neighbors.
Coordination number = 12.
3. Atomic radius:
Atoms touch each other along the diagonal of the hexagon. The
nearest neighbouring distance
is

4. Calculation of ratio:
Let ‘c’ be the height of the unit cell and ‘a’ is the distance between the
neighboring atoms. Let I, J, K, L, M, and N are the corner atoms and O be the base atom in the
bottom layer of the HCP structure ad P,Q,T are the middle layer atoms.
Here I, N and O represents the bottom layer atoms. Now, let us draw the normal line OR
from O to the line IN, which bisects the line IN at a point R.
OR
From figure in △IRO cos30∘ = OI
∘
𝑂𝑅 = 𝑂𝐼𝑐𝑜𝑠30
𝑎√3
𝑂𝑅 = ----------(1)
2
2
But, from fig, 𝑂𝑆 = 𝑂𝑅 -----------(2)
3
2 𝑎√3 𝑎
Substituting for OR, we get 𝑂𝑆 = 3 𝑂𝑆 = -----------(3)
2 √3
In the ∆SOP, 𝑂𝑃2 = 𝑂𝑆 2 + 𝑆𝑃 2
--------------(4)
 𝑎 𝐶
Substituting the values for OP = a, 𝑂𝑆 = and 𝑆𝑃 = in equation (4), we get
√3 2
𝑎2 𝐶2
𝑎2 = + -----------(5)
√3 2

5. Packing factor:
(i) To find volume of all the atoms in a unit cell, :

(ii) To find the volume of the unit cell, V:

Base of the hexagon has 6 similar triangles so,

Substitute (4) in (3) we get,

Substitute (5) in (2) we get,

Height of the hexagon = c

Substitute (1) and (6) in (7) we get,

Example: Magnesium, Zinc, Titanium, Zirconium, Beryllium and Cadmium.

MILLER INDICES
Miller introduced a set of three numbers to designate a plane in a crystal. This set of three
numbers are said to be miller indices of the plane. The orientations of planes in a crystal may be
described in terms of their intercepts.
In figure OA has 2 units of axial length and OB has 2 units of axial length and OC has
only one unit of axial length. ∴ The numerical parameters are [2,2,1]. Miller described the
orientation of a plane by the reciprocal of its numerical parameters rather than by its linear
parameters.
These reciprocals are converted into whole numbers. They are called Miller indices. ∴ The miller
indices of the above plane is [1/2, 1/2, 1/1]
∴i.e., [1, 1, 2] The general expression for indices is (h, k, l). The symbol for a family of plane is
<h, k, l>
 Definition: Miller indices are the three possible integers which have the same ratios as the
reciprocals of the intercepts of the plane concerned on the three axes.

PROCEDURE FOR FINDING MILLER INDICES:

➢ Find the intercepts of a plane along the three axes.
➢ Take reciprocal of these intercepts.
➢ Reduce the reciprocals into whole numbers.
➢ Enclose these integers in parenthesis to get Miller indices.
The following points are important for getting the Miller indices.
➢ When a plane is parallel to one of the co-ordinate axes, then it will meet the axis at infinity
, the Miller indices for that axis is zero.
➢ When the intercept of a plane is on the negative part of any axis, then a minus sign is included in
the miller indices.

d – SPACING IN CUBIC LATTICE

Consider a cube crystal. Let ‘a’ be the length of cube edge.
Consider a plane ABC as shown in figure. Draw a perpendicular ON
from origin to the plane ABC, which represents the interplanar
distance.
OA, OB and OC are the intercepts on the X, Y, Z axes due to
the plane are the angles between the reference axes OX,
OY, OZ and ON respectively.
Miller indices of a plane are the smallest integers of the reciprocals of its intercepts. They can
be expressed in reciprocals of miller indices.

From the figure,

By the law of direction cosine is

Substituting the values

This is the relation between d and hkl.

CRYSTAL GROWTH

Solidification and Crystallization

Solidification is the transformation of material from liquid to the solid state on cooling.

When the liquid solidifies, the energy of each atom is reduced. This energy is given out as latent
heat during the solidification process. For a pure metal, it occurs at a fixed temperature, .
During the solidification, the disordered structure of the liquid (constituents of material in liquid
state have more velocity, more collisions and hence have random position) transforms to the
orderly arrangement depending upon the time of solidification. This solidification process greatly
influences the crystal growth.

CRYSTAL GROWTH TECHNIQUES

The Crystal growth technique is classified into 6 types namely. They are,
(i) Melt growth
(ii) Low temperature solution growth
(iii) High temperature solution growth (Flux growth)
(iv) Hydrothermal growth
(v) Epitaxial growth

MELT GROWTH
Melt growth is the process of crystallization by fusion and re-solidification of the starting
materials from the melt.
The crystal growth from melt is obtained by various techniques. The main techniques are:
(a) Czochralski Technique
(b) Bridgmann Technique
(c) Verneuil method
(d) Zone melting Technique

CZOCHRALSKI TECHNIQUE

Basic Principle: The Czochralski method is a crystal pulling technique of growth of crystal by a
gradual layer by layer condensation of melt. It is based on liquid-solid phase transition initiated
by a seed crystal.

Description of technique
The schematic diagram of this technique is shown in figure. The apparatus consists of the following
essential parts.
• Crucible
• Heater
• Seed crystal
• Crystal holder
The pure material which is to be grown in the form of a
single crystal is taken in the crucible. The material is
heated above the melting point by using induction heater.
Thus, the melt is obtained in the crucible. A small defect
free single crystal, called seed crystal is introduced into
the melt by means of a crystal holder.
A small portion of seed crystal (immersed in the melt) is
initially melted. The temperature is then suitably
adjusted for the growth of seed crystal by the
solidification of melt into a thin layer of crystal. The seed
crystal is rotated and gradually pulled out of the melt by
maintaining the grown crystal and melt interface near the
surface of the melt.
Thus, a single crystal grows on the seed crystal. The diameter of the grown crystal is controlled by
the temperature of the melt and rate of pulling.
The seed crystal acts as (i) a nucleation centre i.e., the solidified material at the surface of the seed
will reproduce single-crystal structure of seed and (ii) heat sink through which the latent heat of
solidification escapes. The large size cylindrical shaped grown crystal is known as ingot.

ADVANTAGES
➢ This technique provides growth of the crystal from strain free surface. i.e., free from crystal
defect.
 ➢ It can produce large single crystal.
➢ It allows convenient chemical composition of crystal.
➢ This method enables easy control of atmosphere during growth.

LIMITATIONS
➢ High vapour pressure of the materials can be produced.
➢ Possibility of liquid phase encapsulation during solidification.
➢ It may produce contamination of melt by the crucible.

APPLICATION
Large, single crystals of silicon and germanium (for IC fabrication) are grown by this method.

BRIDGMANN TECHNIQUE
It is a common technique for growing single crystals from the melt.

PRINCIPLE: The selective cooling of the molten material to form single crystal by solidification
along a particular direction.

TYPES OF BRIDGMANN TECHNIQUE

There are two types of Bridgman techniques of growing crystals. They are,
(i) Vertical Bridgmann technique
(ii) Horizontal Bridgmann technique

In both techniques, the melt in a sealed crucible is progressively frozen from one end by one of the
following methods.
➢ Moving the crucible down the
temperature gradient (i.e., moving
from high temperature region to low
temperature region of the furnace).
➢ Moving the furnace over the
crucible (crucible is stationary).
➢ By keeping both furnace and
crucible stationary and cooling the
furnace steadily along the crucible.

DESCRIPTION
In this method, the material to be
grown in the form of a single crystal is
taken in a cylindrical crucible. The
crucible is made of platinum and tapered conically with pointed tip at the bottom as shown in the figure.
 The crucible is suspended in the upper furnace until the material in the crucible is completely
melted into molten liquid.
The crucible is then slowly lowered from upper furnace into lower furnace with help of an
electric motor. The temperature of the lower surface is maintained below the melting temperature of
the melt inside the crucible. Since, the pointed tip enters the lower furnace first, the melt at this point
starts to solidify to form crystal.
As the crucible continuously lowered, the solidification of melt continues to form crystal until all the
melt becomes solid crystal. Thus, a bulk single pure crystal can be grown in the crucible by lowering
the crucible at steady rate.

ADVANTAGES
• It is a simple technique.
• Control can be evacuated and sealed. Hence, oxidation of melt is prevented.
• In this technique, control over the shape and size of growing crystals can easily be achieved.
• It enables easy stabilization of temperature gradients.

LIMITATIONS
• Confinement of crystals may occur.
• Crystal perfection is not better than that of the seed.
• No visibility of material during growth.

APPLICATIONS
Examples of the crystals grown by this method are, Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Potassium Chloride
(KCl), Calcium Fluoride (CaF2), Silver Bromide (AgBr), etc.

PART A
1. Define elasticity.
Elasticity is the property of the body by virtue of which it tends to regain its original shape
or size after the removal of deforming forces.

2. State Hooke’s law of elasticity.

Within the elastic limit, the stress developed is directly proportional to the strain.
Stress α strain
Stress = E x strain
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐸=
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Where, E – Modulus of elasticity.
3. Define stress.
𝐹
Stress is defined as “The restoring force per unit area of the material”. 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝐴
Unit is Pascal or N/m2.
4. What is the elastic limit?
The maximum stress up to which the body can recover its original shape and size, after
removing the external forces is called as an elastic limit.

5. Draw stress-strain diagram for brittle and ductile material.

6. What do you infer from stress and strain diagram?

➢ It distinguishes the elastic and plastic limits of a material.
➢ It determines the ultimate strength of the material.
➢ It also helps us to distinguish the material based on the properties such as malleability,
ductility and brittleness.

7. What is Poisson’s ratio?

Poisson’s ratio is defined as the ratio between lateral strain to longitudinal strain within the
elastic limit.
lateral strain
Poisson’s Ratio σ =
longitudinal strain

8. What is the effect of temperature on elasticity of a material?

A change in temperature affects the elastic properties of a material. Generally, the elasticity
decreases with increase in temperature. This is due to increase in grain size with rise of
temperature, the distance between the atoms also increases and so the elastic restoring force
decreases. this in turn decreases the elasticity.

9. List any two factors which affect elastic modulus.

Effect of stress: When a material is subjected to large number of cycles of stresses, it loses its
elastic property even within the elastic limit.
Effect of Hammering and rolling: By hammering and rolling the material, the crystal grains are
broken down into smaller units which results in an increase in elasticity of the material.
10. Give any two mechanical and thermal properties of materials.

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES THERMAL PROPERTIES

1. Strength 1. Specific Heat capacity

2. Hardness 2. Thermal expansion
3. Ductility 3. Thermal conductivity
4. Brittleness
5. Malleability
6. Fatigue

11. What are single crystalline materials? Give example.

The materials in which the position and orientation of atoms or molecules are uniform and
continuous throughout the entire crystal are called single crystalline materials.
Examples: Diamond, NaCl, Ruby crystal.

12. Distinguish between crystalline and non-crystalline materials.

S.No Crystalline material Non-crystalline material
1. Materials which have definite and regular Materials which do not have
geometrical shapes which extend definite geometrical shape.
throughout the crystal.
2. Anisotropic Isotropic
3. Most stable Less stable
4. Examples: Diamond, NaCl, KCl. Examples: Plastic, glass, rubber.

13. Define unit cell.

It is the smallest geometrical structure of a solid which when repeated in three-dimension
gives the actual crystal structure.

14. Differentiate primitive and non-primitive unit cell.

PRIMITIVE CELL: A unit cell that contains only one lattice point is called a primitive unit cell,
which is made up from the lattice points at each of the corners. Eg: Simple Cubic
NON-PRIMITIVE CELL: In case of non-primitive unit cells, there are additional lattice points,
either on a face of the unit cell or within the unit cell. Eg: BCC, FCC, etc.

15. What are Bravais lattice?

The 14 possible ways of arranging points in space lattice such that all the lattice points
have exactly the same surroundings. These 14 space lattices are called as Bravais lattices.

16. Name the seven types of crystal systems.

There are seven crystal systems according to their axial angles and sides. They are
1. Cubic 5. Triclinic
2. Tetragonal 6. Rhombohedral (Trigonal)
3. Orthorhombic 7. Hexagonal
4. Monoclinic
17. Write the lattice parameters for triclinic system.
Lattice parameter for triclinic system is a ≠ b ≠ c and α ≠ β ≠ γ ≠ 90º

18. Define packing factor.

Packing factor is defined as the ratio of the total volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to the
total volume of a unit cell. It is also known as density of packing.

19. Determine the lattice constant for FCC Lead crystal of radius1.746 Å.
𝑎√2
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 , 𝑟 =
4
4𝑟
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎 =
√2
4 x 1.746 x10−10
𝑎=
√2
𝑎 = 4.938𝑥10−10 𝑚
𝑎 = 4.938 Å

20. What are Miller Indices?

Miller indices is defined as the reciprocals of the intercepts made by the plane on the three
crystallographic axes which is used to designate the plane in the crystal.

21. Sketch the planes for a cubic system with Miller Indices (100) and (111).

22. Define inter-planar spacing.

Interplanar spacing is the distance between any two successive planes in a crystal lattice.

23. Spacing between (220) planes is found to be is 1.41Å. Determine the lattice constant.
𝑎
𝐼𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑 =
√ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎 = 𝑑 √ℎ2 + 𝑘 2 + 𝑙 2

𝑎 = 1.41x10−10 √22 + 22 + 02
𝒅 = 𝟑. 𝟗𝟖𝟖 𝐱 𝟏𝟎−𝟏𝟎 𝒎
24. Write any two melt growth techniques for growing crystals.
1. Czochralski method
2. Bridgmann Technique
PART – B

7. (ii) Ni is having FCC structure. Calculate the atomic radius if the lattice constant is
3.52 Å

Given: Lattice constant a = 3.52 x10−10 𝑚

𝑎√2
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝐹𝐶𝐶 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 , 𝑟 =
4
3.52 x10−10 x √2
𝑟=
4
𝑟 = 1.244 Å

13. (ii) Find the miller indices of a set of planes which make intercepts in the ratio 3a : 4b on
the X and Y axes and parallel to Z axis.

Step 1: Find the intercepts of a plane along the three axes.

The intercepts are 3, 4, α
(since the plane is parallel to Z-axis its intercept value is α)
Step 2: Take reciprocal of these intercepts.
1 1
The reciprocal of the integers is , ,0
3 4
Step 3: Reduce the reciprocals into whole numbers.
The resulting values are 4, 3, 0
Step 4: Enclose these integers in parenthesis to get Miller indices.
The Miller indices of the plane is (4 3 0).