1414Phys

Course Outline
• Measurements, units and dimensions.
• Vectors
• Motion in one dimension
• Laws of motion and friction
• Work, Kinetic Energy, Potential Energy and Power
• Fluid dynamics
• Elastic properties of Matter
• Heat, Temp., Thermal expansion, Specific heat, Latent
heat
Reference Book:
Physics for Scientists and Engineers by Serway and Jewett
PHYS 1414

Chapter 1
PHYSICS is that branch of science which deals with the study of nature
and natural phenomena.
In this course, we will learn different Laws of Physics
PHYSICAL QUANTITIES are those quantities which are required to
explain the laws of Physics e.g. length, mass, time, speed, velocity,
acceleration, force, work, energy, power etc.
It may be divided into two parts
FUNDAMENTAL quantities: length, mass, time
DERIVED quantities: Remaining all, which may be derived from the
fundamental quantities e.g. speed, force, area, volume, density etc.
 MEASUREMENT is a comparison process
UNIT: Standard chosen for measurement
Q=nu
Q= Physical Quantity, n= numerical value, u = unit

Q = n1 u1

Q = n2 u2

If u1 > u2, n1 < n2

SYSTEM OF UNITS
a) F.P.S. (Foot Pound Second)
b) C.G.S. (Centimeter Gram Second)
c) M.K.S. (Meter Kilogram Second)
d) S.I.
 Physical Quantity Unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram Kg
Time Second s
Temperature Kelvin K
Electric Current Ampere A
Intensity of light Candela Cd
Amount of Substance Mole mol
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS

The word dimension denotes the physical nature of a quantity.

Quantity Formula Unit Dimension

Area A=lxw m2 [L 2]

Volume V=lxwxh m3 [L 3]

Density Mass/Volume Kg/m3 [M L -3]

Distance or Displacement m [L]

Speed Distance/Time m/s [L T -1]

Velocity Displacement/Time m/s [L T -1]

Acceleration (a) Change in m/s2 [L T -2]

velocity/Time

Force (F) F=ma Kg m/s2 [M L T -2]

DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS:

1) Analysis of equation: An equation is dimensionality correct if the

dimension on left hand side is equal to the dimension on right hand side.

Example 1.2. (Page 12)

Show that the expression “v = at” is dimensionally correct, where “v” represents
speed, “a” acceleration, and “t” an instant of time.

Ans: Dimension on LHS = [L T -1]

Dimension on RHS = [L T -2] [T] = [L T -1]

Dimension on LHS = Dimension on RHS

So, equation is correct.

Ans: 𝑆 = 𝑘𝑎𝑚 𝑡 𝑛
[L] = [L T -2]m [T]n = [L m T -2m+n]
[L] = [L m T -2m+n]
Equating the powers on both the two sides,
m = 1, -2m + n = 0
n=2
The dimensional analysis cannot give the value of 𝑘.
Ans: (a) Dimension on LHS = [L T -1]

Dimension on RHS = [LT-1] + [LT-2] [L] = [L T -1] + [L 2 T -2]

Dimension on both sides are different, hence, equation is WRONG.

(b) Dimension on LHS = [ L ]

Dimension on RHS = [ L ]

Dimension on both the two sides are equal, hence, the equation is correct.
 𝐺𝑀𝑚
Ans: 𝐹=
𝑟2

𝐹𝑟 2
𝐺=
𝑀𝑚

𝑘𝑔 .𝑚 𝑠 2 .𝑚 2
The unit of 𝐺 is = 𝑘𝑔−1 𝑚3 𝑠 −2
𝑘𝑔 2
1𝑚 = 100 𝑐𝑚 = 102 𝑐𝑚 1 𝑐𝑚 = 10−2 𝑚

1𝑚2 = (102 𝑐𝑚)2 = 104 𝑐𝑚2 1 𝑐𝑚2 = 10−4 𝑚2

1𝑚3 = (102 𝑐𝑚)3 = 106 𝑐𝑚3 1 𝑐𝑚3 = 10−6 𝑚3

Conversion of units:
1 mile = 1609 m = 1.609 km
1 inch = 2.54 cm = 0.0254 m
1 ft. = 12 inch = (12 X 2.54) cm = 30.48 cm = 0.3048 m
1 m = 100 cm = (100/2.54) inch = 39.37 inch = (39.37/12) ft = 3.281 ft
Example 1.4 (Page # 13):

On an interstate highway in a rural region of Wyoming, a car is travelling at a

speed of 38.0 m/s. Is this car exceeding the speed limit of 75.0 mil/hr ?
𝑚 (38.0 1609) 𝑚 𝑖𝑙
Ans: 38.0 = = 85.0 𝑚𝑖𝑙/ℎ𝑟
𝑠 (1 3600 ) ℎ𝑟

Thus, the car is exceeding the speeding limit and should slow down.
DENSITY of an object is defined as the mass contained in a unit volume.

Density = Mass/Volume
𝑚
𝜌=
𝑉
The SI unit of density is 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3

The cgs unit of density is 𝑔 𝑐𝑚3

Ans: 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚 = 23.94 𝑔 = 23.94 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 = 2.394 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉 = 2.10 𝑐𝑚3 = 2.10 × 10−6 𝑚3

𝑚 2.394 × 10 −2 𝑘𝑔
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝜌 = = = 1.10 × 104 𝑘𝑔 𝑚3
𝑉 2.10 × 10 −6 𝑚 3
CONVERSION OF UNITS:

Ans: 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉 = 2.70 𝑔𝑚 𝑐𝑚3 0.200 𝑐𝑚3 = 0.540 𝑔𝑚

27.0 𝑔𝑚 aluminium contains 6.023 × 1023 atoms

6.023×10 23
No. of atoms contained by aluminium is × 0.54 = 1.2046 × 1022
27.0
Problem # 18 (Page # 19)

A worker is to paint the walls of a square room 8.00 ft high and 12.0 ft along each
side. What surface area in square meters must she cover?

Ans: The total surface area to be painted is

4 × 8.00 𝑓𝑡 × 12.0 𝑓𝑡 = 4 × 8 × 0.3048 𝑚 × 12 × 0.3048 𝑚

= 35.67 𝑚2
Problem # 20 (Page # 19)

The volume of a wallet is 8.50 𝑖𝑛3 . Convert this value to 𝑚3 , using the definition,
1 𝑖𝑛. = 2.54 𝑐𝑚.

Ans: 1 𝑖𝑛. = 2.54 𝑐𝑚 = 2.54 × 10−2 𝑚

1𝑖𝑛.3 = (2.54 × 10−2 𝑚)3 = 1.6387 × 10−5 𝑚3

Vol. of wallet = 8.50 𝑖𝑛3 = 8.50 × 1.6387 × 10−5 𝑚3 = 1.392 × 10−4 𝑚3

Problem # 22 (Page # 19)
𝑘𝑔
An auditorium measures 40.0 𝑚 × 20.0 𝑚 × 12.0 𝑚. The density of air is 1.20 .
𝑚3

What are (a) the volume of the room in cubic feet and (b) the wight of air in the
room in pounds?

Ans: 𝑉 = 40.0 𝑚 × 20.0 𝑚 × 12.0 𝑚 = 9600 𝑚3

1 𝑓𝑡 = 0.3048 𝑚
1
1𝑚 = 𝑓𝑡 = 3.28 𝑓𝑡
0.3048

1𝑚3 = (3.28)3 𝑓𝑡 3 = 35.28 𝑓𝑡 3

𝑉 = 9600 𝑚3 = 9600 × 35.28 𝑓𝑡 3 = 3.3876 × 105 𝑓𝑡 3

𝜌 = 1.20 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

𝑚 = 𝜌. 𝑉 = 1.20 × 9600 𝑘𝑔 = 11520 𝑘𝑔

1 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 = 0.454 𝑘𝑔
1
1 𝑘𝑔 = 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 2.203 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠
0.454

𝑚 = 11520 × 2.203 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠 = 25, 378.56 𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑠

Phys 1414

Chapter 2
VECTORS
Coordinate Systems
There are two types of coordinate systems
(a) Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates [𝑥, 𝑦]
(b) Polar coordinates [𝑟, 𝜃]

𝑥 = 𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 (I)
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 (II)

𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 (III)
𝑦
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = (IV)
𝑥
Question:
The cartesian coordinates of a point in the xy plane are given as 𝒂 𝟑. 𝟓, 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎
𝒃 −𝟑. 𝟓, 𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎, 𝒄 𝟑. 𝟓, −𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎, 𝒅 −𝟑. 𝟓, −𝟐. 𝟓 𝒎. Find the polar
coordinates in each case.
Answer:
𝒂 𝑥 = 3.5 𝑚, 𝑦 = 2.5 𝑚,

𝑟= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (3.5)2 + (2.5)2 = 4.30 𝑚

𝑦 2.5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = 0.714
𝑥 3.5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.714 = 360
𝒃 𝑥 = −3.5 𝑚, 𝑦 = 2.5 𝑚,

𝑟 = 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (−3.5)2 + (2.5)2 = 4.30 𝑚

𝑦 2.5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = −0.714
𝑥 −3.5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −0.714 = −360
𝜑 = −360 + 1800 = 1440
𝒄 𝑥 = 3.5 𝑚, 𝑦 = −2.5 𝑚,

𝑟= 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = (3.5)2 + (−2.5)2 = 4.30 𝑚

𝑦 −2.5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = −0.714
𝑥 3.5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 −0.714 = −360
𝜑 = −360 + 3600 = 3240
𝒅 𝑥 = −3.5 𝑚, 𝑦 = −2.5 𝑚,

𝑟= 𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = (−3.5)2 + (−2.5)2 = 4.30 𝑚

𝑦 −2.5
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = 0.714
𝑥 −3.5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.714 = 360
𝜑 = 360 + 1800 = 2160
Problem # 1 (Page # 71)
The polar coordinates of a point are 𝒓 = 𝟓. 𝟓𝟎 𝒎 and 𝜽 = 𝟐𝟒𝟎𝟎 . What are the
cartesian coordinates of this point?
Ans: 𝑟 = 5.50 𝑚, 𝜃 = 2400
𝑥 = 𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 5.50 𝐶𝑜𝑠 2400 = −2.75 𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑟 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 5.50 𝑆𝑖𝑛 2400 = −4.763 𝑚
 Vector and Scalar Quantities

Scalars are those physical quantities which have magnitude only. It does not have
any direction e.g. distance, speed, time, work etc.
Vectors are those physical quantities which have magnitude and direction both e.g.
displacement, velocity, acceleration etc.
Graphical representation of a vector: A vector is represented graphically by a
straight line with an arrowhead, where the length of straight line gives magnitude
while the arrow indicates direction of that vector.
𝐴Ԧ 𝑜𝑟 𝑨 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟
𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝐴Ԧ 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟.
Properties of Vector

Parallel vectors: Two vectors are said to be parallel if both the two vectors have same direction.

Equality of two vectors: Two vectors are said to be equal if they are of same size and same direction i.e.

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐵Ԧ only if 𝐴 = 𝐵 and if 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ point in the same direction along parallel lines.

These four vectors are equal because they have equal lengths and point in the same direction.
Adding Vectors

Triangle law of vector addition: When vector 𝐵Ԧ is added to vector 𝐴Ԧ, the resultant 𝑅Ԧ is the vector that
runs from the tail of 𝐴Ԧ to the tip of 𝐵Ԧ.
Vector addition: Walking first 3.0 m due east and then 4.0 m due north leaves you 5.0 m from your
starting point.
Vector addition versus scalar addition:

Keep in mind that 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐶Ԧ is very different from 𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐶.

The first is a vector sum, which must be handled carefully, such as with the graphical method. The
second is a simple algebraic addition of numbers that is handled with the normal rules of arithmetic.
Commutative law of vector addition: 𝑨Ԧ + 𝑩Ԧ = 𝑩Ԧ + 𝑨Ԧ
Associative law of vector addition: 𝑨Ԧ + 𝑩Ԧ + 𝑪Ԧ = 𝑨Ԧ + 𝑩Ԧ + 𝑪Ԧ
Negative of a vector:

The negative of the vector 𝐴Ԧ is defined as the vector that when added to 𝐴Ԧ gives zero for the vector
sum. i.e. 𝐴Ԧ + −𝐴Ԧ = 0. The vectors 𝐴Ԧ and −𝐴Ԧ have the same magnitude but in opposite directions.

Subtracting Vectors:

We define the operation 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵Ԧ as vector −𝐵Ԧ added to vector 𝐴Ԧ

𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + (−𝐵Ԧ)
Multiplying a Vector by a Scalar:

If vector 𝐴Ԧ is multiplied by a positive scalar quantity 𝑚, then the product 𝑚𝐴Ԧ is a

vector that has the same direction as 𝐴Ԧ and magnitude 𝑚𝐴. If vector 𝐴Ԧ is multiplied
by a negative scalar quantity −𝑚 , then the product −𝑚𝐴Ԧ is directed opposite 𝐴Ԧ .
e.g. the vector 5𝐴Ԧ is five times as long as 𝐴Ԧ and points in the same direction as 𝐴Ԧ;
1
the vector − 𝐴Ԧ is one third the length of 𝐴Ԧ and points in the direction opposite 𝐴Ԧ
3
Unit Vectors: A vector whose magnitude is exactly one and it has a direction.

𝑨Ԧ
𝑨=
𝑨Ԧ

𝒊 is a unit vector in X- direction

𝒋 is a unit vector in Y- direction
𝒌 is a unit vector in Z- direction
𝑖 = 𝑗 = 𝑘 =1
Components of a vector

A vector 𝑨Ԧ lying in the 𝑥𝑦 plane can be represented by its component vectors

𝐴Ԧ𝑥 and 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 .

The 𝑦component vector 𝐴Ԧ𝑦 can be moved to the right so that it adds to𝐴Ԧ𝑥 . The
vector sum of the component vectors is 𝐴Ԧ. These three vectors form a right triangle.
 𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ𝑥 + 𝐴Ԧ𝑦

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗

𝐴𝑦
𝐴𝑥 = 𝐴 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 𝐴𝑦 = 𝐴 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝐴= 𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝐴𝑥

The signs of the components of a vector 𝐴Ԧ depend on the quadrant in which the
vector is located.
 𝑅Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵Ԧ

𝑅Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗

𝑅Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗

𝑅Ԧ = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗
𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 = (𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 )2 + (𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 )2

𝑅𝑦 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦
tan 𝜃 = =
𝑅𝑥 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥
Example # 3.3 (Page # 68)

Find the sum of two vectors 𝑨Ԧ and 𝑩Ԧ lying in the 𝒙𝒚 plane and given by

𝑨Ԧ = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒊 + 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒋 𝒎 and 𝑩Ԧ = 𝟐. 𝟎 𝒊 − 𝟒. 𝟎 𝒋 𝒎

Ans: 𝑅Ԧ= 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵Ԧ = 2.0 + 2.0 𝑖 𝑚 + 2.0 − 4.0 𝑗 𝑚 = 4.0 𝑖 − 2.0 𝑗 𝑚

𝑅𝑥 = 4.0 𝑚, 𝑅𝑦 = −2.0 𝑚,

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 = (4.0 𝑚)2 + (−2.0 𝑚)2 = 4.5 𝑚

𝑅𝑦 −2.0 𝑚
tan 𝜃 = = = −0.50
𝑅𝑥 4.0 𝑚
𝜃 = −270 = 3330
Example # 3.4 (Page # 68)

A particle undergoes three consecutive displacements: 𝒅𝟏Ԧ = 𝟏𝟓𝒊 + 𝟑𝟎𝒋 +

𝟏𝟐𝒌 𝒄𝒎, 𝒅𝟐Ԧ = 𝟐𝟑𝒊 − 𝟏𝟒𝒋 − 𝟓. 𝟎𝒌 𝒄𝒎 and 𝒅𝟑Ԧ = −𝟏𝟑𝒊 + 𝟏𝟓𝒋 𝒄𝒎. Find the
components of the resultant displacement and its magnitude.

Ans: 𝑅Ԧ = 𝑑1Ԧ + 𝑑2Ԧ + 𝑑3Ԧ

= 15𝑖 + 30𝑗 + 12𝑘 𝑐𝑚 + 23𝑖 − 14𝑗 − 5.0𝑘 𝑐𝑚 + −13𝑖 + 15𝑗 𝑐𝑚.

= 15 + 23 − 13 𝑖 𝑐𝑚 + 30 − 14 + 15 𝑗 𝑐𝑚 + 12 − 5.0 𝑘 𝑐𝑚
= 25 𝑖 + 31𝑗 + 7.0 𝑘 𝑐𝑚
The resultant displacement has components
𝑅𝑥 = 25 𝑐𝑚, 𝑅𝑦 = 31 𝑐𝑚, 𝑅𝑧 = 7.0 𝑐𝑚.

Its magnitude is 𝑅 = 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 + 𝑅𝑧 2

= (25)2 + (31)2 + (7)2 𝑐𝑚 = 40 𝑐𝑚.

Example # 3.5 (Page # 68)
A hiker begins a trip by first walking 𝟐𝟓. 𝟎 km southeast from her car. She stops
and sets up her tent for the night. On the second day, she walks 𝟒𝟎. 𝟎 km in
direction 𝟔𝟎. 𝟎𝟎 north of east, at which point she discovers a forest ranger’s
tower. (A) Determine the components of the hiker’s displacement for each day.

(B) Determine the components of the hiker’s resultant displacement 𝑹Ԧ for the
trip. Find an expression for 𝑹Ԧ in terms of unit vectors.

𝐴𝑥 = (25.0 𝑘𝑚) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −45.00 = 17.7 𝑘𝑚

𝐴𝑦 = (25.0 𝑘𝑚) 𝑆𝑖𝑛 −45.00 = −17.7 𝑘𝑚
𝐵𝑥 = (40.0 𝑘𝑚) 𝐶𝑜𝑠 60.00 = 20.0 𝑘𝑚
𝐵𝑦 = 40.0 𝑘𝑚 𝑆𝑖𝑛 60.00 = 34.6 𝑘𝑚
(B) 𝑅𝑥 = 𝐴𝑥 + 𝐵𝑥 = 17.7 𝑘𝑚 + 20.0 𝑘𝑚 = 37.7 𝑘𝑚
𝑅𝑦 = 𝐴𝑦 + 𝐵𝑦 = −17.7 𝑘𝑚 + 34.6 𝑘𝑚 = 16.9 𝑘𝑚

𝑅Ԧ = 𝑅𝑥 𝑖 + 𝑅𝑦 𝑗 = 37.7 𝑖 + 16.9 𝑗 𝑘𝑚

𝑅= 𝑅𝑥 2 + 𝑅𝑦 2 = 37.7 2 + 16.9 2 = 41.3 𝑘𝑚

−1
𝑅𝑦 −1
16.9
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 24.10
𝑅𝑥 37.7
The vector 𝑅Ԧ has a magnitude of 41.3 𝑘𝑚 and is directed 24.10 N of E.
Problem # 31 (Page # 73)

Consider the two vectors 𝑨Ԧ = 𝟑𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 and 𝑩Ԧ = −𝒊 − 𝟒𝒋. Calculate (a) 𝑨Ԧ + 𝑩Ԧ

(b) 𝑨Ԧ − 𝑩Ԧ, (c) 𝑨Ԧ + 𝑩Ԧ (d) 𝑨Ԧ − 𝑩Ԧ and (e) the directions of 𝑨Ԧ + 𝑩Ԧ and 𝑨Ԧ − 𝑩Ԧ.

Ans: 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵Ԧ = 2 𝑖 − 6𝑗

𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵Ԧ = 4 𝑖 + 2𝑗

𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵Ԧ = (2)2 + (−6)2 = 40 = 6.32

𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵Ԧ = (4)2 + (2)2 = 20 = 4.47

6
Directions of 𝐴Ԧ + 𝐵Ԧ is 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 − =
2
2
Directions of 𝐴Ԧ − 𝐵Ԧ is 𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =
4
Product of two vectors (Dot product and Cross Product)
A) Dot or Scalar product of two vectors
𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃

The dot (scalar) product 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ equals the magnitude of 𝐴Ԧ multiplied by 𝐵𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃,

which is the projection of 𝐵Ԧ on 𝐴Ԧ.

If 𝜃 = 00 , 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴𝐵

If 𝜃 = 900 , 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 0

If 𝜃 = 1800 , 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = −𝐴𝐵
Dot (or Scalar) product obeys commutative 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐵Ԧ ∙ 𝐴Ԧ
Scalar product obeys the distributive law of multiplication

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ + 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ + 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐶Ԧ
Dot product of two-unit vectors
𝑖 ∙ 𝑖 = 𝑖 𝑖 𝐶𝑜𝑠00 = 1, 𝑖 ∙ 𝑗 = 𝑖 𝑗 𝐶𝑜𝑠900 = 0
𝑖∙𝑖 =𝑗∙𝑗 =𝑘∙𝑘 =1
𝑖∙𝑗 =𝑗∙𝑘 =𝑘∙𝑖=0

𝐴Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘

𝐵Ԧ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
Exercise:

Find the value of 𝑚, if the two given vectors 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖 − 𝑚𝑗 + 3𝑘 and𝐵Ԧ = 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘

are perpendicular to each other.

Ans: Two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ are perpendicular if 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 0

2𝑖 − 𝑚𝑗 + 3𝑘 . 𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘 = 0
2−𝑚−3=0
𝑚 = −1
Example # 7.2 (Page # 188)

The vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ are given by 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 and 𝐵Ԧ = −𝑖 + 2𝑗.

(a) Determine the scalar (or dot) product 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ

(b) Find the angle 𝜃 between 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ

Ans: 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 2 −1 + 3 2 = −2 + 6 = 4
𝐴= (2)2 + (3)2 = 13
𝐵= (−1)2 + (2)2 = 5
𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃
𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ 4 4
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = = =
𝐴𝐵 13 5 65
4
𝜃 = 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −1 = 60.20
65
 A) Cross (or Vector) product of two vectors
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐶Ԧ = 𝐴𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃𝑛
The cross product of two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ is 𝐶Ԧ, whose magnitude is
𝐴𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃 which is equal to the parallelogram shown in the figure. The
direction of 𝐶Ԧ is given by 𝑛, which is a unit vector perpendicular to the plane
formed by 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ and this direction is determined by the right-hand rule.

The cross (or vector) product does not obey commutative law

𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ = −𝐵Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ
Example # 11.1 (Page 339)

Two vectors lying in the 𝑥𝑦 plane is given by the equations 𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 and 𝐵Ԧ =

−𝑖 + 2𝑗. Verify that 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ = −𝐵Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ.

Ans: 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 × −𝑖 + 2𝑗 = 2𝑖 × 2𝑗 + 3𝑗 × −𝑖 = 4𝑘 + 3𝑘 = 7𝑘

𝐵Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ = −𝑖 + 2𝑗 × 2𝑖 + 3𝑗 = −𝑖 × 3𝑗 + 2𝑗 × 2𝑖 = −3𝑘 − 4𝑘 = −7𝑘

𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ = −𝐵Ԧ × 𝐴Ԧ
Example: Find (a) 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ and (b) 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ if

𝐴Ԧ = 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 3𝑘

𝐵Ԧ = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 − 2𝑘
Ans:

𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 2 1 + −1 2 + 3 −2 = 2 − 2 − 6 = −6
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘 −1 3 2 3 2 −1
𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ = 2 −1 3 = 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘
2 −2 1 −2 1 2
1 2 −2
= −1 −2 − 3 2 𝑖 − 2 −2 − 3 1 𝑗 +
[ 2 2 − −1 1 ]𝑘
= −4𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 5𝑘
Exercise

Find the angle 𝜃 between the two vectors 𝐴Ԧ and 𝐵Ԧ if 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ

Ans: 𝐴Ԧ ∙ 𝐵Ԧ = 𝐴Ԧ × 𝐵Ԧ
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 1
𝜃 = 450
Phys 1414
Chapter 3
MOTION IN ONE DIMENSION
 Chapter # Motion in one dimension

Motion: An object is said to be in motion if it changes its position with time with respect to a fixed reference point.
Motion in One dimension:
Motion in Straight line
Only one coordinate is required to specify the position of an object
Position: Location of an object at any time
Distance: The total path length covered by an object irrespective of direction. It is scalar quantity. It will always be positive
Displacement: The shortest distance between the initial and final position of a moving object in a fixed direction. It is
vector quantity. It may be positive, negative or zero.
∆𝒙 = 𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊
Where 𝑥𝑓 and 𝑥𝑖 denote final position and initial position respectively.
Q.1. An object is thrown vertically upward. If it goes up to a height of 10 m
and then comes back to same point, calculate total (a) distance (b)
displacement.
Ans: Total distance = 10 m + 10 m = 20 m
Total displacement = Zero (Initial and final positions are same)

Q.2. An object moves along a circular path of radius 10 m. If it completes

one rotation, find the total (a) distance and (b) displacement.
Ans: Total distance = 2𝜋𝑟 = 2 3.14 10 𝑚 = 62.8 𝑚
Total displacement = Zero (Initial and final positions are same).
Q.3. An object moves 3 m East and then 4 m North, find the total (a) distance (b)
displacement.

Total distance = 3 m + 4m = 7 m
Total displacement = 5 m.
Average speed: The total distance travelled per unit time
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 = 𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
Its SI unit is m/s
It is scalar quantity
Average velocity: The total displacement in a fixed direction per unit time
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒑𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 ∆𝒙 𝒙𝒇 −𝒙𝒊
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒗𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 (ഥ
𝒗𝒙 ) = = =
𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 ∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 −𝒕𝒊

Its SI unit is m/s

It is vector quantity
Example # 2.1, Page # 28
Find (a) the displacement, (b) distance, (c) average velocity, (d) average speed of a
car in Fig shown in between positions A and F.
(a)𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡(∆𝑥) = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = −53 − 30 = −83 𝑚
(b)𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 22 + 14 + 38 + 37 + 16 = 127 𝑚
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 83
(c) 𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
= − = −1.7 𝑚/𝑠
50
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 127
(d)𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
=
50
= 2.5 𝑚/𝑠
Instantaneous Velocity and Speed
Instantaneous velocity is the velocity at a particular instant and it equals the limiting value of
∆𝑥
the ratio as ∆𝑡 approaches zero.
∆𝑡
∆𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∆𝒕 )
∆𝒕→𝟎
𝑑𝑥
In calculus notation, this limit is called the 𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 of 𝑥 with respect to 𝑡, written as 𝑑𝑡 .
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗𝒙 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ∆𝒕 ) = .
∆𝒕→𝟎 𝒅𝒕

The instantaneous velocity can be positive, negative or zero.

A quick revision of differential calculus
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 𝑛 , then = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 𝑥 then = 3𝑥 2
3
𝑑𝑥
2 3 𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = 2 + 𝑥 + 4𝑥 , then = 0 + 2𝑥 + 4 3𝑥 2 = 2𝑥 + 12𝑥 2
𝑑𝑥
Example # 2.3 (Page # 30)
A particle moves along the 𝑥 axis. Its position varies with time according to the
expression 𝑥 = −4𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 where 𝑥 is in meters and 𝑡is in seconds. The position-
time graph for this motion is shown in Figure. Note that the particle moves in the
negative 𝑥direction for the first second of motion, is momentarily at rest at the
moment 𝑡 = 1 𝑠, and moves in the positive x direction at times 𝑡 > 1 𝑠.
(A) Determine the displacement of the particle in the time intervals 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 1 𝑠, and 𝑡 = 1 𝑠 to 𝑡 = 3 𝑠.
In the first time interval, we set 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑡𝐴 = 0 and 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡𝐵 = 1 𝑠.
∆𝑥𝐴→𝐵 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝐵 − 𝑥𝐴
2 2
= −4 1 + 2 1 − −4 0 + 2 0
= −2 𝑚.
To calculate the displacement during the second time interval 𝑡 = 1 𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑡 = 3 𝑠 , we set 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑡𝐵 = 1 𝑠 and 𝑡𝑓 = 𝑡𝐷 = 3 𝑠.
∆𝑥𝐵→𝐷 = 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 𝑥𝐷 − 𝑥𝐵
2 2
= −4 3 + 2 3 − −4 1 + 2 1
= +8 𝑚
These displacements can also be read directly from the position-time graph.
(B) Calculate the average velocity during these two intervals.

In the first time interval, ∆𝑡 = 𝑡𝑓 − 𝑡𝑖 = 𝑡𝐵 − 𝑡𝐴 = 1 𝑠.

∆𝑥𝐴→𝐵 −2 𝑚
𝑣ҧ 𝑥(𝐴→𝐵) = = = −2 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 1𝑠
In the second time interval, ∆𝑡 = 2 𝑠.
∆𝑥𝐵→𝐷 8 𝑚
𝑣ҧ 𝑥(𝐵→𝐷) = = = +4 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 2𝑠
These values are the same as the slopes of the lines joining these points in the figure.

(C) Find the instantaneous velocity of the particle at 𝑡 = 2.5 𝑠.

𝑑𝑥 𝑑(−4𝑡 + 2𝑡 2 )
𝑣= = = −4 + 4𝑡 = −4 + 4 2.5 = 6 𝑚/𝑠
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Acceleration:
Average acceleration is defined as the change in velocity per unit time
∆𝒗 𝒗𝒇 − 𝒗𝒊
ഥ=
𝒂 =
∆𝒕 𝒕𝒇 − 𝒕𝒊
The SI unit is m/s2 and the dimension is [𝐿𝑇 −2 ]

Instantaneous acceleration is acceleration of an object at a particular instant of time.

∆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒔𝒕. = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 ( ) =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

The instantaneous acceleration equals the derivative of the velocity with respect to
time.
 When the object’s velocity and acceleration are in the same direction, the
object is speeding up. On the other hand, when the object’s velocity and
acceleration are in opposite directions, the object is slowing down.

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑 𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡2

i.e., in one dimensional motion, the acceleration equals the second derivative of
𝑥 with respect to 𝑡.
Example # 2.5 (Page # 33)
The velocity of a particle moving along the 𝑥axis varies in time according to the
expression 𝑣 = (40 − 5𝑡 2 )𝑚/𝑠, where 𝑡is in seconds.
(a) Find the average acceleration in the time interval 𝑡 = 0 to 𝑡 = 2 𝑠.
(b) Determine the acceleration at 𝑡 = 2 𝑠
 40−5𝑡 2 𝑚
Ans: 𝑣𝑖 = = [40 − 5 0)2 = 40 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠
40−5𝑡 2 𝑚
𝑣𝑓 = = [40 − 5 2)2 = 20 𝑚/𝑠
𝑠
∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 20−40
𝑎ത = = = = −10 𝑚/𝑠2
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖 2−0

𝑑𝑣 𝑑[40 − 5𝑡 2 ]
𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡. = = = −10𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

At 𝑡 = 2 𝑠, 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = −10 2 = −20 𝑚/𝑠 2

One dimensional motion with constant acceleration
An object is said to be in one dimensional motion with constant acceleration if it
moves along a straight-line path in such a way that its velocity changes equally in
equal intervals of time.
Equations for uniformly accelerated motion in one dimension
𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟏
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 𝒕
𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝒙𝒇 = 𝒙𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕
𝟐
𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙𝒇 − 𝒙𝒊 )
Where 𝑣𝑓 , 𝑣𝑖 , 𝑥𝑓 , 𝑥𝑖 , 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡 denote final velocity, initial velocity, final position, initial position,
acceleration and time respectively.
If object starts from rest 𝑣𝑖 = 0
If object comes to rest or stop 𝑣𝑓 = 0
If object moves at constant velocity 𝑎=0
Quick Quiz 2.5 (Page # 37) In the figure, match each v-t graph on the left with a-t
graph on the right that describes the motion.

Ans: (a-e; b-d, c-f)

Example # 2.7 (Page # 39)
A jet lands on an aircraft carrier at 140 mile/hr (63 m/s). (a) What is its acceleration
(assumed constant) if it stops in 2.0 s due to an arresting cable that snags the
airplane and brings it to a stop? (b) If the plane touches down at position 𝑥𝑖 = 0 ,
what is the final position of the plane?

𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 0−63
Ans: 𝑎= = = −31.5 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑡 2
1 1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑡 = 0 + 63 + 0 2 = 63 𝑚
2 2
 𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑟 = 𝑥𝐵 + 𝑣𝑥 𝑐𝑎𝑟 𝑡 = 45.0 + (45.0) 𝑡
1
For trooper, 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑥𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
1 1
𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 0 + 0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 = (3.00)𝑡 2
2
2 2
𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑟
1
3.00 𝑡 2 = 45.0 + (45.0) 𝑡
2
1.5𝑡 2 − 45.0𝑡 − 45.0 = 0
𝑡 = 31.0 𝑠.
Freely falling objects (Page # 40)
A freely falling object is any object moving freely under the influence of
gravity alone, regardless of its initial motion. Objects thrown upward or
downward and those released from rest are all falling freely once they are
released. Any freely falling object experiences an acceleration directed
downward, regardless of its initial motion.
Denote the magnitude of the free fall acceleration by the symbol 𝒈. The
value of g near the earth’s surface decreases with increasing altitude.
Furthermore, slight variations in g occur with changes in latitude. At the
earth’s surface, the value of g is approximately 9.80 m/s2 .
We will modify the equations for uniformly accelerated motion by replacing 𝑥 with
𝑦 and we chose 𝒂 = −𝒈 = −𝟗. 𝟖𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝟐 , where the negative sign means that the
acceleration of a freely falling object is downward.

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡 𝒗𝒇 = 𝒗𝒊 + (−𝒈)𝒕
1 𝟏
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑡 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 + 𝒗𝒇 𝒕
2 𝟐
1 𝟏
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝒚𝒇 = 𝒚𝒊 + 𝒗𝒊 𝒕 + (−𝒈)𝒕𝟐
2 𝟐

𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑎(𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 ) 𝒗𝟐𝒇 = 𝒗𝟐𝒊 + 𝟐(−𝒈)(𝒚𝒇 − 𝒚𝒊 )

A) 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑦𝐵 = 𝑣𝑦𝐴 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
0 = 20.0 + −9.80 𝑡
20.0
𝑡 = 𝑡𝐵 = = 2.04 𝑠
9.80

1
B) 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
1
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦𝐵 = 𝑦𝐴 + 𝑣𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2
1
𝑦𝐵 = 0 + 20.0 2.04 + −9.80 2.04 2 = 20.4 𝑚
2
𝐶)𝑡 = 2.04 + 2.04 = 4.08 𝑠
D) 𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑣𝑦𝐶 = 𝑣𝑦𝐴 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 20.0 + −9.80 4.08 = −20.0 𝑚/𝑠.
The velocity of the stone when it arrives back at its original height
is equal in magnitude to its initial velocity but opposite in
direction.
E) 𝑣𝑦𝐷 = 𝑣𝑦𝐴 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 = 20.0 + −9.80 5.00 𝑠 = −29.0 𝑚/𝑠
1
𝑦𝐷 = 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑣𝑦𝐶 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2
1 2
= 0 + −20.0 5.00 − 4.08 + −9.80 5.00 − 4.08
2
= −22.5 𝑚
Exercise:
A ball is thrown upward at speed 19.60 m/s. Find (a) the time taken to reach
the maximum height and (b) the maximum height obtained.
Ans:
(a)𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡
0 = 19.60 + −9.80 𝑡
𝑡 =2𝑠
1 1
b) 𝑦𝑓 = 𝑦𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 = 0 + 19.6 2 + −9.80 2 2 = 19.6 𝑚
2 2
Problem # 3 (Page # 50)
The position versus time for a certain particle moving along the x axis is shown in
the figure. Find the average velocity in the time intervals (a) 0 to 2 s, (b) 0 to 4 s,
(c) 2 s to 4 s, (d) 4 s to 7 s, (e) 0 to 8 s.

∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖 10−0
(a)𝑣ҧ = ∆𝑡
=
𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖
=
2−0
= 5𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖 5−0
(b)𝑣ҧ = ∆𝑡
=
𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖
=
4−0
= 1.25𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖 5−10
(c) 𝑣ҧ = ∆𝑡
=
𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖
=
4−2
= −2.5𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖 −5−5
(d)𝑣ҧ = ∆𝑡
=
𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖
=
7−4
= −3.33𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖 0−0
(e) 𝑣ҧ = ∆𝑡
=
𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖
=
8−0
= 0𝑚/𝑠
Problem # 15 (Page # 51)
A particle moves along the x axis according to the equation 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡 − 𝑡 2
where 𝑥is in meters and 𝑡is in seconds. At 𝑡 = 3 𝑠, find (a) position of the
particle, (b) its velocity, and (c) its acceleration.

Ans: (a) 𝑥 = 2 + 3𝑡 − 𝑡 2 = 2 + 3 3 − 32 = 2 𝑚
𝑑𝑥 𝑑 2+3𝑡−𝑡 2 𝑚
(b)𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡
= 3 − 2𝑡 =3−2 3 = −3
𝑠
𝑑𝑣 𝑑(3−2𝑡)
(c)𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑑𝑡 = −2 𝑚/𝑠 2
Problem # 16 (Page # 51)
An object moves along the 𝑥axis according to the equation 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 3 𝑚. Determine (a) the
average speed between 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 3 𝑠, (b) the instantaneous speed at 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 3 𝑠, (c) the
average acceleration between 𝑡 = 2 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 3 𝑠, and (d) the instantaneous acceleration at 𝑡 = 2 𝑠
and 𝑡 = 3 𝑠.
(a) At 𝑡 = 2 𝑠, 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 3 𝑚 = 3 2 2
− 2 2 + 3 = 12 − 4 + 3 = 11 𝑚
At 𝑡 = 3 𝑠, 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 − 2𝑡 + 3 𝑚 = 3 3 2 − 2 3 + 3 = 27 − 6 + 3 = 24 𝑚
∆𝑥 𝑥𝑓 −𝑥𝑖 24−11
𝑣ҧ = = = = 13𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖 3−2

𝑑𝑥 𝑑(3𝑡 2 −2𝑡+3)
(𝑏)𝑣 = = = 6𝑡 − 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At 𝑡 = 2 𝑠, 𝑣 = 6 2 − 2 = 10 𝑚/𝑠
At 𝑡 = 3 𝑠, 𝑣 = 6 3 − 2 = 16 𝑚/𝑠

∆𝑣 𝑣𝑓 −𝑣𝑖 16−10
(c ) 𝑎ത = = = = 6 𝑚/𝑠 2
∆𝑡 𝑡𝑓 −𝑡𝑖 3−2
𝑑𝑣 𝑑(6𝑡 − 2)
𝑑 𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑠𝑡 = = = 6 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
At t =2 s, a = 6 𝑚/𝑠 2
At t =3 s, a = 6 𝑚/𝑠 2
Problem # 20 (Page # 51)
A truck covers 40.0 m in 8.50 s while smoothly slowing down to a final speed of 2.80 m/s. (a) Find
its original speed. (b) Find its acceleration

1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 + 𝑣𝑓 𝑡
2
1
40.0 = 0.0 + 𝑣𝑖 + 2.80 8.50
2
40.0 × 2
𝑣𝑖 = − 2.80 = 𝟔. 𝟔𝟏 𝒎/𝒔
8.50

𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 2.80 − 6.61
𝑎= = = −𝟎. 𝟒𝟗 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑡 8.50
 Chapter 4

Laws of Motion and Friction

FORCE is a push or pull which when applied on an object may
produce a change in position, speed, direction or shape in it.
Balanced and Unbalanced force:
Balanced force: Total force must be zero,
No acceleration
Unbalanced force: Total force must not be equal to zero.
Produces acceleration
Newton’s 1rst Law of Motion:
An object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues in motion with
a constant speed in a straight line until unless an external force is applied on it.

INERTIA of an object is a characteristic by virtue of which it opposes the force

applied on it. It is a measure of mass. Greater the mass, higher the inertia.

First law gives definition of force

Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion:
When a force is applied on an object, the acceleration produced in it is directly
proportional to the force applied, inversely proportional to the mass of the
object and its direction is in the direction of force applied.
σ 𝐹Ԧ = 𝑚𝑎Ԧ
σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 σ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 σ 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧

The SI unit of force is Newton 1 N = 1 kg.m/s2

The dimension of Force is [MLT-2]
• Example # 5.1 (Page # 118)

• A hockey puck having a mass of 0.30

kg slides on the horizontal, frictionless
surface of an ice rink. Two hockey sticks
strike the puck simultaneously, exerting
the forces on the puck shown in Figure.
The force 𝐹1 has a magnitude of 5.0 N,
and the force 𝐹2 has a magnitude of 8.0
N. Determine both the magnitude and
the direction of the puck’s acceleration.
෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹1𝑥 + 𝐹2𝑥 = 𝐹1 𝐶𝑜𝑠 −200 + 𝐹2 𝐶𝑜𝑠 600

= 5.0 𝑁 0.940 + 8.0 𝑁 0.500 = 8.7 𝑁

෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹1𝑦 + 𝐹2𝑦 = 𝐹1 𝑆𝑖𝑛 −200 + 𝐹2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 600

= 5.0 𝑁 −0.342 + 8.0 𝑁 0.866 = 5.2 𝑁

σ 𝐹𝑥 8.7 𝑁
𝑎𝑥 = = = 29 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 0.30 𝑘𝑔
σ 𝐹𝑦 5.2 𝑁
𝑎𝑦 = = = 17 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 0.30 𝑘𝑔

𝑎 = 292 + 172 = 34 𝑚/𝑠 2

𝑎𝑦 17
𝜃= 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 = 300
𝑎𝑥 29
Problem # 1 (Page # 140)

𝐹 = 𝑚1 𝑎1 = 3𝑚1
𝐹 = 𝑚2 𝑎2 = (𝑚2 )(1) = 𝑚2
3𝑚1 = 𝑚2
𝒎𝟏 𝟏
=
𝒎𝟐 𝟑
𝐹 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑎
𝐹 3𝑚 1 3𝑚 1
𝑎= = =
(𝑚 1 +𝑚 2 ) (𝑚 1 +3𝑚 1 ) 4𝑚 1

𝒂 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
Problem # 11 (Page # 140)
Two forces F1 and F2 act on a 5.00 kg object. If F1 = 20.0 N and F2 = 15.0 N, find the
accelerations in (a) and (b) of Figure.

(a) 𝐹 = 𝐹1 2 + 𝐹2 2 = (20)2 + (15)2 = 25 𝑁

𝐹 25
𝑎= = = 𝟓 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑚 5
(b) σ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2 𝐶𝑜𝑠600 = 20 + 15 𝐶𝑜𝑠 600 = 27.5 𝑁
෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝐹2 𝑆𝑖𝑛 600 = 15 𝑆𝑖𝑛 600 = 12.99 𝑁

𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 2 + 𝐹𝑦 2 = (27.5)2 + (12.99)2 = 30.41 𝑁

𝐹 30.41
𝑎= = = 𝟔. 𝟎𝟖 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝑚 5
Mass and Weight
Mass of an object is the quantity of matter contained in it while weight of an object is the
force exerted by earth towards its center.
Weight (W) = mg
Where m = mass,
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.8 m/s2 near surface of earth)
Mass is scalar, weight is vector
Mass of an object is constant; Weight of an object varies with the variation in the value of
acceleration due to gravity (g) with height.
g on moon = (g on earth)/6 = 9.80/6 = 1.633 m/s2
Newton’s 3rd law of motion:
If two objects interact, the force 𝐹12 exerted by object 1 on object 2 is equal in
magnitude and opposite in direction to the force 𝐹21 exerted by object 2 on
object 1.
𝐹12 = −𝐹21
Force 𝐹12 applied by object 1 on object 2 is called ACTION
Force 𝐹21 applied by object 2 on object 1 is called REACTION
To each and every ACTION there is a force of equal and opposite REACTION.
The two forces in an action-reaction pair always act on two different objects.
Some Applications of Newton’s Laws
When we apply Newton’s laws to an object, we are interested only in external
forces that act on the object.

Objects in Equilibrium
If the acceleration of an object that can be modeled as a particle is zero, the
particle is in equilibrium.
Example 5.6 (Page # 125)
A car of mass 𝑚 is on an icy driveway inclined at angle θ, as in figure.
(a) Find the acceleration of the car, assuming that the driveway is frictionless.
(b) Suppose the car is released from rest at the top of the incline, and the
distance from the car’s front bumper to the bottom of the incline is 𝑑. How
long does it take the front bumper to reach the bottom, and what is the car’s
speed as it arrives there?
 1
𝑥𝑓 = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑣𝑖 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
𝑥𝑖 = 0, 𝑥𝑓 = 𝑑, 𝑣𝑖 = 0
1
𝑑 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2

2𝑑 2𝑑
𝑡= =
𝑎𝑥 𝑔𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

2 2
𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 𝑣𝑥𝑖 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝑥𝑓 − 𝑥𝑖 = 2𝑎𝑥 𝑑

𝑣𝑥𝑓 = 2𝑎𝑥 𝑑 = 2 𝑔𝑑 𝑆𝑖𝑛𝜃

Example # 5.9 (Page # 129) Atwood Machine
When two objects of unequal mass are hung vertically over a frictionless pulley of negligible mass,
as in Fig., the arrangement is called an Atwood machine. The device is sometimes used in the
laboratory to measure the free-fall acceleration. Determine the magnitude of the acceleration of
the two objects and the tension in the lightweight cord.

෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇 − 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑚1 𝑎𝑦

෍ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚2 𝑔 − 𝑇 = 𝑚2 𝑎𝑦

After solving, we get

𝑚 2 −𝑚 1
𝑎𝑦 = ( )𝑔
𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
2𝑚 1 𝑚 2
𝑇=( )𝑔
𝑚 1 +𝑚 2
Problem # 24 (Page # 142)
A 5.00 kg object placed on a frictionless, horizontal table is connected to a string
that passes over a pulley and then is fastened to a hanging 9.00 kg object, as in
figure. Draw a free body diagrams of both objects. Find the acceleration of the two
objects and the tension in the string.
• 𝒎𝟏 = 𝟓 𝒌𝒈, 𝒎𝟐 = 𝟗 𝒌𝒈
• 𝑻 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒂
• 𝒎𝟐 𝒈 − 𝑻 = 𝒎𝟐 𝒂
• After adding, we get
• 𝒎𝟐 𝒈 = 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒂
𝒎𝟐 𝒈 𝟗
• 𝒂= = 𝟗. 𝟖 = 𝟔. 𝟑 𝒎/𝒔𝟐
𝒎𝟏 +𝒎𝟐 𝟓+𝟗
• 𝑻 = 𝒎𝟏 𝒂 = 𝟓 𝟔. 𝟑 = 𝟑𝟏. 𝟓 𝑵
Effective weight in an elevator
(a)When lift moves upward with constant acceleration “a”

R = m(g + a)

(a)When lift moves downward with constant acceleration “a”

R = m(g - a)
 Example: An object of mass 10 kg is on earth. Find its weight. If the
same object is kept in a lift, what will be its effective weight if the lift
moves with acceleration 2 ms-2 (a) upward (b) downward?

W = mg = (10)(9.8) = 98 N
(a)R = m(g + a) = 10 (9.8 + 2) = 118 N
(b)R = m(g - a) = 10 (9.8 – 2) = 78 N
Problem # 9 (Page # 140)

𝑊𝑒 = 𝑚𝑔𝑒
𝑊𝑒 900
𝑚= =
𝑔𝑒 9.8
900
𝑊𝐽 = 𝑚𝑔𝐽 = × 25.9 = 2378.57 𝑁
9.8
FORCE OF FRICTION
Force of friction is a force which acts between the two surfaces in contact. It always
acts in opposite direction of motion.
• The direction of the force of friction 𝑓
between the two surface is brought in
opposite direction of the applied force 𝐹.
• For small applied forces, the magnitude of
the force of static friction 𝑓𝑠 equals the
magnitude of the applied force 𝐹.
• When the magnitude of the applied force 𝐹
exceeds the magnitude of the maximum
force of static friction 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , the trash can
accelerate to the right.
• 𝑓𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 > 𝑓𝑘
• The magnitude of the force of static friction between any two surfaces in
contact have the values
𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑛
where the dimensionless constant 𝜇𝑠 is called the coefficient of static friction
and 𝑛 is the magnitude of the normal force exerted by one surface on the
other.
• The magnitude of the force of kinetic friction acting between two surfaces is
𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑛
where 𝜇𝑘 is the coefficient of kinetic friction.

• The values of 𝜇𝑘 and 𝜇𝑠 depend on the nature of the surfaces, but 𝜇𝑘 is

generally less than 𝜇𝑠 . Typical values range around 0.03 to 1.0
Example # 5.12 (Page # 134) Experimental determination of 𝝁𝒔 and 𝝁𝒌
The following is a simple method of measuring coefficients of friction: Suppose a block is placed on
a rough surface inclined relative to the horizontal, as shown in Fig. The incline angle is increased
until the block starts to move. Show that by measuring the critical angle 𝜃𝑐 at which this slipping
just occurs, we can obtain 𝜇𝑠 .
Example # 5.13 (Page # 135) The sliding hockey puck
A hockey puck on a frozen pond is given an initial speed of 20.0 m/s. If the puck always remains on
the ice and slides 115 m before coming to rest, determine the coefficient of kinetic friction between
the puck and ice.

= 0.177
Problem # 45 (Page # 144)
Two blocks connected by a rope of negligible mass are being dragged by a horizontal force F.
Suppose that F = 68.0 N, m1 = 12.0 kg, m2 = 18.0 kg, and the coefficient of kinetic friction between
each block and the surface is 0.100. (a) Draw a free body diagram for each block. (b) Determine the
tension T and the magnitude of the acceleration of the system.

𝑓𝑘 1 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁1 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔
𝑓𝑘 2 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁2 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚2 𝑔
𝑇 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔 = 𝑚1 𝑎
𝐹 − 𝑇 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚2 𝑔 = 𝑚2 𝑎
𝐹 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑔 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑎
𝐹 − 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑔
𝑎=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
68 − 0.1(12 + 18)(9.8)
𝑎= = 1.28 𝑚/𝑠 2
(12 + 18)
𝑇 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝜇𝑘 𝑚1 𝑔 = 12 1.28 + 0.1 12 9.8 = 27.12 𝑁
Chapter 5
ENERGY
Work is said to be done when force produces displacement. There are two
essential conditions for work done. (a) Force (b) Displacement.
Work done by a constant force

It is measured by the product of the magnitude 𝐹 of the force, the magnitude ∆𝑟

of the displacement of the point of application of the force, and 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃, where 𝜃 is
the angle between the force and displacement vectors:
𝑾 = 𝑭∆𝒓𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽
 𝑾 = 𝑭∆𝒓𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽
If 𝜃 = 00 (𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙), 𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑟
If 𝜃 = 900 (𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟), 𝑊 = 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜
If 𝜃 = 1800 (𝑂𝑝𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑒), 𝑊 = −𝐹∆𝑟 (Work done by friction is always negative)
The SI unit of work is Joule
1 J = 1 N.m = 1 kgm2s-2
Dimension of work is [ML2T-2]

The work is SCALAR. (𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑟)

Example # 7.1 (Page # 186)
A man cleaning a floor pulls a vacuum cleaner with a force of magnitude 𝐹 = 50.0 𝑁 at an
angle of 300 with the horizontal. Calculate the work done by the force on the vacuum
cleaner as the vacuum cleaner is displaced 3.00 𝑚 to the right.

𝐹 = 50.0 𝑁
∆𝑟 = 3.00 𝑚
𝜃 = 300
𝑊 = 𝐹 ∆𝑟 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 50.0 3.00 𝐶𝑜𝑠300 = 130.0 𝐽
Example # 7.3 (Page # 188)
A particle moving in the xy plane undergoes a displacement ∆𝑟 = 2.0 𝑖Ƹ + 3.0 𝑗Ƹ 𝑚 as a
constant force 𝐹 = 5.0 𝑖Ƹ + 2.0 𝑗Ƹ 𝑁 acts on the particle. Calculate the work done by the
force 𝐹.

𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ ∆𝑟 = 5.0 𝑖Ƹ + 2.0 𝑗Ƹ ∙ 2.0 𝑖Ƹ + 3.0 𝑗Ƹ = 5 2 + 2 3 = 16 𝐽

Problem # 1 (Page # 209)
A block of mass 2.50 kg is pushed 2.20 m along a frictionless horizontal table by a constant 16.0 N force
directed 250 below the horizontal. Determine the work done on the block by (a) the applied force, (b)
the normal force exerted by the table, and (c) the gravitational force. (d) Determine the total work
done on the block.

(a)Work done by the applied force, 𝑊1 = 𝐹∆𝑟𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 16 2.20 𝐶𝑜𝑠250 = 31.90 J

(b)Work done (𝑊2 ) by the normal force is ZERO 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝜃 = 900
©Work done (𝑊3 ) by the gravitational force is ZERO 𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝜃 = 900
(d)Total work done = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 + 𝑊3
ENERGY is defined as the ability to do work.
The SI unit of energy is Joule
1 J = 1 kgm2s-2
The dimension of energy is [ML2T-2]

Kinetic Energy of an object is the energy due to its motion.

𝟏
𝑲= 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
where m = mass, v = velocity
Problem # 25 (Page # 211)
A 0.300 kg ball has a speed of 15.0 m/s. (a) What is its kinetic energy? (b) If its
speed were doubled, what would be its kinetic energy?
1 1
(a)𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 0.300 15.0 2 = 33.75 𝐽
1 1
(b)𝐾 = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 = 2 0.300 30.0 2 = 135 𝐽

So, if the velocity is doubled keeping its mass constant, KE becomes 4 times.
WORK KINETIC ENERGY THEOREM
In the case in which work is done on a system and the only change in the system
is in its speed, the work done by the net force equals the change in kinetic energy
of the system.

𝟏 𝟏
𝑾 = ∆𝑲 = 𝑲𝒇 − 𝑲𝒊 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒇 − 𝒎𝒗𝟐𝒊
𝟐 𝟐
Example # 7.7 (Page # 195)
A 6.0 kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right along a horizontal, frictionless
surface by a constant horizontal force of 12 N. Find the speed of the block after it
has moved 3.0 m.

𝑊 = 𝐹∆𝑥 = 12 3.0 = 36.0 𝐽

1
𝑊 = 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 0
2

2𝑊 2(36)
𝑣𝑓 = = = 3.5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 6.0
Problem # 24 (Page # 211)
A 0.600 kg particle has a speed of 2.00 m/s at point “A” and kinetic energy of
7.50 J at point “B”. What is (a) its kinetic energy at “A”? (b) its speed at “B”? (c)
the total work done on the particle as it moves from “A” to “B”?

1 1
(a)𝐾𝐴 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐴2 = 2 0.600 2.00 2
= 1.2 𝐽
1
(b)𝐾𝐵 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝐵2

2𝐾𝐵 2 7.50
𝑣𝐵 = = = 5 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 0.600
(c) 𝑊 = 𝐾𝐵 − 𝐾𝐴 = 7.5 − 1.2 = 6.3 𝐽
If a system does not interact with its environment it is an isolated system and if it interacts with
environment (e.g. an object is acted on by various forces) it is nonisolated system.
Situations involving kinetic friction

∆𝐾 = −𝑓𝑘 𝑑 + ෍ 𝑊𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑠

Example # 7.9 (Page # 201)
A 6.0 kg block initially at rest is pulled to the right along a horizontal surface by a
constant horizontal force of 12 N. Find the speed of the block after it has moved
3.0 m if the surfaces in contact have a coefficient of kinetic friction of 0.15.

Work done by the applied force,

𝑊𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹∆𝑥 = 12 3.0 = 36.0 𝐽
Frictional force, 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑛 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑚𝑔 = 0.15 6 9.80 = 8.82 𝑁
Work done by the friction
𝑊𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = −𝑓𝑘 𝑑 = − 8.82 3.0 = −26.5 𝐽
Total work done = 36.0 − 26.5 = 9.5 𝐽
1 1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 0
2 2 2

2𝑊 2(9.5)
𝑣𝑓 = = = 1.8 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 6
POWER is defined as rate of doing work
∆𝑊
Average power 𝑃ത =
∆𝑡
∆𝑊 𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑟
Instantaneous power 𝑃 = lim = =𝐹∙ =𝐹∙𝑣
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The SI unit of power is Watt
1 Watt = 1 Joule/Sec = 1 kgm2s-3
The dimension of power is [ML2T-3]
1 horse power (h.p.) = 746 W.
One kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the energy transferred in 1 hr at the constant rate of 1
kW = 1000 J/s. The amount of energy represented by 1 kWh is
𝟏 𝒌𝑾𝒉 = 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑾 𝟑𝟔𝟎𝟎 𝒔 = 𝟑. 𝟔𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎𝟔 𝑱
Problem # 37 (Page # 212)
A 700 N Marine in basic training climbs a 10 m vertical rope at a constant speed
in 8 s. What is his power output?

𝑊 𝑚𝑔ℎ 700 10
𝑃= = = = 875 𝑊
𝑡 𝑡 8
Problem # 36 (Page # 212)
The electric motor of a model train accelerates the train from rest to 0.620 m/s in 21.0
ms. The total mass of the train is 875 gm. Find the average power delivered to the
train during the acceleration.

𝑣𝑖 = 0
𝑣𝑓 = 0.620 𝑚/𝑠
𝑡 = 21 × 10−3 𝑠
𝑚 = 0.875 𝑘𝑔
1 2
𝑊 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 2 𝑚𝑣𝑓 − 0 0.5 0.875 0.620 2
𝑃= = = = =8𝑊
𝑡 𝑡 𝑡 21 × 10−3
POTENTIAL ENERGY
There are two types of PE (Gravitational PE & Elastic PE)
Gravitational Potential Energy of an object is the energy because of height.
𝑼 = 𝒎𝒈𝒚
Where m = mass
g = acceleration due to gravity
y = height
Mechanical Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
e.g. Flying bird, moving airplane etc.
ISOLATED SYSTEM - CONSERVATION OF ENERGY
Energy can neither be created nor can be destroyed but it can be transformed from
one form to another and the total energy remains constant.
𝐾𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦𝑖
2 2

Answer: © Kinetic energy plus Potential energy

Example # 8.2 (Page # 224)
A ball of mass m is dropped from a height h from the ground as shown in the figure.
(a)Neglecting air resistance, determine the speed of the ball when it is at height “y” above the ground.
(b)Determine the speed of the ball at “y” if at the instant of release, it already has an initial upward
speed 𝑣𝑖 at the initial altitude “h”.

(a) 𝐾𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖
1
𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦 = 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 𝑓
𝑣𝑓2 = 2𝑔(ℎ − 𝑦)
𝑣𝑓 = 2𝑔(ℎ − 𝑦)

(b) 𝐾𝑓 + 𝑈𝑓 = 𝐾𝑖 + 𝑈𝑖
1 1
𝑚𝑣𝑓2 + 𝑚𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2 2
𝑣𝑓2 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑔(ℎ − 𝑦)

𝑣𝑓 = 𝑣𝑖2 + 2𝑔(ℎ − 𝑦)
CONSERVATIVE AND NON-CONSERVATIVE FORCES

Conservative force is a force which when applied on an object, the work

done does not depend upon the path e.g. gravitational force.

Non-conservative force is a force which when applied on an object, the

work done depends upon the path e.g. frictional force.
 Chapter 6
Fluid Mechanics
Fluid: Both liquids and gases are fluids
Pressure: It is defined as force acting on an object per unit area
𝐹
𝑃= where F = Force and A = Area
𝐴
It is scalar quantity.
The SI unit of pressure is Pascal
1 𝑃𝑎 = 1 𝑁Τ𝑚2 = 1 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 𝑠 −2
Dimension of pressure is [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 ]
Page # 422, Exercise # 14.1
The mattress of a water bed is 2.00 m long by 2.00 m wide and 30.0 cm deep.
(a)Find the weight of the water in the mattress
(b)Find the pressure exerted by the water on the floor when the bed rests in its
normal position. Assume that the entire lower surface of the bed makes
contact with the floor

𝑉 = 2.00 𝑚 2.00 𝑚 0.300 𝑚 = 1.20 𝑚3

𝑀 = 𝜌𝑉 = 1000 1.20 = 1.20 × 103 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3
𝑊 = 𝑀𝑔 = 1.20 × 103 9.8 = 1.18 × 104 𝑁
𝐹 1.18 × 104
𝑃= = = 2.95 × 103 𝑃𝑎
𝐴 4.00
Variation of pressure with depth
The pressure 𝑃 at a depth h below a point in the liquid at which the
pressure is 𝑃0 is greater by an amount 𝜌𝑔ℎ

𝑷 = 𝑷𝟎 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉

Where 𝝆 is the density of fluid and 𝒉 is

the depth.

1 𝑎𝑡𝑚. 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎

Page # 425, Ex # 14.3
Estimate the force exerted on your eardrum due to the water
above when you are swimming at the bottom of a pool that is
5.0 m deep.

𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑃0 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 1000 9.8 5 = 4.9 × 104 𝑃𝑎

Surface area of eardrum ≈ 1𝑐𝑚2 = 1 × 10−4 𝑚2
Force, 𝐹 = 𝑃𝑏𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜𝑚 − 𝑃0 𝐴 ≈ 5𝑁
Pascal’s Law: A change in the pressure applied to a fluid is transmitted
to every point of the fluid and to the walls of the container.

Buoyant forces and Archimedes principle

When an object is tried to immerse in a fluid, it experiences an upward
force which is called buoyant force.
The magnitude of the buoyant force always equals the weight of the
fluid displaced by the object.
Fluid dynamics
There are four assumptions for an ideal fluid flow
(i) The fluid is non-viscous. Internal friction is neglected
(ii)The flow is steady. The velocity of the fluid flow at each point
remains constant
(iii)The fluid is incompressible. The density of an incompressible
fluid is constant
(iv)The flow is irrotational. The fluid has no angular momentum
about any point.
 ∆𝑽
Flow rate, 𝑸 = where ∆𝑉 is volume and ∆𝑡 is time
∆𝒕
The SI unit is 𝑚 3 Τ𝑠
∆𝑉 𝐴 ∆𝑥
𝑸= = = 𝑨𝒗
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

Where 𝐴 is area of cross-section and 𝑣 is velocity.

Equation of continuity

For an ideal fluid flow, the flow rate

remains constant
𝑄1 = 𝑄2
𝑨𝟏 𝒗𝟏 = 𝑨𝟐 𝒗𝟐
𝐴𝑣 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1
𝑣 𝛼
𝐴
Larger the area of cross section, smaller
will be the velocity and vice versa
Page # 433, Ex # 14.7
Each second, 5525 m3 of water flows over the 670 m wide cliff of
the horseshoe falls portion of Niagra falls. The water is approximately
2 m deep as it reaches the cliff. What is its speed at that instant ?

𝐴 = 670 2 = 1340 𝑚2
𝑄 = 5525 𝑚3 Τ𝑠
𝑄 5525
𝑣= = = 4 𝑚/𝑠
𝐴 1340
The diameter of a pipe is reduced from 2 cm to 1 cm while going from
one end to another. If the velocity at broader ends is 10 m/s, what is
the velocity at narrower end ?
𝑑1 2 𝑐𝑚
𝑟1 = = = 1 𝑐𝑚 = 1 × 10−2 𝑚
2 2
𝑑2 1 𝑐𝑚
𝑟2 = = = 0.5 𝑐𝑚 = 0.5 × 10−2 𝑚
2 2
𝑣1 = 10 𝑚Τ𝑠, 𝑣2 =?
𝐴1 𝑣1 = 𝐴2 𝑣2
2
𝐴1 𝑣1 𝜋𝑟12 𝑟1 2 1×10−2
𝑣2 = = ( 2 )𝑣1 = (𝑣1 ) = (10) = 40 m/s
𝐴2 𝜋𝑟2 𝑟2 0.5×10−2
Streamline and Turbulent Flow

In streamline flow of fluid, the fluid particles follow the same path
and moves at same speed.
In turbulent flow, the fluid particles follow different path and
moves at different speed.
Bernoulli Equation
1
𝑚 𝑣2 1
Kinetic energy per unit volume = 2
= 𝜌𝑣 2
𝑉 2
𝑚𝑔𝑦
Potential energy per unit volume = = 𝜌𝑔𝑦
𝑉

For an ideal fluid flow, the sum of pressure and total mechanical energy per unit
volume remains constant.
Page # 435, Ex # 14.9
The horizontal constricted pipe is illustrated in figure known as Venturi tube, can
be used to measure the flow of speed of an incompressible fluid. Determine the
flow speed at point 2 if the pressure difference P1-P2 is known.
 Chapter 7
Elastic Properties of Solids
A solid is said to be elastic if it regains its original configuration after
removing the deforming force

• Stress (σ) is defined as force acting on

an object per unit cross sectional area.
𝐹
•σ=
𝐴

• The S I unit of stress is N/m2

• Longitudinal Strain (ϵ) is defined as
change in length per unit length.
∆𝑙
•ϵ= . It has no unit
𝑙
HOOK’s LAW
Within elastic limit, stress is directly proportional to strain

• Stress α Strain

• Stress = Y. Strain
• Where Y is proportionality constant
called as young’s modulus of elasticity
(N/m2)
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
•𝑌=
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Shear Modulus: Elasticity of shape
Bulk Modulus: Volume Elasticity
A 100 kg load is hung on a wire having length 10 m and cross-
sectional area 𝟐 × 𝟏𝟎−𝟓 𝒎𝟐 . If its length increases by 1 cm find (a)
stress (b) strain (c) Young’s modulus of elasticity of wire.

𝑚 = 100 𝑘𝑔, 𝑙 = 10 𝑚, 𝐴 = 2 × 10−5 𝑚2 ,

∆𝑙 = 1 𝑐𝑚 = 0.01 𝑚
𝐹 𝑚𝑔 100 × 9.8
Stress = = = = 4.9 × 107 N/m2
𝐴 𝐴 2×10−5

∆𝑙 0.01
Strain = = = 10−3
𝑙 10

𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 4.9×107
Youngs modulus = = −3 = 4.9 × 1010 N/m2
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 10
Page # 376, Ex # 12.6
A cable is used to support an actor as he swung onto the stage. Suppose that the
tension in the cable is 940 N as the actor reaches the lowest point. What diameter
should a 10 m long steel wire have if we do not want it to stretch more than 0.5 cm
under these conditions ?

𝐹 = 940 𝑁, 𝑙 = 10 𝑁, ∆𝑙 = 0.5 𝑐𝑚 = 0.005 𝑚, 𝑌 = 20 × 1010 𝑁/𝑚2

𝐹
𝑌= 𝐴
∆𝑙
𝑙
𝐹. 𝑙
𝐴=
𝑌. ∆𝑙
(940)(10)
𝐴= 10
= 9.4 × 10−6 𝑚2
(20 × 10 )(0.005)

𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2

𝐴 9.4×10 −6
𝑟= = = 1.7 × 10−3 𝑚 = 1.7 𝑚𝑚
𝜋 3.14

𝑑 = 2𝑟 = 2 × 1.7 𝑚𝑚 = 3.4 𝑚𝑚
Page # 381, Problem # 27
A 200 kg load is hung on a wire having a length of 4.00 m cross
sectional area 0.200 × 10−4 𝑚2 and young’s modulus 8.00 ×
1010 𝑁Τ𝑚2 . What is its increase in length ?

𝑚 = 200 𝑘𝑔, 𝑙 = 4.00 𝑚, 𝐴 = 0.200 × 10−4 𝑚2 , 𝑌 = 8.00 × 1010 𝑁Τ𝑚2 ,

𝐹
𝑌= 𝐴
∆𝑙
𝑙
𝐹𝑙 (𝑚𝑔)(𝑙) (200)(9.8)(4) −3 𝑚 = 4.9 𝑚𝑚
∆𝑙 = = = = 4.9 × 10
𝐴𝑌 (𝐴)(𝑌) (0.2 × 10−4 )(8 × 1010 )
 Chapter 8
Heat and Temperature
 Temperature
Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness
Heat is a form of energy which travels from higher temp object to the lower temp object
Temperature Scales
Celcius, Fahrenheit and Kelvin temperature scales
Upper fix point is a temperature at which water boils
Lower fix point is a temperature at which water becomes ice
𝑇𝑐 − 0 𝑇𝐹 − 32
=
100 − 0 212 − 32
𝑇𝑐 𝑇𝐹 −32
=
100 180
𝑻𝑭 = 𝟏. 𝟖𝑻𝒄 + 𝟑𝟐
𝑻𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐
𝑻𝒄 =
𝟏. 𝟖
𝑻𝑲 = 𝑻𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑
Ans: (c)
Page # 586, Ex # 19.1

𝑇𝐹 −32 50−32
𝑇𝑐 = = = 10 0C
1.8 1.8

𝑇𝐾 = 𝑇𝐶 + 273 = 10 + 273 = 283 K

Page # 586, Ex # 19.2

∆𝑻𝑭 = 𝟏. 𝟖∆𝑻𝑪 = 𝟏. 𝟖 𝟓𝟓 = 𝟗𝟗𝑭

Thermal expansion of Solids
Every solid expand on heating

called coefficient of linear expansion (0C-1)

Lf = final length
Li = initial length
Tf= final temperature
Ti = Initial temperature
 ∆𝑨 = 𝟐𝜶𝑨𝒊 ∆𝑻
∆𝑽 = 𝟑𝜶𝑽𝒊 ∆𝑻

Answer: ( c )
Heat is defined as the transfer of energy across the boundary of a system due to
temperature difference between the system and its surroundings.
Unit of Heat: Calorie
1 calorie is the amount of energy transfer necessary to raise the temperature of
1 gm of water from 14.5 0C to 15.5 0C.
1 Cal = 4.186 J Mechanical equivalent of heat
Specific Heat and Calorimetry

The heat capacity ( C ) of a substance is the amount of energy needed to raise the
temperature of that sample by 1 0C.
If energy Q produces a change in temperature ∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐶∆𝑇
𝑄
𝐶=
∆𝑇
Unit of heat capacity is 𝑱𝑲−𝟏 or J/0C
The specific heat (c) of a substance is heat capacity per unit mass
𝑄
𝑐=
𝑚 ∆𝑇
The specific heat of a substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of 1 kg of it by 1 0C
Its unit is J.kg-1.0C-1 or cal.gm-1. 0C-1
Heat Energy 𝑸 = 𝒎𝒄∆𝑻
Where 𝑚 is mass, 𝑐 is specific heat, ∆𝑇 is change in temperature
Page # 633, Problem # 3
The temperature of a silver bar rises by 10 °𝐶 when it absorbs 1.23 KJ of energy by
heat. The mass of the bar is 525 gm. Determine the specific heat of silver.

∆𝑇 = 10 °𝐶, 𝑄 = 1.23 × 103 𝐽, 𝑚 = 0.525 𝑘𝑔

𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇

𝑄 1.23 × 103
𝑐= = = 234.28 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 °𝐶 −1
𝑚 ∆𝑇 0.525 × 10
Page # 633, Problem # 4
A 50.0 gm sample of copper is at 25 °𝐶. If 1200 J of energy is added to it by heat, what
is the final temperature of the copper?

𝑚 = 0.050 𝑘𝑔, 𝑄 = 1200 𝐽, 𝑇𝑖 = 25 °𝐶, 𝑐 = 387 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 °𝐶 −1

𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑐 ∆𝑇

𝑄 1200
∆𝑇 = = = 62 °𝐶
𝑚 𝑐 (0.050)(387)
𝑇𝑓 = 𝑇𝑖 + ∆𝑇 = 25 + 62 = 87 °𝐶
Principle of Calorimetry
Heat Lost = Heat Gained
Page # 610, Ex # 20.2
A 0.050 kg ingot of metal is heated to 200 0C and then dropped into a beaker containing
0.400 kg of water initially at 20 0C. If the final equilibrium temperature of the mixed
system is 22.4 0C, find the specific heat of the metal.
Heat gained by water = 𝑚𝑤 𝑐𝑤 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑤 = 0.400 × 4186 × 22.4 − 20
Heat lost by metal = −𝑚𝑥 𝑐𝑥 𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑥 = −0.050 × 𝑐𝑥 × (22.4 − 200)
Heat gained = Heat Lost
0.400 × 4186 × 22.4 − 20 = −0.050 × 𝑐𝑥 × (22.4 − 200)
𝑐𝑥 = 453 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1 °𝐶 −1
Latent Heat (Hidden Heat)
It is used when there is a phase change and no change in temperature.
Heat, 𝑄 = ± 𝑚𝐿
The unit of Latent heat is J/kg.
Latent heat of fusion (Lf): When phase change is from solid to liquid
Amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of solid to liquid.
Latent heat of vaporization (Lv): When the phase change is from liquid to gas
Amount of heat required to convert 1 kg of liquid to vapor
The total amount of heat energy required to convert 1 g of ice at -30 0c to vapor
at 120 0C is the sum total of all these above-mentioned heat energies.